Algebraic Number Theory

1. Algebraic prerequisites

1.1. General
1.1.1.
Definition. For a field F define the ring homomorphism Z F by n 7 n 1F . Its
kernel I is an ideal of Z such that Z/I is isomorphic to the image of Z in F . The
latter is an integral domain, so I is a prime ideal of Z, i.e. I = 0 or I = pZ for a
prime number p. In the first case F is said to have characteristic 0, in the second
characteristic p .
DefinitionLemma. Let F be a subfield of a field L. An element a L is called
algebraic over F if one of the following equivalent conditions is satisfied:
(i) f (a) = 0 for a non-zero polynomial f (X) F [X];
(ii) elements 1, a, a2 , . . . are P
linearly dependent over F ;
(iii) F -vector space F [a] = { ai ai : ai F } is of finite dimension over F ;
(iv) F [a] = F (a).
Pn
P i
Proof. (i) implies (ii): if f (X) = i=0 ci X i , c0 , cn 6= 0, then
ci a = 0.
Pn
P
n1 1
i
n
(ii) implies (iii): if
ci a = 0, cn 6= 0, then a = i=0 cn ci ai , an+1 =
Pn1 1 i
Pn1 1 i+1i=0 Pn2 1 i+1 1
n
a a = i=0 cn ci a = i=0 cn ci a + cn cn1 i=0 c
n ci a , etc.
(iii) implies (iv): for every b F [a] we have F [b] PF [a], hence F [b] is of finite
dimension over F . So if b 6 F , there are di such that
di bi = 0, and d0 6= 0. Then
1 Pn
i1
1/b = d0
and hence 1/b F [b] F [a].
i=1 di b
P i
P
(iv) implies (i): if 1/a is equal to
ei a , then a is a root of
ei X i+1 1 .
For an element a algebraic over F denote by
fa (X) F [X]

the monic polynomial of minimal degree such that fa (a) = 0.

This polynomial is irreducible: if fa = gh, then g(a)h(a) = 0, so g(a) = 0 or
h(a) = 0, contradiction. It is called the monic irreducible polynomial of a over F .
For example, fa (X) is a linear polynomial iff a F .

Alg number theory

Lemma. Define a ring homomorphism F [X] L, g(X) 7 g(a). Its kernel is the
principal ideal generated by fa (X) and its image is F (a), so
F [X]/(fa (X)) ' F (a).

Proof. The kernel consists of those polynomials g over F which vanish at a. Using
the division algorithm write g = fa h + k where k = 0 or the degree of k is smaller
than that of fa . Now k(a) = g(a) fa (a)h(a) = 0, so the definition of fa implies
k = 0 which means that fa divides g .
Definition. A field L is called algebraic over its subfield F if every element of L is
algebraic over F . The extension L/F is called algebraic.
Definition. Let F be a subfield of a field L. The dimension of L as a vector space
over F is called the degree |L : F | of the extension L/F .
If a is algebraic over F then |F (a) : F | is finite and it equals the degree of the
monic irreducible polynomial fa of a over F .
Transitivity of the degree |L : F | = |L : M ||M : F | follows from the observation:
if i form a basis of M over F and j form a basis of L over M then i j form a
basis of L over F .
Every extension L/F of finite degree is algebraic: if L, then |F () : F | 6
|L : F | is finite, so by (iii) above is algebraic over F . In particular, if is algebraic
over F then F () is algebraic over F . If , are algebraic over F then the degree of
F (, ) over F does not exceed the product of finite degrees of F ()/F and F ()/F
and hence is finite. Thus all elements of F (, ) are algebraic over F .
An algebraic extension F ({ai }) of F is is the composite of extensions F (ai ),
and since ai is algebraic |F (ai ) : F | is finite, thus every algebraic extension is the
composite of finite extensions.
1.1.2. Definition. An extension F of Q of finite degree is called an algebraic number
field, the degree |F : Q| is called the degree of F .

Examples. 1. Every quadratic extension L of Q can be written as Q( e) for a

square-free integer e. Indeed, if 1, is a basis of L over Q, then 2 = a1 + a2 with
2
rational ai , so
is a root of the polynomial X a2 X a1 whose roots are of the
Q is the discriminant. Write d = f /g with integer f, g
form a2 /2 d/2where dp

and notice that Q( d) = Q( dg 2 ) = Q( f g). Obviously

we can get rid of all square

divisors of f g without changing the extension Q( f g).

2. Cyclotomic extensions Qm = Q(m ) of Q where m is a primitive m th
root of unity. If p is prime then the monic irreducible polynomial of p over Q is
X p1 + + 1 = (X p 1)/(X 1) of degree p 1.

1.1.3. Definition. Let two fields L, L0 contain a field F . A homo(iso)morphism

: L L0 such that |F is the identity map is called a F -homo(iso)morphism of L
into L0 .
The set of all F -homomorphisms from L to L0 is denoted by HomF (L, L0 ). Notice
that every F -homomorphism is injective: its kernel is an ideal of F and 1F does not
belong to it, so the ideal is the zero ideal. In particular, (L) is isomorphic to L.
The set of all F -isomorphisms from L to L0 is denoted by IsoF (L, L0 ).
Two elements a L, a0 L0 are called conjugate over F if there is a F -homomorphism
such that (a) = a0 . If L, L0 are algebraic over F and isomorphic over F , they are
called conjugate over F .
Lemma. (i) Any two roots of an irreducible polynomial over F are conjugate over F .
(ii) An element a0 is conjugate to a over FQiff fa0 = fa .
(iii) The polynomial fa (X) is divisible by (X ai ) in L[X], where ai are all
distinct conjugate to a elements over F , L is the field F ({ai }) generated by ai over
F.
Proof. (i) Let f (X) be an irreducible polynomial over F and a, b be its roots in a
field extension of F . Then fa = fb = f and we have an F -isomorphism
F (a) ' F [X]/(fa (X)) = F [X]/(fb (X)) ' F (b),

a 7 b

and therefore a is conjugate to b over F .

(ii) 0 = fa (a) = fa (a) = fa (a0 ), hence fa = fa0 . If fa = fa0 , use (i).
(iii) If ai is a root of fa then by the division algorithm fa (X) is divisible by X ai
in L[X].
1.1.4. Definition. A field is called algebraically closed if it does not have algebraic
extensions.
Theorem (without proof). Every field F has an algebraic extension C which is
algebraically closed. The field C is called an algebraic closure of F . Every two
algebraic closures of F are isomorphic over F .
Example. The field of rational numbers Q is contained in algebraically closed field
C . The maximal algebraic extension Qa of Q is obtained as the subfield of complex
numbers which contains all algebraic elements over Q. The field Qa is algebraically
closed: if C is algebraic over Qa then it is a root of a non-zero polynomial with
finitely many coefficients, each of which is algebraic over Q. Therefore is algebraic
over the field M generated by the coefficients. Then M ()/M and M/Q are of finite
degree, and hence is algebraic over Q, i.e. belongs to Qa . The degree |Qa : Q| is
infinite, since |Qa : Q| > |Q(p ) : Q| = p 1 for every prime p.
The field Qa is is much smaller than C, since its cardinality is countable whereas
the cardinality of complex numbers is uncountable).

Alg number theory

Everywhere below we denote by C an algebraically closed field containing F .

Elements of HomF (F (a), C) are in one-to-one correspondence with distinct roots
of fa (X) F [X]: for each such root ai , as in the proof of (i) above we have
: F (a) C , a 7 ai ; and conversely each such HomF (F (a), C) maps a to one
of the roots ai .

1.2. Galois extensions

1.2.1. Definition. A polynomial f (X) F [X] is called separable if all its roots in C
are distinct.
Recall that if a is a multiple root of f (X), then f 0 (a) = 0 . So a polynomial f is
separable iff the polynomials f and f 0 dont have common roots.
Examples of separable polynomials. Irreducible polynomials over fields of characteristic zero, irreducible polynomials over finite fields.
Proof: if f is an irreducible polynomial over a field of characteristic zero, then
its derivative f 0 is non-zero and has degree strictly smaller than f ; and so if f has a
multiple root, than a g.c.d. of f and f 0 would be of positive degree strictly smaller than
f which contradicts the irreducibility of f . For the case of irreducible polynomials
over finite fields see section 1.3.
Definition. Let L be a field extension of F . An element a L is called separable
over F if fa (X) is separable. The extension L/F is called separable if every element
of L is separable over F .
Example. Every algebraic extension of a field of characteristic zero or a finite field is
separable.
1.2.2. Lemma. Let M be a field extension of F and L be a finite extension of M .
Then every F -homomorphism : M C can be extended to an F -homomorphism
0 : L C .
P
Proof. Let a L \ M P
and fa (X) =
ci X i be the minimal polynomial of a over
M . Then (fa )(X) =
(ci )X i is irreducible over M . Let
P b be its root.
P Then
fa = fb . Consider an F -homomorphism : M [X] C , ( ai X i ) =
(ai )bi .
Its image is (M )(b) and its kernel is generated by fa . Since M [X]/(fa (X)) ' M (a),
determines an extension 00 : M (a) C of . Since |L : M (a)| < |L : M |, by
induction 00 can be extended to an F -homomorphism 0 : L C such that 0 |M = .
1.2.3. Theorem. Let L be a finite separable extension of F of degree n. Then there
exist exactly n distinct F -homomorphisms of L into C , i.e. | HomF (L, C)| = |L : F |.

Proof. The number of distinct F -homomorphisms of L into C is 6 n is valid for

any extension of degree n. To prove this, argue by induction on |L : F | and use the
fact that every F -homomorphism : F (a) C sends a to one of roots of fa (X) and
that root determines completely.
To show that there are n distinct F -homomorphisms for separable L/F consider
first the case of L = F (a). From separability we deduce that the polynomial fa (X) has
n distinct roots ai which give n distinct F -homomorphisms of L into C : a 7 ai .
Now argue by induction on degree. For a L \ F consider M = F (a). There
are m = |M : F | distinct F -homomorphisms i of M into C . Let i0 : L C
be an extension of i which exists according to 1.2.2. By induction there are n/m
distinct F (i (a)) -homomorphisms ij of i0 (L) into C . Now ij i0 are distinct
F -homomorphisms of L into C .
1.2.4. Proposition. Every finite subgroup of the multiplicative group F of a field F
is cyclic.
Proof. Denote this subgroup by G, it is an abelian group of finite order. From the
standard theorem on the stucture of finitely generated abelian groups we deduce that
G ' Z/m1 Z Z/mr Z

where m1 divides m2 , etc. We need to show that r = 1 (then G is cyclic). If r > 1,

then let a prime p be a divisor of m1 . The cyclic group Z/m1 Z has p elements
of order p and similarly, Z/m2 Z has p elements of order p, so G has at least p2
elements of order p. However, all elements of order p in G are roots of the polynomial
X p 1 which over the field F cannot have more than p roots, a contradiction. Thus,
r = 1.
1.2.5. Theorem. Let F be a field of characteristic zero or a finite field. Let L be a finite
field extension of F . Then there exists an element a L such that L = F (a) = F [a].
Proof. If F is of characteristic 0, then F is infinite. By 1.2.3 there are n = |L : F |
distinct F -homomorphisms i : L C . Put Vij = {a L : i (a) = j (a)}. Then
Vij are proper F -vector subspaces of L for i 6= j of dimension < n, and since F is
infinite, there union i6=j Vij is different from L. Then there is a L \ (Vij ). Since
the set {i (a)} is of cardinality n, the minimal polynomial of a over F has at least
n distinct roots. Then |F (a) : F | > n = |L : F | and hence L = F (a) .
If L is finite, then L is cyclic by 1.2.4. Let a be any of its generators. Then
L = F (a).
1.2.6. Definition. An algebraic extension L of F (inside C ) is called the splitting
field of polynomials fi if L = F ({aij }) where aij are all the roots of fi .
An algebraic extension L of F is called a Galois extension if L is the splitting
field of some separable polynomials fi over F .

Alg number theory

Example. Let L be a finite extension of F such that L = F (a). Then L/F is a

Galois extension if the polynomial fa (X) of a over F has deg fa distinct roots in L.
So quadratic extensions of Q and cyclotomic extensions of Q are Galois extensions.
1.2.7. Lemma. Let L be the splitting field of an irreducible polynomial f (X) F [X].
Then (L) = L for every HomF (L, C).
Proof. permutes the roots of f (X). Thus, (L) = F ((a1 ), . . . , (an )) = L.
1.2.8. Theorem. A finite extension L of F is a Galois extension iff
(L) = L for every HomF (L, C) and | HomF (L, L)| = |L : F |.
The set HomF (L, L) equals to the set IsoF (L, L) which is a finite group with
respect to the composite of field isomorphisms. This group is called the Galois group
Gal(L/F ) of the extension L/F .
Sketch of the proof. Let L be a Galois extension of F . The right arrow follows from
the previous proposition and properties of separable extensions. On the other hand, if
L = F ({bi }) and (L) = L for every HomF (L, C) then (bi ) belong to L and
L is the splitting field of polynomials fbi (X). If | HomF (L, L)| = |L : F | then one
can show by induction that each of fbi (X) is separable.
Now suppose we are in the situation of 1.2.5. Then L = F (a) for some a L.
L is the splitting field of some polynomials fi over F , and hence L is the splitting
field of their product. By 1.2.7 and induction we have L = L. Then L = F (ai ) for
any root ai of fa , and elements of HomF (L, L) correspond to a 7 ai . Therefore
HomF (L, L) = IsoF (L, L). Its elements correspond to some permutations of the set
{ai } of all roots of fa (X).
1.2.9. Theorem (without proof). Let L/F be a finite Galois extension and M be an
intermediate field between F and L.
Then L/M is a Galois extension with the Galois group
Gal(L/M ) = { Gal(L/F ) : |M = idM }.

For a subgroup H of Gal(L/F ) denote

LH = {x L : (x) = x

for all H }.

This set is an intermediate field between L and F .

1.2.10. Main theorem of Galois theory (without proof). Let L/F be a finite Galois
extension with Galois group G = Gal(L/F ).
Then H LH is a one-to-one correspondence between subgroups H of G and
subfields of L which contain F ; the inverse map is given by M Gal(L/M ). We
have Gal(L/M ) = H .

Normal subgroups H of G correspond to Galois extensions M/F and

Gal(M/F ) ' G/H.

1.3. Finite fields

Every finite field F has positive characteristic, since the homomorphism Z F is
not injective. Let F be of prime characteristic p. Then the image of Z in F can
be identified with the finite field Fp consisting of p elements. If the degree of F/Fp
is n, then the number of elements in F is pn . By 1.2.4 the group F is cyclic of
n
order pn 1, so every non-zero element of F is a root of the polynomial X p 1 1.
n
Therefore, all pn elements of F are all pn roots of the polynomial fn (X) = X p X .
The polynomial fn is separable, since its derivative in characteristic p is equal to
n
pn X p 1 1 = 1. Thus, F is the splitting field of fn over Fp . We conclude that
F/Fp is a Galois extension of degree n = |F : Fp |.
Lemma. The Galois group of F/Fp is cyclic of order n: it is generated by an automorphism of F called the Frobenius automorphism:
(x) = xp

for all x F .

Proof. m (x) = xp = x for all x F iff n|m.

On the other hand, for every n > 1 the splitting field of fn over Fp is a finite field
consisiting of pn elements.
Thus,
Theorem. For every n there is a unique (up to isomorphism) finite field Fpn consisting
n
of pn elements; it is the splitting field of the polynomial fn (X) = X p X . The finite
extension Fpnm /Fpn is a Galois extension with cyclic group of degree m generated
n
by the Frobenius automorphism n : x 7 xp .
Lemma. Let g(X) be an irreducible polynomial of degree m over a finite field Fpn .
Then g(X) divides fnm (X) and therefore is a separable polynomial.
Proof. Let a be a root of g(X). Then Fpn (a)/Fpn is of degree m, so Fpn (a) = Fpnm .
Since a is a root of fnm (X), g divides fnm . The latter is separable and so is g .

Alg number theory

2. Integrality

2.1. Integrality over rings

2.1.1. Proposition Definition. Let B be a ring and A its subring.
An element b B is called integral over A if it satisfies one of the following
equivalent conditions:
(i) there exist ai A such that f (b) = 0 where f (X) = X n +an1 X n1 + +a0 ;
(ii) the subring of B generated by A and b is an A -module of finite type;
(iii) there exists a subring C of B which contains A and b and which is an
A -module of finite type.
Proof. (i) (ii): note that the subring A[b] of B generated by A and b coincides
with the A -module M generated by 1, . . . , bn1 . Indeed,
bn+j = a0 bj bn+j1

and by induction bj M .
(ii) (iii): obvious.
P
P
(iii) (i): let C = c1 A+ +cm A. Then bci = j aij cj , so j (ij baij )cj = 0.
Denote by d the determinant of M = (ij b aij ). Note that d = f (b) where
f (X) A[X] is a monic polynomial. From linear algebra we know that dE = M M
where M is the adjugate matrix to M and E is the identity matrix of the same order
of that of M . Denote by C the column consisting of cj . Now we get M C = 0 implies
M M C = 0 implies dEC = 0 implies dC = 0 . Thus dcj = 0 for all 1 6 j 6 m.
Every c C is a linear combination of cj . Hence dc = 0 for all c C . In particular,
d1 = 0, so f (b) = d = 0.
Examples. 1. Every element of A is integral over A.
2. If A, B are fields, then an element b B is integral over A iff b is algebraic
over A.
3. Let A = Z, B = Q. A rational number r/s with relatively prime r and
s is integral over Z iff (r/s)n + an1 (r/s)n1 + + a0 = 0 for some integer ai .
Multiplying by sn we deduce that s divides rn , hence s = 1 and r/s Z. Hence
integral in Q elements over Z are just all integers.
4. If B is a field, then it contains the field of fractions F of A. Let
HomF (B, C) where C is an algebraically closed field containing B . If b B is
integral over A, then (b) (B) is integral over A.
5. If b B is a root of a non-zero polynomial f (X) = an X n + A[X],
1 f (b) = 0 and g(a b) = 0 for g(X) = X n + a
n1
1a ,
then an
+ + an
n
n1 X
0
n
n

9
1 f (X) . Hence a b is integral over A . Thus, for every algebraic over
g(an X) = an
n
n
A element b of B there is a non-zero a A such that ab is integral over A .

2.1.2. Corollary. Let A be a subring of an integral domain B . Let I be a non-zero

A -module of finite type, I B . Let b B satisfy the property bI I . Then b is
integral over A.
Proof. Indeed, as in the proof of (iii) (i) we deduce that dc = 0 for all c I .
Since B is an integral domain, we deduce that d = 0, so d = f (b) = 0.
2.1.3. Proposition. Let A be a subring of a ring B , and let bi B be such that bi is
integral over A[b1 , . . . , bi1 ] for all i. Then A[b1 , . . . , bn ] is an A -module of finite
type.
Proof. Induction on n. n = 1 is the previous
Pm proposition. If C = A[b1 , . . . , bn1 ]
is an A -module of finite type, then C = i=1 ci A. Now by the previous proposition
Pl
P
C[bn ] is a C -module of finite type, so C[bn ] = j =1 dj C . Thus, C[bn ] = i,j dj ci A
is an A -module of finite type.
2.1.4. Corollary 1. If b1 , b2 B are integral over A, then b1 + b2 , b1 b2 , b1 b2 are
integral over A.
Certainly b1 /b2 isnt necessarily integral over A.
Corollary 2. The set B 0 of elements of B which are integral over A is a subring of
B containing A .
Definition. B 0 is called the integral closure of A in B . If A is an integral domain
and B is its field of fractions, B 0 is called the integral closure of A .
A ring A is called integrally closed if A is an integral domain and A coincides
with its integral closure in its field of fractions.
Let F be an algebraic number field. The integral closure of Z in F is called the
ring OF of (algebraic) integers of F .
Examples. 1. A UFD is integrally closed. Indeed, if x = a/b with relatively prime
a, b A is a root of polynomial f (X) = X n + + a0 A[X], then b divides an ,
so b is a unit of A and x A.
In particular, the integral closure of Z in Q is Z.
2. OF is integrally closed (see below in 2.1.6).
2.1.5. Lemma. Let A be integrally closed. Let B be a field. Then an element b B is
integral over A iff the monic irreducible polynomial fb (X) F [X] over the fraction
field F of A has coefficients in A.

10

Alg number theory

Proof. Let L be a finite extension of F which contains B and all (b) for all
F -homomorphisms from B to an algebraically closed field C . SinceQb L is integral
over A, (b) L is integral over A for every . Then fb (X) = (X (b)) has
coefficients in F which belong to the ring generated by A and all (b) and therefore
are integral over A. Since A is integrally closed, fb (X) A[X].
If fb (X) A[X] then b is integral over A by 2.1.1.
Examples. 1. Let F be an algebraic number field. Then an element b F is integral
iff its monic irreducible
polynomial has integer coefficients.

For example, d for integer d is integral.

If d 1 mod 4 then the monic irreducible

polynomial
of
(1
+
d)/2

over Q is
2
X X
+ (1 d)/4 Z[X]
, so (1 + d)/2 is integral.
Note that d belongs to
Z[(1 + d)/2], and hence Z[ d] is a subring

of Z[(1 + d)/2] .
d) contains the subring Z[ d] and the
Thus, the integral
closure
of
Z
in
Q(

subring Z[(1 + d)/2] if d 1 mod 4. We show that there are no other integral
elements.

An element a + b d with rational a and b 6= 0 is integral iff its monic irreducible

polynomial X 2 2aX + (a2 db2 ) belongs to Z[X]. Therefore 2a, 2b are integers. If
a = (2k + 1)/2 for an integer k , then it is easy to see that a2 db2 Z iff b = (2l + 1)/2
with integer l and (2k + 1)2 d(2l + 1)2 is divisible by 4. The latter implies that d
is a quadratic residue mod 4,
i.e. d 1 mod 4. In turn, if d 1 mod 4 then every
element (2k + 1)/2 + (2l + 1) d/2
is integral.
Thus, integral elements of Q( d) are equal to

if d 6 1 mod 4
Z[ d]

Z[(1 + d)/2] if d 1 mod 4

2. OQm is equal to Z[m ] (see section 2.4).
2.1.6. Definition. B is said to be integral over A if every element of B is integral
over A. If B is of characteristic zero, its elements integral over Z are called integral
elements of B .
Lemma. If B is integral over A and C is integral over B , then C is integral over
A.
Proof. Let c C be a root of the polynomial f (X) = X n + bn1 X n1 + + b0 with
bi B . Then c is integral over A[b0 , . . . , bn1 ] . Since bi B are integral over A ,
proposition 2.1.3 implies that A[b0 , . . . , bn1 , c] is an A -module of finite type. From
2.1.1 we conclude that c is integral over A.
Corollary. OF is integrally closed

11

Proof. An element of F integral over OF is integral over Z due to the previous

lemma.
2.1.7. Proposition. Let B be an integral domain and A be its subring such that B is
integral over A. Then B is a field iff A is a field.
Proof. If A is a field, then A[b] for b B \0 is a vector space of finite dimension over
A , and the A -linear map : A[b] A[b], (c) = bc is injective, therefore surjective,
so b is invertible in B .
If B is a field and a A\0, then the inverse a1 B satisfies an +an1 an+1 +
+ a0 = 0 with some ai A . Then a1 = an1 a0 an1 , so a1 A .

2.2. Norms and traces

2.2.1. Definition. Let A be a subring of a ring B such that B is a free A -module
of finite rank n. For b B its trace TrB/A (b), norm NB/A (b) and characteristic
polynomial gb (X) are the trace, the norm and the characteristic polynomial of the
linear operator mb : B B , mb (c) = bc. In other words, if Mb is a matrix of the
operator mb with respect to a basis of B over A, then gb (X) = det(XE Mb ),
TrB/A (b) = Tr Mb , NB/A = det Mb .
If gb (X) = X n + an1 X n1 + + a0 then from the definition an1 = TrB/A (b),
a0 = (1)n NB/A (b).
2.2.2. First properties.
Tr(b + b0 ) = Tr(b) + Tr(b0 ), Tr(ab) = a Tr(b), Tr(a) = na,
N (bb0 ) = N (b)N (b0 ), N (ab) = an N (b), N (a) = an

for a A.
2.2.3. Everywhere below in this section F is either a finite field of a field of characteristic zero. Then every finite extension of F is separable.
Proposition. Let L be an algebraic extension of F of degree n. Let b L and
b1 , . . . , bn be roots of the monic irreducible polynomial of b over F each one repeated
|L Q
: F (b)| times. Then the characteristic
polynomial
P
Q gb (X) of b with respect to L/F
is (X bi ), and TrL/F (b) = bi , NL/F (b) = bi .
Proof. If L = F (b), then use the basis 1, b, . . . , bn1 to calculate gb . Let fb (X) =
X n + cn1 X n1 + + c0 be the monic irreducible polynomial of b over F , then the

12

Alg number theory

matrix of mb is
0
0
Mb =
...

c0

1
0
..
.

0
1
..
.

...
...
..
.

c1

c2

...

0
0
..
.

cn1
Q
P
Hence gb (X) = det(XE Mb ) = fb (X) and det Mb = bi , Tr Mb = bi .
In the general case when |F (b) : F | = m < n choose a basis 1 , . . . , n/m of
L over F (b) and take 1 , . . . , 1 bm1 , 2 , . . . , 2 bm1 , . . . as a basis of L over
F . The matrix Mb is a block matrix with the same block repeated n/m times on
the diagonal and everything else being zero. Therefore, gb (X) = fb (X)|L:F (b)| where
fb (X) is the monic irreducible polynomial of b over F .

Example. Let F = Q, L = Q( d) with square-free integer d. Then

ga+bd (X) = (X a b d)(X a + b d) = X 2 2aX + (a2 db2 ),

so

TrQ(d)/Q (a + b d) = 2a,

NQ(d)/Q (a + b d) = a2 db2 .

In particular, an integer number c is a sum of two squares iff c NQ(1)/Q OQ(1) .

More generally, c is in the form a2 db2 with integer a, b and square-free d not
congruent to 1 mod 4 iff

c NQ(d)/Q Z[ d]
2.2.4. Corollary 1. Q
Let i be distinct F -homomorphisms of L into C . Then TrL/F (b) =
P
i b , NL/F (b) = i (b).
Proof. In the previous proposition bi = i (b).
Corollary 2. Let A be an integral domain, F be its field of fractions. Let L be an
extension of F of finite degree. Let A0 be the integral closure of A in F . Then for
an integral element b L over A gb (X) A0 [X] and TrL/F (b), NL/F (b) belong to
A0 .
Proof. All bi are integral over A.
Corollary 3. If, in addition, A is integrally closed, then TrL/F (b), NL/F (b) A.
Proof. Since A is integrally closed, A0 F = A.
2.2.5. Lemma. Let F be a finite field of a field of characteristic zero. If L is a finite
extension of F and M/F is a subextension of L/F , then the following transitivity

13

property holds
TrL/F = TrM/F TrL/M ,

NL/F = NM/F NL/M .

Proof. Let 1 , . . . , m be all distinct F -homomorphisms of M into C ( m = |M :

F | ). Let 1 , . . . , n/m be all distinct M -homomorphisms of L into C ( n/m = |L :
M | ). The field j (L) is a finite extension of F , and by 1.2.5 there is an element aj C
such that j (L) = F (aj ). Let E be the minimal subfield of C containing M and all
aj . Using 1.2.3 extend i to i0 : E C . Then the composition i0 j : L C is
defined. Note that i0 j = i01 j1 implies i = i0 j |M = i01 j1 |M = i1 , so
i = i1 , and then j = j1 . Hence i0 j for 1 6 i 6 m, 1 6 j 6 n/m are all n distinct
F -homomorphisms of L into C . By Corollary 3 in 2.2.4
Y
Y Y
Y
NM/F (NL/M (b)) = NM/F ( j (b)) =
i0 ( j (b)) =
(i0 j )(b) = NL/F (b).
Similar arguments work for the trace.

2.3. Integral basis

2.3.1. Definition. Let A be a subring of a ring B such that B is a free A -module
of rank n. Let b1 , . . . , bn B . Then the discriminant D(b1 , . . . , bn ) is defined as
det(TrB/A (bi bj )) .
2.3.2. Proposition. If ci B and ci =
(det(aij ))2 D(b1 , . . . , bn ).

aij bj , aij A , then D(c1 , . . . , cn ) =

Proof. (ci )t = (aij )(bj )t , (ck cl ) = (ck )t (cl ) = (aki )(bi bj )(alj )t ,
(Tr(ck cl )) = (aki )(Tr(bi bj ))(alj )t .
2.3.3. Definition. The discriminant DB/A of B over A is the principal ideal of A
generated by the discriminant of any basis of B over A.
2.3.4. Proposition. Let DB/A 6= 0. Let B be an integral domain. Then a set b1 , . . . , bn
is a basis of B over A iff D(b1 , . . . , bn )A = DB/A .
Proof. Let D(b1 , . . . , bn )A = DB/A . Let c1 , . . . , cn be a basis of B over A and
P
2
let bi =
j aij cj . Then D(b1 , . . . , bn ) = det(aij ) D(c1 , . . . , cn ) . Denote d =
D(c1 , . . . , cn ).
Since D(b1 , . . . , bn )A = D(c1 , . . . , cn )A, we get aD(b1 , . . . , bn ) = d for some
a A . Then d(1 a det(aij )2 ) = 0 and det(aij ) is invertible in A, so the matrix (aij )
is invertible in the ring of matrices over A. Thus b1 , . . . , bn is a basis of B over A.

14

Alg number theory

2.3.5. Proposition. Let F be a finite field or a field of characteristic zero. Let L be

an extension of F of degree n and let 1 , . . . , n be distinct F -homomorphisms of
L into C . Let b1 , . . . , bn be a basis of L over F . Then
D(b1 , . . . , bn ) = det(i (bj ))2 6= 0.
P
2
Proof. det(Tr(bi bj )) = det( k k (bi )k (bj )) = det((k (bi ))t (k (bP
j ))) = det(i (bj )) .
If det(i (bj ))P= 0, then there exist ai L not all zero such that i ai i (bj ) = 0 for
all j . Then
P 0 i ai i (b) = 0 for every b L.
Let
ai i (b) = 0 for all b L with the minimal number of non-zero a0i A .
0
Assume a1 6= 0.
Let c L be P
such that L =P
F (c) (see 1.2.5), then 1 (c) 6= i (c)
i > 1.P
P for
0
0
0
0
We
now
have
a

(bc)
=
a

(b)
(c)
=
0
.
Hence

(c)(
a

i
i
i
i
1
i
i
P
P i 00 (b)) ai i (b)i (c) =
0
00
0
ai i (b) = 0 with
i>1 ai (1 (c) i (c))i (b) = 0 . Put ai = ai (1 (c) i (c)) , so
smaller number of non-zero a00i than in a0i , a contradiction.

Corollary. Under the assumptions of the proposition the linear map L HomF (L, F ):
b (c TrL/F (bc)) between n -dimensional F -vector spaces is injective, and hence
bijective. Therefore for a basis b1 , . . . , bn of L/F there is a dual basis c1 , . . . , cn of
L/F , i.e. TrL/F (bi cj ) = ij .
P
Proof.
If b = ai bi , ai F and TrL/F (bc) = 0 for all c L, then we get equations
P
ai TrL/F (bi bj ) = 0 this is a system of linear equations in ai with nondegenerate
matrix TrL/F (bi bj ), so the only solution is ai = 0. Elements of the dual basis cj
correspond to fj HomF (L, F ), fj (bi ) = ij .
2.3.6. Theorem. Let A be an integrally closed ring and F be its field of fractions. Let
L be an extension of F of degree n and A0 be the integral closure of A in L. Let F
be of characteristic 0. Then A0 is an A -submodule of a free A -module of rank n.
Proof. Let e1 , . . . , en be a basis of F -vector space L. Then
Q due to Example 5 in 2.1.1
there is 0 6= ai A such that ai ei A0 . Then for a = ai we get bi = aei A0
form a basis of L/F .
P
0
Let
ci A . Indeed, let
P c1 , . . . , 0cn be the dual basis for b1 , . . . , bn . Claim: A
c=
ai ci A . Then
X
TrL/F (cbi ) =
aj TrL/F (cj bi ) = ai A
j

by 2.2.5. Now

ci A = ci A, since {ci } is a basis of L/F .

2.3.7. Theorem (on integral basis). Let A be a principal ideal ring and F be its
field of fractions of characteristic 0. Let L be an extension of F of degree n. Then
the integral closure A0 of A in L is a free A -module of rank n.

15

In particular, the ring of integers OF of a number field F is a free Z -module of

rank equal to the degree of F .
Proof. The description of modules of finite type over PID and the previous theorem
imply that A0 is a free A -module of rank m 6 n. On the other hand, by the first part
of the proof of the previous theorem A0 contains n A -linear independent elements
over A. Thus, m = n.
Definition. The discriminant dF of any integral basis of OF is called the discriminant
of F . Since every two integral bases are related via an invertible matrix with integer
coefficients (whose determinant is therefore 1 ), 2.3.2 implies that dF is uniquely
determined.
2.3.8.
integer. By 2.1.5 the ring of integers
of
Examples. 1. Let d be a square-free
Q( d) has an integral basis 1, where = d if D 6 1 mod 4 and = (1 + d)/2
if d 1 mod 4.

The discriminant of Q( d) is equal to

4d

if d 6 1 mod 4 ,

and d if d 1 mod 4 .

To prove this calculate directly D(1, ) using the definitions, or use 2.3.9.
2. Let F be an algebraic number field of degree n and let a F be an integral element over Z. Assume that D(1, a, . . . , an1 ) is a square free integer. Then
1, a, . . . , an1 is a basis of OF over Z, so OF = Z[a] . Indeed: choose a basis
. . . , cn } = {1, a, . . . , an1 }. Let ci =
P b1 , . . . , bn of OF over Z and let {c1 , n
aij bj . By 2.3.2 we have D(1, a, . . . , a 1 ) = (det(aij )2 D(b1 , . . . , bn ) . Since
D(1, a, . . . , an1 ) is a square free integer, we get det(aij ) = 1, so (aij ) is invertible
in Mn (Z), and hence 1, a, . . . , an1 is a basis of OF over Z.
2.3.9. Example. Let F be of characteristic zero and L = F (b) be an extension of
degree n over F . Let f (X) be the minimal polynomial of b over F whose roots are
bi . Then
Y
Y
f (X) =
(X bj ), f 0 (bi ) =
(bi bj ),
j6=i
0

NL/F f (b) =

f (i b) =

f (bi ).

Then
D(1, b, . . . , bn1 ) = det(bji )2
Y
= (1)n(n1)/2 (bi bj ) = (1)n(n1)/2 NL/F (f 0 (b)).
i6=j
n

Let f (X) = X + aX + c. Then

bn = ab c,

bn1 = a cb1

16

Alg number theory

and
e = f 0 (b) = nbn1 + a = n(a cb1 ) + a,

so
b = nc(e + (n 1)a)1 .

The minimal polynomial g(Y ) of e over F corresponds to the minimal polynomial

f (X) of b ; it is the numerator of c1 f (nc(y + (n 1)a)1 ) , i.e.
g(Y ) = (Y + (n 1)a)n na(Y + (n 1)a)n1 + (1)n nn cn1 .

Hence
NL/F (f 0 (b)) = g(0)(1)n
= nn cn1 + (1)n1 (n 1)n1 an ,

so
D(1, b, . . . , bn1 )
= (1)n(n1)/2 (nn cn1 + (1)n1 (n 1)n1 an ).

For n = 2 one has a2 4c, for n = 3 one has 27c2 4a3 .

For example, let f (X) = X 3 + X + 1. It is irreducible over Q. Its discriminant is
equal to (31), so according to example 2.5.3 OF = Z[a] where a is a root of f (X)
and F = Q[a].

2.4. Cyclotomic fields

2.4.1. Definition. Let n be a primitive n th root of unity. The field Q(n ) is called
the ( n th) cyclotomic field.
2.4.2. Theorem. Let p be a prime number and z be a primitive p th root of unity. The
cyclotomic field Q(p ) is of degree p 1 over Q. Its ring of integers coincides with
Z[p ] .
Proof. Denote z = p . Let f (X) = (X p 1)/(X 1) = X p1 + + 1. Recall that
z 1 is a root of the polynomial g(Y ) = f (1 + Y ) = Y p1 + + p is a p -Eisenstein
polynomial, so f (X) is irreducible over Q, |Q(z) : Q| = p 1 and 1, z, . . . , z p2 is
a basis of the Q -vector space Q(z).
Let O be the ring of integers of Q(z). Since the monic irreducible polynomial
of z over Q has integer coefficients, z O . Since z 1 is a primitive root of unity,
z 1 O . Thus, z is a unit of O .
Then z i O for all i Z ( z 1 = z p1 ). We have 1z i = (1z)(1+ +z i1 )
(1 z)O .

17

Denote by Tr and N the trace and norm for Q(z)/Q. Note that Tr(z) = 1 and
since z i for 1 6 i 6 p1 are primitive p th roots of unity, Tr(z i ) = 1; Tr(1) = p1.
Hence
Tr(1 z i ) = p

for 1 6 i 6 p 1 .

Furthermore, N (z 1) is equal to the free term of g(Y ) times (1)p1 , so N (z 1) =

(1)p1 p and
Y
N (1 z) =
(1 z i ) = p,
16i6p1
i

since 1 z are conjugate to 1 z over Q. Therefore pZ is contained in the ideal

I = (1 z)O Z.
If I = Z, then 1 z would be a unit of O and so would be its conjugates 1 z i ,
which then implies that p as their product would be a unit of O . Then p1 OQ = Z,
a contradiction. Thus,
I = (1 z)O Z = pZ.

Now we prove another auxiliary result:

Tr((1 z)O) pZ.

Indeed, every conjugate of y(1z)

for y O is of the type yi (1z i ) with appropriate
P
i
yi O , so Tr(y(1
P z)) = yii (1 z ) I = pZ .
Now let x = 06i6p2 ai z O with ai Q. We aim to show that all ai belong
to
of the traces of z i it follows that Tr((1z)x) = a0 Tr(1z)+
P Z. From the calculation
i
i+1
) = a0 p and so a0 p Tr((1 z)O) pZ; therefore, a0 Z .
0<i6p2 ai Tr(z z
Since z is a unit of O , we deduce that x1 = z 1 (xa0 ) = a1 +a2 z+ +ap2 z p3 O .
By the same arguments a1 Z. Looking at xi = z 1 (xi1 ai1 ) O we conclude
ai Z for all i . Thus O = Z[z] .
2.4.3. The discriminant of O/Z is the ideal of Z generated by D(1, z, . . . , z p2 )
which by 2.3.9 is equal (1)(p1)(p2)/2 N (f 0 (z)). We have f 0 (z) = pz p1 /(z 1) =
pz 1 /(z 1) and N (f 0 (z)) = N (p)N (z)1 /N (z 1) = pp1 (1)p1 /((1)p1 p) =
pp2 . Thus, the discriminant of OZ is the principal ideal (1)(p1)(p2)/2 pp2 Z =
pp2 Z .
2.4.4. In general, the extension Q(m )/Q is a Galois extension and elements of the
Galois group Gal(Q(m )/Q) are determined by their action on the primitive m th root
m of unity:
i
7 i : (m ) = m
,

(i, m) = 1.

This map induces a group isomorphism

Gal(Q(m )/Q) (Z/mZ) .

18

One can prove that the ring of integers of Q(m ) is Z(m ).

Alg number theory

19

3. Dedekind rings

3.1. Noetherian rings

3.1.1. Recall that a module M over a ring is called a Noetherian module if one of the
following equivalent properties is satisfied:
(i) every submodule of M is of finite type;
(ii) every increasing sequence of submodules stabilizes;
(iii) every nonempty family of submodules contains a maximal element with respect
to inclusion.
A ring A is called Noetherian if it is a Noetherian A -module.
Example. A PID is a Noetherian ring, since every ideal of it is generated by one
element.
Lemma. Let M be an A -module and N is a submodule of M . Then M is a Noetherian A -module iff N and M/N are.
Corollary 1. If Ni are Noetherian A -modules, so is ni=1 Ni .
Corollary 2. Let A be a Noetherian ring and let M be an A -module of finite type.
Then M is a Noetherian A -module.
3.1.2. Proposition. Let A be a Noetherian integrally closed ring. Let K be its field of
fractions and let L be a finite extension of K . Let A0 be the integral closure of A in
L. Suppose that K is of characteristic 0. Then A0 is a Noetherian ring.
Proof. According to 2.3.6 A0 is a submodule of a free A -module of finite rank. Hence
A0 is a Noetherian A -module. Every ideal of A0 is in particular an A -submodule of
A0 . Hence every increasing sequence ideals of A0 stabilizes and A0 is a Noetherian
ring.
3.1.3. Example. The ring of integers OF of a number field F is a Noetherian ring.
It is a Z -module of rank n where n is the degree of F .
Every nonzero element of OF \ {0} factorizes into a product of prime elements and
units (not uniquely in general).
Indeed, assume the family of principal ideals (a) which are generated by elements
OF which are not products of prime elements and units is nonempty and then choose a
maximal element (a) in this family. The element a is not a unit, and a is not prime.
Hence there is a factorization a = bc with both b, c 6 OF . Then (b), (c) are strictly
larger than (a), so b and c are products of prime elements. Then a is, a contradiction.

20

Alg number theory

3.2. Dedekind rings

3.2.1. Definition. An integral domain A is called a Dedekind ring if
(i) A is a Noetherian ring;
(ii) A is integrally closed;
(iii) every non-zero prime ideal of A is maximal.
Example. Every principal ideal domain A is a Dedekind ring.
Proof: for (i) see 3.1.1 and for (ii) see 2.1.4. If (a) is a prime ideal and (a) (b) 6= A,
then b isnt a unit of A and b divides a. Write a = bc. Since (a) is prime, either b
or c belongs to (a). If b does then (a) = (b). If b doesnt, then c must belong to (a),
so c = ad for some d A, and a = bc = bda which means that b is a unit of A, a
contradiction. Thus, property (iii) is satisfied as well.
3.2.2. Lemma. Let A be an integral domain. Let K be its field of fractions and let
L be a finite extension of K . Let B be the integral closure of A in L. Let P be a
non-zero prime ideal of B . Then P A is a non-zero prime ideal of A.
Proof. Let P be a non-zero prime ideal of B . Then P A 6= A, since otherwise
1 P A and hence P = B .
If c, d A and cd P A, then either c P A or d P A. Hence P A
is a prime ideal of A.
Let b P , b 6= 0. Then b satisfies a polynomial relation bn +an1 bn1 + +a0 = 0
with ai A. We can assume that a0 6= 0. Then a0 = (bn + + a1 b) A P , so
P A is a non-zero prime ideal of A .
3.2.3. Theorem. Let A be a Dedekind ring. Let K be its field of fractions and let L
be a finite extension of K . Let B be the integral closure of A in L. Suppose that K
is of characteristic 0. Then B is a Dedekind ring.
Proof. B is Noetherian by 3.1.2. It is integrally closed due to 2.1.6. By 3.2.2 if P is
a non-zero proper prime ideal of B , then P A is a non-zero prime ideal of A. Since
A is a Dedeking ring, it is a maximal ideal of A . The quotient ring B/P is integral
over the field A/(P A). Hence by 2.1.7 B/P is a field and P is a maximal ideal of
B.
3.2.4. Example. The ring of integers OF of a number field F is a Dedekind ring.

21

3.3. Factorization in Dedekind rings

3.3.1. Lemma. Every non-zero ideal in a Dedekind ring A contains some product of
maximal ideals.
Proof. If not, then the set of non-zero ideals which do not contain products of maximal
ideals is non-empty. Let I be a maximal element with this property. The ideal I is not A
and is not a maximal ideal, since it doesnt contain a product of maximal ideals. Hence I
is not a prime ideal. Therefore there are a, b A such that ab I and a, b 6 I . Since
I + aA
ideals Pi and Qj such
Q and I + bA are strictly
Q greater than I , thereQare maximal
Q
that
Pi I + aA and
Qj I + bA. Then
Pi Qj (I + aA)(I + bA) I ,
a contradiction.
3.3.2. Lemma. Let a prime ideal P of A contain I1 . . . Im , where Ij are ideals of
A . Then P contains one of Ij .
Proof. If Ik 6 P for all 1 6 k 6 m, then take ak Ik \ P and consider the product
a1 . . . am . It belongs to P , therefore one of ai belongs to P , a contradiction.
3.3.3. The next proposition shows that for every non-zero ideal I of a Dedekind ring
A there is an ideal J such that IJ is a principal non-zero ideal of A. Moreover, the
proposition gives an explicit description of J .
Proposition. Let I be a non-zero ideal of a Dedekind ring A and b be a non-zero
element of I . Let K be the field of fractions of A. Define
J = {a K : aI bA}.

Then J is an ideal of A and IJ = bA.

Proof. Since b I , we get bA I .
If a J then aI bA I , so aI I . Now we use the Noetherian and integrality
property of Dedekind rings: Since I is an A -module of finite type, by Remark in 2.1.1
a is integral over A. Since A is integrally closed, a A . Thus, J A .
The set J is closed with respect to addition and multiplication by elements of A,
so J is an ideal of A. It is clear that IJ bA. Assume that IJ 6= bA and get a
contradiction.
The ideal b1 IJ is a proper ideal of A, and hence it is contained in a maximal
ideal P . Note that b J , since bI bA. So b2 IJ and b b1 IJ , bA b1 IJ .
By 3.3.1 there are non-zero prime ideals Pi such that P1 . . . Pm bA. Let m be the
minimal number with this property.

22

Alg number theory

We have
P1 . . . Pm bA b1 IJ P.

By 3.3.2 P contains one of Pi . Without loss of generality we can assume that P1 P .

Since P1 is maximal, P1 = P .
If m = 1, then P bA b1 IJ P , so P = bA. Since bA I we get P I .
Since P is maximal, either I = P or I = A. The definition of J implies in the first
case J = {a K : aI = aP bA = P } = A and IJ = bA and in the second case
b J implies bA J = {a K : aA bA} {a K : a bA} = bA and so
J = bA and IJ = bA .
Let m > 1. Note that P2 . . . Pm 6 bA due to the definition of m. Therefore,
there is d P2 . . . Pm such that d 6 bA. Since b1 IJ P , db1 IJ dP
P P2 . . . Pm bA. So (db1 J)I bA , and the defining property of J implies that
db1 J J . Since J is an A -module of finite type, by 2.1.1 db1 belongs to A, i.e.
d bA, a contradiction.
3.3.4. Corollary 1 (Cancellation property). Let I, J, H be non-zero ideals of A,
then IH = JH implies I = J .
Proof. Let H 0 be an ideal such that HH 0 = aA is a principal ideal. Then aI = aJ
and I = J .
3.3.5. Corollary 2 (Factorization property). Let I and J be ideals of A. Then
I J if and only if I = JH for an ideal H .
Proof. If I J and J is non-zero, then let J 0 be an ideal of A such that JJ 0 = aA
is a principal ideal. Then IJ 0 aA, so H = a1 IJ 0 is an ideal of A. Now
JH = Ja1 IJ 0 = a1 IJJ 0 = a1 aI = I.

3.3.6. Theorem. Every proper ideal of a Dedekind ring factorizes into a product of
maximal ideals whose collection is uniquely determined.
Proof. Let I be a non-zero ideal of A. There is a maximal ideal P1 which contains
I . Then by the factorization property 3.3.5 I = P1 Q1 for some ideal Q1 . Note
that I Q1 is a proper inclusion, since otherwise AQ1 = Q1 = I = P1 Q1 and by
the cancellation property 3.3.4 P1 = A, a contradiction. If Q1 6= A, then there is a
maximal ideal P2 such that Q1 = P2 Q2 . Continue the same argument: eventually we
have I = P1 . . . Pn Qn and I Q1 Qn are all proper inclusions. Since A is
Noetherian, Qm = A for some m and then I = P1 . . . Pm .
If P1 . . . Pm = Q1 . . . Qn , then P1 Q1 . . . Qn and by 3.3.2 P1 being a prime
ideal contains one of Qi , so P1 = Qi . Using 3.3.4 cancel P1 on both sides and use
induction.

23

3.3.7. Remark. A maximal ideal P of A is involved in the factorization of I iff

I P.
Indeed, if I P , then I = P Q by 3.3.5.

3.3.8. Example. Let A = Z[ 5]

. This is a Dedekind ring, since 5 6 1 mod 4 ,
and A is the ring of integers of Q( 5).
We have the norm map N (a + b 5) = a2 + 5b2 . If an element u is a unit of A
then uv = 1 for some v A, and the product of two integers N (u) and N (v) is 1,
thus N (u) = 1. Conversely, if N (u) = 1 then u times its conjugate u0 is one, and so
u is a unit of A . Thus, u A iff N (u) Z .
The norms of 2, 3, 1 5 are 4, 9, 6. It is easy to see that 2, 3 are not in the
image N (A).
If, say, 2 were not a prime element in A, then 2 = 1 2 and 4 = N (1 )N (2 )
with both norms being proper
divisors of 4, a contradiction. Hence 2 is a prime element
of A, and similarly
3, 1 5 are.
Now 2, 3, 1 5 are prime elements of A and

6 = 2 3 = (1 + 5)(1 5).

Note that 2, 3, 1 5 are not associated with each other (the quotient is not a unit)
since their norms differ not by a unit of Z. Thus A isnt a UFD.
The ideals

(2, 1 + 5), (3, 1 + 5), (3, 1 5)

are maximal.

For instance,
|A/(2)| = 4 , and it is easy

to show that A 6= (2, 1 + 5) 6= (2) , so

|A/(2, 1 + 5)| = 2, therefore A/(2, 1 + 5) is isomorphic to Z/2Z , i.e. is a field.
We get factorization of ideals

(2) = (2, 1 + 5)2 ,

(3) = (3, 1 + 5)(3, 1 5),

(1 + 5) = (2, 1 + 5)(3, 1 + 5),

(1 5) = (2, 1 + 5)(3, 1 5).

To prove the first equality note

that (1 + 5)2
= 4 + 2 5 (2), so the
RHS LHS; we also have 2 = 2(1
+ 5)
22 (1 + 5)2 RHS, so LHS
= RHS.
2
For the second equality use (1 + 5)(1 5) = 6 (3), 3 = 3 (1 + 5)(1
5) RHS.

For the third equality use 6 (1+ 5), 1+ 5 = 3(1+ 5)2(1+ 5) RHS.
For
the fourth equality use conjugate the third equality and use (2, 1 + 5) =
(2, 1 5).

24

Alg number theory

Thus

(2) (3) = (2, 1 + 5)2 (3, 1 + 5)(3, 1 5)

= (2, 1 + 5)(3, 1 + 5)(2, 1 + 5)(3, 1 5)

= (1 + 5)(1 5).

3.3.9. Lemma. Let I + J = A. Then I n + J m = A for every n, m > 1.

Proof. We have A = (I + J) . . . (I + J) = I(...) + J m I + J m , so I + J m = A.
Similarly I n + J m = A.
Proposition. Let P be a maximal ideal of A. Then there is an element P such
that
P = A + P n

for every n > 2.

Hence the ideal P/P n is a principal ideal of the factor ring A/P n . Moreover, it
is the only maximal ideal of that ring.
Every ideal of the ring A/P n is principal of the form P m /P n = ( m A + P n )/P n
for some m 6 n.
Proof. If P = P 2 , then P = A by cancellation property, a contradiction. Let
P \ P 2 . Since A + P n P , factorization property implies that A + P n = P Q for
an ideal Q.
Note that Q 6 P , since otherwise P 2 , a contradiction.
Therefore, P + Q = A. The Lemma implies P n1 + Q = A. Then
P = P (Q + P n1 ) P Q + P n = A + P n P,

so P = A + P n .
For m 6 n we deduce P m m A + P n P m , so P m = m A + P n .
Let I be a proper ideal of A containing P n . Then by factorization property
P n = IK with some ideal K . Hence the factorization of I involves powers of P
only, so I = P m , 0 < m 6 n. Hence ideals of A/P n are P m /P n with m 6 n.
3.3.10. Corollary. Every ideal in a Dedekind ring is generated by 2 elements.
Proof. Let I be a non-zero ideal, and let a be a non-zero element of I . Then
n
nm
aA = P1 1 . . . Pm
with distinct maximal ideals Pi .
n
By Lemma 3.3.9 we have P1 1 + Pknk = A if l 6= k , so we can apply the Chinese
remainder theorem which gives
n

nm
A/aA ' A/P1 1 A/Pm
.

25

For the ideal I/aA of A/aA we get

n

nm
nm
I/aA ' (I + P1 1 )/P1 1 (I + Pm
)/Pm
.

Each of ideals (I + Pini )/Pini is of the form (ili A + Pini )/Pini by 3.3.9. Hence I/aA
Q
is isomorphic to (ili A + Pini )/Pini . Using the Chinese remainder theorem find
b A such that b ili belongs to Pini for all i . Then I/aA = (aA + bA)/aA and
I = aA + bA.
3.3.11. Theorem. A Dedekind ring A is a UFD if and only if A is a PID.
Proof. Let A be not a PID. Since every proper ideal is a product of maximal ideals,
there is a maximal ideal P which isnt principal. Consider the family F of non-zero
ideals I such that P I is principal. It is nonempty by 3.3.5. Let I be a maximal
element of this family and P I = aA, a 6= 0.
Note that I isnt principal, because otherwise I = xA and P I = xP = aA, so
a is divisible by x . Put y = ax1 , then (x)P = (x)(y) and by 3.3.4 P = (y), a
contradiction.
Claim: a is a prime element of A. First, a is not a unit of A: otherwise
P P I = aA = A , a contradiction. Now, if a = bc, then bc P , so either b P or
c P . By 3.3.5 then either bA = P J or cA = P J for an appropriate ideal J of A .
Since P I P J , we get aI = IP I IP J = aJ and I J . Note that J F . Due
to maximality of I we deduce that I = J , and hence either bA or cA is equal to aA.
Then one of b, c is asociated to a, so a is a prime element.
P 6 aA, since otherwise aA = P I aI , so A = I , a contradiction.
I 6 aA, since otherwise aA I implies aA = I , I is principal, a contradiction.
Thus, there are d P and e I not divisible by a. We also have ed P I = aA
is divisible by the prime element a. This can never happen in UFD. Thus, A isnt a
UFD.

Using this theorem, to establish that the ring Z[ 5] of 3.3.8 is not a unique
factorization domain it is sufficient to indicate a non-principal ideal of it.

3.4. The norm of an ideal

In this subsection F is a number field of degree n, OF is the ring of integers of F .
3.4.1. Proposition. For a non-zero element a OF
|OF : aOF | = |NF/Q (a)|.

26

Alg number theory

Proof. We know that OF is a free Z -module of rank n. The ideal aOF is a free
submodule of OF of rank n, since if x1 , . . . , xm are generators of aOF , then
a1 x1 , . . . , a1 xm are generators of OF , so m = n . By the theorem on the structure
of modules over principal ideal domains, there is a basis a1 , . . . , an of OF such that
e1 a1 , . . . , en anQis a basis of aOF with appropriate
e1 | . . . |en . Then OF /aOF is
Q
isomorphic to Z/ei Z, so |OF : aOF | = |ei |. By the definition NF/Q (a) is equal
to the determinant of the matrix of the linear operator f : OF OF , b ab. Note
that aOF has another basis: aa1 , . . . , aan , so (aa1 , . . . , aan ) = (e1 a1 , . . . , en an )M
with an invertible matrix MQwith integer entries. Thus, the determinant of M is 1
and NF/Q (a) is equal to ei .
3.4.2. Corollary. |OF : aOF | = |a|n for every non-zero a Z.
Proof. NF/Q (a) = an .
3.4.3. Definition. The norm N (I) of a non-zero ideal I of OF is its index |OF : I|.
Note that if I 6= 0 then N (I) is a finite number.
Indeed, by 3.4.1 N (aOF ) = |NF/Q (a)| for a non-zero a which belongs to I . Then
aOF I and N (I) 6 N (aOF ) = |NF/Q (a)| .
3.4.4. Proposition. If I, J are non-zero ideals of OF , then N (IJ) = N (I)N (J).
Proof. Since every ideal factors into a product of maximal ideals by 3.3.6, it is sufficient
to show that N (IP ) = N (I)N (P ) for a maximal ideal P of OF .
The LHS = |OF : IP | = |OF : I||I : IP |. Recall that P is a maximal ideal of
OF , so OF /P is a field.
The quotient I/IP can be viewed as a vector space over OF /P . Its subspaces
correspond to ideals between IP and I according to the description of ideals of the
factor ring. If IP J I , then by 3.3.5 J = IQ for an ideal Q of OF .
By 3.3.3 there is a non-zero ideal I 0 such that II 0 is a principal non-zero ideal
aOF . Then IP IQ implies aP aQ implies P Q. Therefore either Q = P
and then J = IP or Q = OF and then J = I . Thus, the only subspaces of the vector
space I/IP are itself and the zero subspace IP/IP . Hence I/IP is of dimension
one over OF /P and therefore |I : IP | = |OF : P |.
3.4.5. Corollary. If I is a non-zero ideal of OF and N (I) is prime, then I is a
maximal ideal.
Proof. If I = JK , then N (J)N (K) is prime, so, say, N (J) = 1 and J = OF . So I
has no proper prime divisors, and therefore is a maximal ideal.

27

3.5. Splitting of prime ideals in field extensions

In this subsection F is a number field and L is a finite extension of F . Let OF and
OL be their rings of integers.
3.5.1. Proposition-Definition. Let P be a maximal ideal of OF and Q a maximal
ideal of OL . Then Q is said to lie over P and P is said to lie under Q if one of the
following equivalent conditions is satisfied:
(i) P OL Q;
(ii) P Q;
(iii) Q OF = P .
Proof. (i) is equivalent to (ii), since 1 OL . (ii) implies Q OF contains P , so
either Q OF = P or Q OF = OF , the latter is impossible since 1 6 Q. (iii)
implies (ii).
3.5.2. Proposition. Every maximal ideal of OL lies over a unique maximal ideal P of
OF . For a maximal
ideal P of OF the ideal P OL is a proper non-zero ideal of OL .
Q
Let P OL = Qi be the factorization into a product of prime ideals of OL . Then Qi
are exactly those maximal ideals of OL which lie over P .
Proof. The first assertion follows from 3.2.2.
Note that by 3.3.3 for b P \ P 2 there is an ideal J of OF such that P J = bOF .
Then J 6 P , since otherwise b P 2 , a contradiction. Take an element c J \ P .
Then cP bOF .
If P OL = OL , then cOL = cP OL bOL , so cb1 OL F = OF and
c bOF P , a contradiction. Thus, P OL is a proper ideal of OL .
According to 3.5.1 a prime ideal Q of OL lies over P iff P OL Q which is
equivalent by 3.3.7 to the fact that Q is involved in the factorization of P OL .
3.5.3. Lemma. Let P be a maximal ideal of OF which lie under a maximal ideal Q
of OL . Then the finite field OF /P is a subfield of the finite field OL /Q.
Proof. OL /Q is finite by 3.4.3. The kernel of the homomorphism OF OL /Q is
equal to Q OF = P , so OF /P can be identified with a subfield of OL /Q.
3.5.4. Corollary. Let P be a maximal ideal of OF . Then P Z = pZ for a prime
number p and N (P ) is a positive power of p.
Proof. P Z = pZ for a prime number p by 3.2.2. Then OF /P is a vector space
over Z/pZ of finite positive dimension, therefore |OF : P | is a power of p.

28

Alg number theory

3.5.5. Definition. Let a maximal ideal P of OF lie under a maximal ideal Q of

OL . The
Q degree of OL /Q over OF /P is called the inertia degree f (Q|P ). If
P OL = Qei i is the factorization of P OL with distinct prime ideals Qi of OL , then
ei is called the ramification index e(Qi |P ).
3.5.6. Lemma. Let M be a finite extension of L and P Q R be maximal
ideals of OF , OL and OM correspondingly. Then f (R|P ) = f (Q|P )f (R|Q) and
e(R|P ) = e(Q|P )e(R|Q).
Proof. The first assertion follows from 1.1.1. Since P OL = Qe(Q|P ) . . . , we get
P OM = Qe(Q|P ) OM = (QOM )e(Q|P ) = (Re(R|Q) )e(Q|P ) . . . , so the second
assertion follows.
3.5.7. Theorem. Let Q1 , . . . Qm be different maximal ideals of OL which lie over a
maximal ideal P of OF . Let n = |L : F |. Then
m
X

e(Qi |P )f (Qi |P ) = n.

i=1

Proof.
Q ei We consider only the case F = Q . Apply the norm to the equality pOL =
Qi . Then by 3.4.2, 3.4.4
Y
Y
pn = N (pOL ) =
N (Qi )ei =
pf (Qi |P )e(Qi |P ) .
3.5.8. Example. One can describe in certain situations how a prime ideal (p) factorizes
in finite extensions of Q, provided the factorization of the monic irreducible polynomial
of an integral generator (if it exists) modulo p is known.
Let the ring of integers OF of an algebraic number field F be generated by one
element : OF = Z[], and f (X) Z[X] be the monic irreducible polynomial of
over Q.
Let fi (X) Z[X] be monic polynomials such that
f (X) =

m
Y

fi (X)ei Fp [X]

i=1

is the factorization of f (X) where fi (X) is an irreducible polynomial over Fp . Since

OF ' Z[X]/(f (X)) , we have
OF /(p) ' Z[X]/(p, f (X)) ' Fp [X]/(f (X)),

and
OF /(p, fi ()) ' Z[X]/(p, f (X), fi (X)) ' Fp [X]/(fi (X)).

29

Putting Pi = (p, fi ()) we see that OF /Pi is isomorphic to the field Fp [X]/(fi (X)),
hence Pi is a maximal ideal of OF dividing (p). We also deduce that
N (Pi ) = p|Fp [X ]/(fi (X )):Fp | = pdeg fi .
Q
Q
= P(p, fi ())ei pOF , since
fi ()ei f () pOF . We also

Q ei
Now
P
Q ei i
get NQ
( Pi ) = p ei deg fi = pn = N (pOF ). Therefore from 3.5.7 we deduce that
m
(p) = i=1 Piei is the factorization of (p) .
So we have proved

Theorem. Let the ring of integers OF of an algebraic number field F be generated by

one element : OF = Z[], and f (X) Z[X] be the monic irreducible polynomial
of over Q. Let fi (X) Z[X] be irreducible polynomials such that
f (X) =

m
Y

fi (X)ei Fp [X]

i=1

is the factorization of f (X) where fi (X) is an irreducible polynomial over Fp .

Then in OF
m
Y
(p) =
Piei
i=1

where Pi = (p, fi ()) is a maximal ideal of OF with norm pdeg fi .

DefinitionExample. Let F = Q and L Q

= Q( d) with a square free integer d .
m
Let p be a prime in Z and let pOL = i=1 Qei i . Then there are three cases:
(i) m = 2, e1 = e2 = 1, f (Qi |P ) = 1. Then pOL = Q1 Q2 , Q1 6= Q2 . We say that
p splits in L.
(ii) m = 1, e1 = 2, f (Q1 |P ) = 1. Then pOL = Q21 . We say that p ramifies in L.
(iii) m = 1, e1 = 1, f (Q1 |P ) = 2. Then pOL = Q1 . We say that p remains prime
in L.
Using the previous theorem we see that p remains prime in OF iff f is irreducible
over Fp ; p splits ( pOF = P1 . . . Pm ) iff f is separable and reducible, and p ramifies
( pOF = P e ) iff f is a positive power of an irreducible polynomial over Fp .

3.5.9.
In
particular,
if
F
=
Q(
d)
then
one
can
take
d for d 6 1 mod 4 and (1 +

d)/2 for d 1 mod 4 as . Then f (X) = X 2 d and f (X) = X 2 X + (1 d)/4

resp.
We have X 2 X + (1 d)/4 = 1/4(Y 2 d) where Y = 2X 1, so if p is
odd (so the image of 2 is invertible in Fp ), the factorization of f (X) corresponds to
the factorization of X 2 d independently of what d is. The factorization of X 2 d
certainly depends on whether d is a quadratic residue modulo p, or not.

30

Alg number theory

For p = 2 f (X) = (X d)2 F2 [X] and f (X) = X 2 + X + (1 d)/4 F2 [X]

resp.
Thus, we get
Theorem. If p is odd prime, then

p splits in L = Q( d) iff d is a quadratic residue mod p .

p ramifies in L iff d is divisible by p .
p remains prime in L iff d is a quadratic non-residue mod p.
If p = 2 then

if d 1 mod 8, then 2 splits in Q( d)

,
if d 6 1 mod 4 then 2 ramifies in Q( d);

if d 1 mod 4, d 6 1 mod 8 then 2 remains prime in Q( d).

3.5.10. Let p be an odd prime. Recall from 2.4.2 that the ring of integers of the
p th cyclotomic field Q(p ) is generated by p . Its irreducible monic polynomial is
f (X) = X p1 + + 1 = (X p 1)/(X 1) . Since X p 1 (X 1)p mod p we
deduce that (f (X), p) = ((X 1)p1 , p). Therefore by 3.5.8 p = (p 1)p1 ramifies
in Q(p )/Q. For any other prime l one can show that the polynomial f (X) modulo l
is the product of distinct irreducible polynomials over Fl . Thus, no other prime ramifies
in Q(p )/Q.

3.6. Finiteness of the ideal class group

In this subsection OF is the ring of integers of a number field F .
3.6.1. Definition. For two non-zero ideals I and J of OF define the equivalence relation I J if there are non-zero a, b OF such that aI = bJ . Classes of equivalence
are called ideal classes. Define the product of two classes with representatives I and J
as the class containing IJ . Then the class of OF (consisting of all nonzero principal
ideals) is the indentity element. By 3.3.3 for every non-zero I there is a non-zero J
such that IJ is a principal ideal, i.e. every ideal class is invertible. Thus ideal classes
form an abelian group which is called the ideal class group CF of the number field F .
The ideal class group shows how far from PID the ring OF is. Note that CF
consists of one element iff OF is a PID iff OF is a UFD.
3.6.2. Proposition. There is a positive real number c such that every non-zero ideal I
of OF contains a non-zero element a with
|NF/Q (a)| 6 cN (I).

31

Proof. Let n = |F : Q|. According to 2.3.7 there is a basis a1 , . . . , an of the

Z -module OF which is also a basis of the Q -vector space F . Let 1 , . . . , n be all
distinct Q -homomorphisms of F into C. Put
c=

n X
n
Y

|i aj | .

i=1 j =1

Then c > 0.
For a non-zero ideal I let m be the positive integer satisfying the inequality
n
n
n
mn 6 N (I)
Pn< (m + 1) . In particular, |OF : I| < (m + 1) . Consider (m + 1)
elements
are two of them which
j =1 mj aj with 0 6 mj 6 m , mj Z . There
Pn
have the same image in OF /I . Their difference 0 6= a = j =1 nj aj belongs to I and
satisfies |nj | 6 m.
Now

n
n X
n
n X
n
Y
Y
Y
|NF/Q (a)| =
|i a| =
|
nj i a j | 6
|nj ||i aj | 6 mn c 6 cN (I).
i=1

i=1

j =1

i=1

j =1

3.6.3. Corollary. Every ideal class of OF contains an ideal J with N (J) 6 c.

Proof. Given ideal class, consider an ideal I of the inverse ideal class. Let a I be as
in the theorem. By 3.3.3 there is an ideal J such that IJ = aOF , so (I)(J) = (aOF ) = 1
in CF . Then J belongs to the given ideal class. Using 3.4.1 and 3.4.4 we deduce that
N (I)N (J) = N (IJ) = N (aOF ) = |NF/Q (a)| 6 cN (I) . Thus, N (J) 6 c.
3.6.4. Theorem. The ideal class group CF is finite. The number |CF | is called the
class number of F .
Proof. By 3.5.4 and 3.5.2 for each prime p there are finitely many maximal ideals P
m
lying
Q eiover (p), and N
Q(Pe)i = p for m > 1 . Hence there are finitely many ideals
Pi satisfying N ( Pi ) 6 c.

Example.
The class number of Q( 19) is 1, i.e. every ideal of the ring of integers

of Q( 19) is principal.

Indeed, by 2.3.8 we
can
take
a
=
1
,
a
=
(1
+
19)/2 as an integral basis of the
1
2

ring of integers of Q( 19). Then

c = 1 + |(1 + 19)/2| 1 + |(1 19)/2| = 10.4... .
Q
So every ideal class of OQ(19) contains an ideal J with N (J) 6 10. Let J = Piei
be the factorization of J , then N (Pi ) 6 10 for every i.
By Corollary 3.5.4 we know that N (Pi ) is a positive power of a prime integer, say
pi . From 3.5.2 we know that Pi is a prime divisor of the ideal (pi ) of OQ(19) . So we

32

Alg number theory

need to look at prime integer numbers not greater than 7 and their prime ideal divisors
as potential candidates for non-principal ideals. Now prime number 3 has the property
that -19 is a quadratic non-residue modulo them, so by Theorem 3.5.9 it remains prime
in OQ(19) .
Odd prime numbers 5, 7 have the property that -19 is a quadratic residue module
them, so by Theorem 3.5.9 they split in OQ(19) . It is easy to check that

5 = (1 + 19)/2 (1 19)/2 ,

7 = (3 + 19)/2 (3 19)/2 ..
Each of ideals generated by a factor on the right hand side is prime by 3.4.5, since its
norm is a prime number. So prime ideal factors of (5), (7) are principal ideals.
Finally, 2 remains prime in OQ(19) , as follows from 3.5.9.
Thus, OQ(19) is a principal ideal domain.
Remark. The bound given by c is not good in practical applications. A more refined
estimation is given by Minkowskis Theorem 3.6.6.
3.6.5. Definition. Let F be of degree n over Q. Let 1 , . . . , n be all Q -homomorphisms of F into C. Let
: C C
be the complex conjugation. Then i is a Q -homomorphism of F into C, so it
is equal to certain j . Note that i = i iff i (F ) R. Let r1 be the number
of Q -homomorphisms of this type, say, after renumeration, 1 , . . . , r1 . For every
i > r1 we have j 6= j , so we can form couples (j , j ). Then n r1 is an
even number 2r2 , and r1 + 2r2 = n.
Renumerate the j s so that i+r2 = i for r1 + 1 6 i 6 r1 + r2 . Define the
canonical embedding of F by
: a (1 (a), . . . , r1 +r2 (a)) Rr1 Cr2 ,

a F.

The field F is isomorphic to its image (F ) Rr1 Cr2 . The image (F ) is called
the geometric image of F and it can be partially studied by geometric tools.
3.6.6. Minkowskis Bound Theorem. Let F be an algebraic number field of degree
n with parameters r1 , r2 . Then every class of CF contains an ideal I such that its
norm N (I) satisfies the inequality
p
N (I) 6 (4/)r2 n! |dF |/nn
where dF is the discriminant of F .
Proof. Use the geometric image of F and some geometric combinatorial considerations. In particular, one uses Minkowskis Lattice Point Theorem:

33

Let L be a free Z -module of rank n in an n -dimensional Euclidean vector space

V over R (then L is called a complete lattice in V ). Denote by Vol (L) the volume
of the set
{a1 e1 + + an en : 0 6 ai 6 1},

where e1 , . . . , en is a basis of L. Notice that Vol (L) does not depend on the choice
of basis.
Let X be a centrally symmetric convex subset of V . Suppose that Vol (X) >
2n Vol (L) . Then X contains at least one nonzero point of L.

3.6.7. Examples. 1. Let F = Q( 5). Then r1 = 2, r2 = 0, n = 2, |dF | = 5.

p

(4/)r2 n! |dF |/nn = 2! 5/22 = 1.1...,

so N (I) = 1 and therefore I = OF . Thus, every ideal of OF is principal and

CF = {1}.
p

2. Let F = Q( 5). Then r1 = 0, r2 = 1, n = 2, |dF | = 20, (2/) |20| < 3.

Hence, similar to Example in 3.6.4 we only need to look at prime numbers 2 ( < 3 ) and
prime ideal divisors of the ideal (2) as potential
candidates for non-principal
ideals.

2 and 2 = N (2, 1 + 5) . So the ideal

From
3.3.8
we
know
that
(2)
=
(2,
1
+
5)

(2, 1 + 5) is maximal
by 3.4.5.

The ideal
(2, 1 + 5) is not principal: Indeed, if (2,1 + 5) = aOL then
2 = N (2, 1 + 5) = N (aOL ) = |NL/Q (a)|. If a = c + d 5 with c, d Z we
deduce that c2 + 5d2 = 2, a contradiction.
We conclude that CQ( 5) is a cyclic group of order 2.

3. Let F = Q( 14). Then r1 = 2 , r2 = 0 , n = 2 , |dF | = 56 and (1/2) 56 =

3.7... < 4. So weonly need
.
to inspect prime ideal
divisors
of (2) and of (3)
Now 2 = (4 + 14)(4 14), so (2) =
(4 + 14)(4
14)
.
Since
N
(4

14) = 2,

3.4.5 implies that the principal ideals (4 + 14), (4 14) are prime.
14 is quadratic non-residue modulo 3, so by Theorem 3.5.9 we
deduce that 3
remains prime in OF . Thus, every ideal of the ring of integers of Q( 14) is principal,
CQ(14) = {1}.

4. It is known that for negative square-free d the only quadratic fields Q( d) with
class number 1 are the following:

Q( 1), Q( 2), Q( 3), Q( 7), Q( 11),

Q( 19), Q( 43), Q( 67), Q( 163).

For d > 0 there are many more quadratic fields with class number 1. Gauss
conjectured that there are infinitely many such fields, but this is still unproved.

34

Alg number theory

3.6.8.

Now we can state one of the greatest achivements of Kummer.

Kummers Theorem. Let p be an odd prime. Let F = Q(p ) be the p th cyclotomic

field.
If p doesnt divide |CF |,
or, equivalently, p does not divide numerators of (rational) Bernoulli numbers
B2 , B4 , . . . , Bp3 given by

X
t
Bi i
=
t,
t
e 1
i!
i=0

then the Fermat equation

Xp + Y p = Zp

does not have positive integer solutions.

Among primes < 100 only 37, 59 and 67 dont satisfy the condition that p does
not divide |CF |, so Kummers theorem implies that for any other prime number smaller
100 the Fermat equation does not have positive integer solutions.

3.7. Units of rings of algebraic numbers

3.7.1. Definition. A subgroup Y of Rn is called discrete if for every bounded closed

subset Z of Rn the intersection Y Z is finite.
Example: points of Rn with integer coordinates form a discrete subgroup.
3.7.2. Proposition. Let Y be a discrete subgroup of Rn . Then there are m linearly
independent over R vectors y1 , . . . ym Y such that y1 , . . . , ym is a basis of the
Z -module Y .
Proof. Let x1 , . . . , xm be a set of linearly independent elements in Y over R with
the maximal m. Denote
m
X
L = {x Rn : x =
ci xi : 0 6 ci 6 1}.
i=1

The set L is bounded and closed, so L Y is finite. For y Y write y =

with bi R. Define
X
X
z=y
[bi ]xi =
(bi [bi ])xi L Y.

Pm

i=1 bi xi

35

Hence the group Y is generated by the finite set L Y and {xi }, and Y is finitely
generated as a Z -module.
Since the torsion of Y is trivial, the main theorem on the structure of finitely
generated modules over principal ideal domains implies the assertion of the proposition.
3.7.3. Dirichlets Unit Theorem. Let F be a number field of degree n, r1 + 2r2 = n.
Let OF be its ring of integers and U be the group of units of OF . Then U is the
direct product of a finite cyclic group T consisting of all roots of unity in F and a free
abelian group U1 of rank r1 + r2 1 :
U ' T U1 ' T Zr1 +r2 1 .

A basis of the free abelian group U1 is called a fundamental system of units in OF .

Proof. Consider the canonical embedding of F into Rr1 Cr2 . Define
f : OF \ {0} Rr1 +r2 ,


f (x) = log |1 (x)|, . . . , log |r1 (x)|, log(|r1 +1 (x)|2 ), . . . , log(|r1 +r2 (x)|2 ) .

The map f induces a homomorphism g: U Rr1 +r2 .

We now show that g(U ) is a discrete group. Let u g 1 (Z) and Z be a bounded
set. Then there is c such
|i (u)| 6 c for all i . The coefficients of the characteristic
Qthat
n
polynomial gu (X) = i=1 (X i (u)) of u over F being functions of i (u) are
integers bounded by max(cn , ncn1 , . . . ), so the number of different characteristic
polynomials of g 1 (Z) is finite, and so is g 1 (Z).
Every finite subgroup of the multiplicative group of a field is cyclic by 1.2.4. Hence
the kernel of g , being the preimage of 0, is a cyclic finite group. On the other hand,
every root of unity belongs to the kernel of g , since mg(z) = g(z m ) = g(1) = 0 implies
g(z) = 0 for the vector g(z). We conclude that the kernel of g consists of all roots of
unity T in F .
Q
Since for u U the norm NQ
i (u) , as the product of units, is a unit
F/Q (u) =
in Z, it is equal to 1. Then
|i (u)| = 1 and log |1 (u)| + + log |r1 (u)| +
log(|r1 +1 (u)|2 ) + + log(|r1 +r2 (u)|2 ) = 0. We deduce that the image g(U ) is
contained in the hyperplane H Rr1 +r2 defined by the equation y1 + + yr1 +r2 = 0.
Since g 1 (Z) is finite for every bounded set Z , the intersection g(U ) Z is finite.
Hence by 3.7.2 g(U ) has a Z -basis {yi } consisting of m 6 r1 + r2 1 linearly
independent vectors over Z. Denote by U1 the subgroup of U generated by zi such
that g(zi ) = yi ; it is a free abelian group, since there are no nontrivial relations among
yi . From the main theorem on group homomorphisms we deduce that U/T ' g(U )
and hence U = T U1 . Since U1 has no nontrivial torsion, T U1 = {1}. Then U as a
Z -module is the direct product of the free abelian group U1 of rank m and the cyclic
group T of roots of unity.

36

Alg number theory

It remains to show that m = r1 + r2 1, i.e. g(U ) contains r1 + r2 1 linearly

independent vectors. Put l = r1 + r2 . As an application of Minkowskis geometric
method one can show that
for every integer k between 1 and l there is c > 0 such that for every non-zero
a OF \ {0} with g(a) = (1 , . . . , l ) there is a non-zero b = hk (a) OF \ {0}
such that
|NF/Q (b)| 6 c

and g(b) = (1 , . . . , l ) with i < i for i 6= k .

(for the proof see Marcus, Number Fields, p.144145)

Fix k . Start with a1 = a and construct the sequence aj = hk (aj1 ) OF for
j > 2. Since N (aj OF ) = |NF/Q (aj )| 6 c, in the same way as in the proof of 3.6.4
we deduce that there are only finitely many distinct ideals aj OF . So aj OF = aq OF
1
for some j < q 6 l . Then uk = aq a
is a unit and satisfies the property: the i th
j
coordinate of g(uk ) = f (aq ) f (aj ) = (1(k) , . . . , l(k) ) is negative for i 6= k . Then
P
k(k) is positive, since i i(k) = 0.
This way we get l units u1 , . . . , ul . We claim that there are l 1 linearly
independent vectors among the images g(ui ). To verify the claim it suffices to check
that the first l 1 columns of the matrix (i(k) ) are linearly independent.
If there were not, then there would be a non-zero vector (t1 , . . . , tl1 ) such that
Pl1
(k )
= 0 for all 1 6 k 6 l . Without loss of generality one can assume that
i=1 ti i
there is i0 between 1 and l 1 such that ti0 = 1 and ti 6 1 for i 6= i0 , 1 6 i 6 l 1.
(i )
(i )
(i )
(i )
(i )
Then ti0 i00 = i00 and for i 6= i0 ti i 0 > i 0 since ti 6 1 and i 0 < 0. Now
we would get
0=

l1
X
i=1

(i0 )

ti i

>

l1
X

(i0 )

>

k=1

l
X

(i )

i 0 = 0,

i=1

a contradiction.
Thus, m = r1 + r2 1.

3.7.4. Example. Let F = Q( d) with a square free non-zero integer d.

If d > 0, then the group of roots of 1 in F is {1}, since F R and there are
only two roots of unity in R.
Let OF be the ring of integers of F . We have n = 2 and r1 = 2, r2 = 0 if d > 0;
r1 = 0, r2 = 1 if d < 0. If d < 0, then
U (OF ) = T

is a finite cyclic group consisting of all roots of unity in F . It has order 4 for d = 1, 6
for d = 3, and one can show it has order 2 for all other negative square free integers.
If d > 0, U (OF ) is the direct product of h1i and the infinite group generated by
a unit u (fundamental unit of OF ):
U (OF ) ' h1i hui = {uk : k Z}.

37

Here is an algorithm how to find a fundamental unit if d 6 1 mod 4 (there is a

similar algorithm for an arbitrary square free positive d ):
2
2
Let b be the minimal positive integer such that
either2 db 2 1 or db + 1 is asquare
of a positive integer, say, a. Then NF/Q (a + b d) = a db = 1, so a + b d > 1
is a unit of OF .
Let u0 = e + f d be a fundamental unit. Changing the sign of e, f if necessary,
we can assume
that e, f are positive. Due to the definition of u0 there is an integer k
such that a + b d = uk0 . The sign is +, since the left hand side is positive; k > 0,

since u0 > 1 and the left hand side is > 1. From a + b d = (e + f d)k we deduce
that if k
> 1 then b = f + some positive integer > f , a contradiction. Thus, k = 1
and a + b d > 1 is afundamental unit of OF .

For example,
1 + 2 is a fundamental unit of Q( 2) and 2 + 3 is a fundamental

unit of Q( 3).
3.7.5. Now suppose that d> 0, and for simplicity, d 6 1 mod 4. We already know
that if an element u = a + b d of OF is a unit, then its norm NF/Q (u) = a2 db2 is

2 db2 = 1 , then u1 = a b d is in O , so u is a
1. On the other hand,
if
a
F

unit. Thus, u = a
+ b d is a unit iff a2 db2 = 1.
Let u0 = e + f d be a fundamental unit.
From the previous we deduce that all integer solutions (a, b) of the equation
X 2 dY 2 = 1

m
satisfy a + b d = (e + f d) for some integer m, which gives formulas for a and
b as functions of e, f, m .

38

Alg number theory

4. p -adic numbers

4.1.1. p -adic valuation and p -adic norm. Fix a prime p.

For a non-zero integer m let
k = vp (m)

be the maximal integer such that pk divides m, i.e. k is the power of p in the
factorization of m. Then vp (m1 m2 ) = vp (m1 ) + vp (m2 ).
Extend vp to rational numbers putting vp (0) := and
vp (m/n) = vp (m) vp (n),

this does not depend on the choice of a fractional representation: if m/n = m0 /n0
then mn0 = m0 n, hence vp (m) + vp (n0 ) = vp (m0 ) + vp (n) and vp (m) vp (n) =
vp (m0 ) vp (n0 ).
Thus we get the p -adic valuation vp : Q Z {+}. For non-zero rational
numbers a = m/n, b = m0 /n0 we get
vp (ab) = vp (mm0 /(nn0 )) = vp (mm0 ) vp (nn0 )
= vp (m) + vp (m0 ) vp (n) vp (n0 )
= vp (m) vp (n) + vp (m0 ) vp (n0 )
= vp (m/n) + vp (m0 /n0 )
= vp (a) + vp (b).

Thus vp is a homomorphism from Q to Z.

4.1.2. p -adic norm. Define the p -adic norm of a rational number by
||p = pvp () ,

|0|p = 0.

Then
||p = ||p ||p .

If = m/n with integer m, n relatively prime to p, then vp (m) = vp (n) = 0 and

||p = 1. In particular, | 1|p = |1|p = 1 and so | |p = ||p for every rational .
4.1.3. Ultrametric inequality. For two integers m, n let k = min(vp (m), vp (n)), so
both m and n are divisible by pk . Hence m + n is divisible by pk , thus
vp (m + n) > min(vp (m), vp (m)).

39

For two nonzero rational numbers = m/n, = m0 /n0

vp ( + ) = vp (mn0 + m0 n) vp (nn0 )
> min(vp (m) + vp (n0 ), vp (m0 ) + vp (n)) vp (n) vp (n0 )
> min(vp (m) vp (n), vp (m0 ) vp (n0 ))
= min(vp (), vp ()).

Hence for all rational , we get

vp ( + ) > min(vp (), vp ()).

This implies
| + |p 6 max(||p , ||p ).

This inequality is called an ultrametric inequality.

In particular, since max(||p , ||p ) 6 ||p + ||p , we obtain
| + |p 6 ||p + ||p ,

so | |p is a metric ( p -adic metric) on the set of rational numbers Q and

dp (, ) = | |p

gives the p -adic distance between rational , .

4.1.4. All norms on Q . In general, for a field F a norm | |: F R>0 is a map
which sends 0 to 0, which is a homomorphism from F to R
>0 and which satisfies
the triangle inequality: | + | 6 || + ||. In particular,
|1| = 1, 1 = |1| = |(1)(1)| = | 1|2 ,

so | 1| = 1, and hence
| a| = | 1||a| = |a|.

A norm is called nontivial if there is a nonzero a F such that |a| =

6 1.
In addition to p -adic norms on Q we get the usual absolute value on Q which we
will denote by | | .
A complete description of norms on Q is supplied by the following result.
Theorem (Ostrowski). A nontrivial norm | | on Q is either a power of the absolute
value | |c with positive real c, or is a power of the p -adic norm | |cp for some prime
p with positive real c.
Proof. For an integer a > 1 and an integer b > 0 write
b = bn an + bn1 an1 + + b0

with 0 6 bi < a, an 6 b. Then

40

Alg number theory

|b| 6 (|bn | + |bn1 | + + |b0 |) max(1, |a|n )

and
|b| 6 (loga b + 1) d max(1, |a|loga b ),

with d = max(|0|, |1|, . . . , |a 1|).

Substituting bs instead of b in the last inequality, we get
|bs | 6 (s loga b + 1) d max(1, |a|s loga b ),

hence
|b| 6 (s loga b + 1)1/s d1/s max(1, |a|loga b ).

When s + we deduce
|b| 6 max(1, |a|loga b ).

There are two cases to consider.

(1) Suppose there is an integer b such that |b| > 1. We can assume b is positive.
Then
1 < |b| 6 max(1, |a|loga b ),
and so |a| > 1, |b| 6 |a|loga b for every integer a > 1. Swapping a and b we get
|a| 6 |b|logb a , thus,
|a| = |b|logb a

for every integer a and hence for every rational a.

Choose c > 0 such that |b| = |b|c then we obtain |a| = |a|c for every rational a.
(2) Suppose that |a| 6 1 for all integer a. Since | | is nontrivial, let a0 be the
minimal positive integer such that |a0 | < 1. If a0 = a1 a2 with positive integers
a1 , a2 , then |a1 | |a2 | < 1 and either a1 = 1 or a2 = 1 . This means that a0 = p
is a prime. If q
/ pZ , then pp1 + qq1 = 1 with some integers p1 , q1 and hence
1 = |1| 6 |p| |p1 |+|q| |q1 | 6 |p|+|q|. Writing q s instead of q we get |q|s > 1|p| > 0
and |q| > (1 |p|)1/s . The right hand side tends to 1 when s tends to infinity. So we
obtain |q| = 1 for every q prime to p. Therefore, || = |p|vp () , and | | is a power of
the p -adic norm.
4.1.5. Lemma (reciprocity law for all | |p ). For every nonzero rational
Y
||i = 1.
i prime or

Proof. Due to the multiplicative property of the norms and factorization of integers it
is sufficient to consider the case of = p a prime number, then |p|p = p1 , |p| = p
and |p|i = 1 for all other i.

41

4.2. The field of p -adic numbers Qp

4.2.1. The definition. Similarly to the definition of real numbers as the completion
of Q with respect to the absolute value | | define Qp as the completion of Q
with respect to the p -adic norm | |p . So Qp consists of equivalences classes of all
fundamental sequences (with respect to the p -adic norm) (an ) of rational numbers an :
two fundamental sequences (an ), (bn ) are equivalent if and only if |an bn |p tends
to 0.
The field Qp is called the field of p -adic numbers and its elements are called p -adic
numbers.
4.2.2. p -adic series presentation of p -adic numbers. As an analogue of the decimal
presentation of real numbers every element of Qp has a series representation: it can
be written as an infinite convergent (with respect to the p -adic norm) series

ai pi

i=n

with coefficients ai {0, 1, . . . , p 1} and an 6= 0.

4.2.3. The p -adic norm and p -adic distance. We have an extension of the p -adic
norm from Q to Qp by continuity: if Qp is the limit of a fundamental sequence
(an ) of rational numbers, then ||p := lim |an |p . Since two fundamental sequences
(an ), (bn ) are equivalent if and only if |an bn |p tends to 0, the p -adic norm of is
well defined.
P
If we use the series representation = i=n ai pi with coefficients ai {0, 1, . . . , p
1} and an 6= 0, then ||p = pn .
The p -adic norm on Qp satisfies the ultrametric inequality: let = lim an , =
lim bn , (an ), (bn ) are fundamental sequences of rational numbers, then + =
lim(an + bn ) . Suppose that ||p 6 ||p , then |an |p 6 |bn |p for all sufficiently large
n , and so
| + |p = lim |an + bn |p 6 lim max(|an |p , |bn |p ) = lim |bn |p = ||p = max(||p , ||p ).

For , such that ||p < ||p we obtain = + where = . By the

ultrametric inequality ||p 6 max(||p , ||p ), so ||p 6 ||p and by the ultrametric
inequality ||p 6 max(||p , | |p ) = max(||p , ||p ) = ||p . Thus if ||p < ||p
then | |p = ||p .
Using the p -adic distance dp we have shown that for every triangle with vertices in
0, , if the p -adic length of its side connecting 0 and is smaller than the p -adic
length of its side connecting 0 and then the p -adic length of the third side connecting
and equals to the former. Thus, in every triangle two sides are of the same p -adic
length!

42

Alg number theory

4.2.4. The ring of p -adic integers Zp . Define the set Zp of p -adic integers as
those p -adic numbers whose p -adic norm does not exceed 1, i.e. whose p -adic series
representation has n0 > 0. For two elements , Zp we get ||p > 0, | |p >
0. Hence Zp is a subring of Qp .
The units Z
p of the ring Zp are those p -adic numbers u whose p -adic norm is 1.
Every nonzero p -adic number can be uniquely written as pvp () u with u Z
p .
Thus

Q
p ' hpi Zp
where hpi is the infinite cyclic group generated by p.
Let I be a non-zero ideal of Zp . Let n = min{vp () : I}. Then pn u
belongs to I for some unit u, and hence pn belongs to I , so pn Zp I pn Zp , i.e.
I = pn Zp . Thus Zp is a principal ideal domain and a Dedekind ring.
4.2.5. Note that Zp is the closed ball of radius 1 in the p -adic norm.
Let be its internal point, so ||p < 1. Then for every on the boundary of the
open ball, i.e. ||p = 1 we obtain, applying 4.2.3, we obtain | |p = ||p = 1.
Thus, the p -adic distance from to every point on the boundary of the ball is 1, i.e.
every internal point of a p -adic ball is its centre!

5. On class field theory

To describe some very basic things about it, we first need to go through a very useful
notion of the projective limit of algebraic objects.
5.1.1. Projective limits of groups/rings. Let An , n > 1 be a set of groups/rings,
with group operation, in the case of groups, written additively. Suppose there are
group/ring homomorphisms nm : An Am for all n > m such that
nn = idAn ,
nr = mr nm for all n > m > r .
The projective limit lim An of (An , nm ) is the set

{(an ) : an An , nm (an ) = am for all n > m }

with the group/ring operation(s) (an ) + (bn ) = (an + bn ) and (an )(bn ) = (an bn )
For every m one has a group/ring homomorphism n : lim An Am , (an ) 7 am .

5.1.2. Examples.
1. If An = A for all n and nm = id then lim An = A.

2. If An = Z/pn Z and nm (a + pn Z) = a + pm Z then (an ) lim Z/pn Z means

pmin(n,m) |(an am ) for all n, m.

43

The sequence (an ) as above is a fundamental sequence with respect to the p -adic
norm, and thus determines a p -adic number a = lim an Zp . For its description,
denote by rm the integer between 0 and pm 1 such that rm am mod pm . Then
rm an mod pm for n > m and rn rm mod pm for n > m. Denote
c0 = r0
P
and cm = (rm / rm1 )pm+1 , so cm {0, 1, . . . , p 1}. Then a = m>0 cm pm =
lim rm Zp .
We have a group and ring homomorphism
f : lim Z/pn Z Zp , (an ) a = lim an Zp .

P
It is surjective: if a = m>0 cm pm then define rm by the inverse procedure to the
above, then a is the image of (rn ) lim Z/pn ; and its kernel is trivial, since a = 0

implies that for every k pk divides an for all sufficiently large n, and so pk divides
ak .
Thus,

lim Z/pn Z ' Zp .

This can be used as another (algebraic) definition of the ring of p -adic integers.
In particular, we a surjective homomorphism Zp Z/pn Z whose kernel equals to
pn Zp .
From the above we immediately deduce that if An = (Z/pn Z) and nm (a+pn Z) =
a + pm Z , (a, p) = 1, then similarly we have a homomorphism
f : lim (Z/pn Z) Z
p,

(an ) lim rm Z
p

(note that (rm , p) = 1 and hence lim rm 6 pZp ). Thus, there is an isomorphism
e Z
lim (Z/pn Z)
p.

3. One can extend the definition of the projective limit to the case when the maps
nm are defined for some specific pairs (n, m) and not necessarily all n > m .
Let An = Z/nZ and let nm : An Am be defined only if m|n and then
nm (a + nZ) = a + mZ . Define, similarly to the above definition of the projective limit
the projective limit lim An .

By the Chinese remainder theorem

k

Z/nZ = Z/p1 1 Z Z/pkr r Z

k

where n = p1 1 . . . pkr r is the factorization of n. The maps nm induce the maps

already defined in 2 on Z/pr Z, and we deduce
Y
lim Z/nZ = lim Z/2r Z lim Z/3r Z ' Z2 Z3 =
Zp .

44

Alg number theory

b and is called the procyclic group (topologically

The group lim Z/nZ is denoted Z

it is generated by its unity 1). This group is uncountable. We have a surjective

b Z/nZ whose kernel is nZ
b.
homomorphism Z
Similarly we have
Y
b = lim (Z/nZ) = lim (Z/2r Z) lim (Z/3r Z) '
Z
Z
p.

5.2.1. Infinite Galois theory. As described in 1.3

Gal(Fqm /Fq ) ' Z/mZ,

where q = pn and the isomorphism is given by n 7 1 + mZ. The algebraic

closure Fqa of Fq is the compositum of all Fqm . From the point of view of infinite
Galois theory and it is natural to define the infinite Galois group Gal(Fqa /Fq ) as the
projective limit lim Gal(Fqm /Fq ) with respect to the natural surjective homomorphisms

Gal(Fqm /Fq ) Gal(Fqr /Fq ), r|m. This corresponds to mr defined in Example 4

above.
Hence we get
b
Gal(Fqa /Fq ) ' lim Z/nZ = Z.

Similarly, using 2.4.3 for the maximal cyclotomic extension Qcycl , the composite
of all finite cyclotomic extensions Q(m ) of Q, we have
b.
Gal(Qcycl /Q) ' lim (Z/nZ) ' Z

The main theorem of extended (to infinite extensions) Galois theory (one has to
add a new notion of closed subgroup for an appropriate extension of the finite Galois
theory), can be stated as follows:
Let L/F be a (possibly infinite) Galois extension, i.e. L is the compositum of splitting fields of separable polynomials over F . Denote G = Gal(L/F ) = lim Gal(E/F )

where E/F runs through all finite Galois subextensions in L/F . Call a subgroup H
of G closed if H = lim Gal(E/K) where K runs through a subfamily of finite subex
tensions in E/F , and the projective maps Gal(E 00 /K 00 ) Gal(E 0 /K 0 ) are induced
by Gal(E 00 /F ) Gal(E 0 /F ).
There is a one-to-one correspondence (H 7 LH ) between closed subgroups H of
G and fields M , F M L, the inverse map is given by M 7 H = lim Gal(E/K)

where K = E M . We have Gal(L/M ) = H .

Normal closed subgroups H of G correspond to Galois extensions M/F and
Gal(M/F ) ' G/H .

45

5.3.1. We have already seen the importance of cyclotomic fields in Kummers theorem
3.6.8.
Another very important property of cyclotomic fields is given by the following
theorem
Theorem (KroneckerWeber). Every finite abelian extension of Q is contained in
some cyclotomic field Q(n ). Therefore the maximal abelian extension Q ab of Q
coincides with the cyclotomic field Qcycl which is the compositum of all cyclotomic
fields Q(n ).
According to 2.4.3 the Galois group Gal(Q(n )/Q) is isomorphic to (Z/nZ) . So
the infinite group Gal(Q ab /Q) is isomorphic to the limit of (Z/nZ) which by 5.1.2
b = lim Z/nZ .
coincides with the group of units of Z

The isomorphism
b
e Gal(Q ab /Q)
: Z
b is congruent to m modulo n via
can be described as follows: if a Z
b Z
b Z/nZ,
Z/n

then (a)(n ) = nm .
Using 5.1.2 we have an isomorphism
Y
b
e Z
e Gal(Qab /Q).
:
Z
p
b which is defined at the ground level of Q ,
On the left hand side we have an object Z
on the right hand side we have an object which incorporates information about all finite
abelian extensions of Q.
The restriction of the isomorphism to quadratic extensions of Q is related with the
Gauss quadratic reciprocity law, see below.
Abelian class field theory generalizes the KroneckerWeber theorem for an algebraic
number field K to give a reciprocity homomorphism which relates an object (idele class
group) defined at level of K and the Galois group of the maximal abelian extension of
K over K .

5.3.2. Ideles. Recall (see 4.2.4) that Q

a 7 (n, u) where n = vp (a)
p ' hpi Zp ,
n
and u = ap ,
vp is the p -adic valuation.
Denote Q = R and include in the set of primes of Z. Form the so called
restricted product
Y0

IQ =
Q
p = {(a , a2 , a3 , . . . ) : ap Qp }

of R = Q
, Q2 , Q3 , . . . such that almost all components ap are p -adic units.
Elements of IQ are called ideles over Q.

46

Alg number theory

Define a homomorphism
Y0
Y

f : IQ =
Q

Z
p
+
p,
(a , a2 , a3 , . . . ) 7 (a, a a1 , a2 a1 , a3 a1 , . . . )
Q
where a = sgn(a ) pvp (ap ) Q and sgn(a) is the sign of a.
It is easy to verify that f is an isomorphism.

5.3.3.

Define a homomorphism
Q :

Y0

ab
Q
p Gal(Q /Q)

by the following local-global formula:

Q (a , a2 , a3 , . . . ) =

Qp (ap ).

Here the local reciprocity map Qp is described as follows: if ap = pn u where

n = vp (a) , then for a q m th primitive root of unity with prime q
 pn
, if p 6= q
Qp (ap )() =
1
u , if p = q.
In particular, if p 6= q , then Qp (p) sends to p , similar to the p th Frobenius
automorphism defined in 1.3. So one can say that the reciprocity map sends prime p to
the p th Frobenius automorphism.
For p = put
Q (a )() = sgn(a ) .

The homomorphism Q is called the reciprocity map.

Theorem (class field theory over Q ).
1. Reciprocity Law: for a non-zero rational number a one has
Q (a, a, a, . . . ) = 1.

2. For units up Z
p one has
Q (1, u2 , u3 , . . . ) = (u2 , u3 , . . . )1 .

3. Using f define
g: IQ Q R
+

Z
p

Z
p,

(a, b, u2 , u3 , . . . ) 7 (u2 , u3 , . . . ). Then

Q ()1 = g().

4. The kernel of the reciprocity map Q equals to g 1 (1, 1, 1, . . . ) = the product

of the diagonal image of Q in IQ and of the image of R+ in IQ with respect to the

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homomorphism 7 (, 1, 1, . . . ). It induces an isomorphism

IQ /Q R+ ' Gal(Qab /Q).

Proof. To verify the first property, due to the multiplicativity of Q it is sufficient to

show that for a primitive q m th root of unity
Q (p, p, . . . )() =

for all positive prime numbers p

Q (1, 1, . . . )() = .
From the definition of Q we deduce that

,
if l 6= q, l 6= p

p,
if l 6= q, l = p
Ql (p)() =
1
p

, if l = q , l 6= p

,
if l = q = p.
Q
So ( l Ql (p))() = for q 6= p and for q = p. Similarly one checks the second
assertion.
The second property is easy: due to multiplicativity it suffices to show that
(1, . . . , up , 1, . . . )1 = Q (1, . . . , up , 1, . . . )

and this follows immediately from the definition of , Q .

The third property follows from the definition of f and the first and second properties. The fourth property follows from the third.
From this theorem one can deduce Gauss quadratic reciprocity law.
5.3.4. For an algebraic number field F one can define, in a similar way, the idele
group IF as a restricted product of the multiplicative groups FP of completions FP
of F with respect to non-zero prime ideals P of the ring of integers of F , and of real
or complex completions of F with respect to real and complex imbeddings of F into
C.
Except the case of Q and imaginary quadratic fields one does not have an explicit
description of the maximal abelian extension as in KroneckerWeber theorem 4.2.3. So
one needs to directly define a reciprocity map
F : IF Gal(F ab /F )

and study its properties. This global reciprocity map is defined as the product of
composites of local reciprocity maps FP Gal(FP ab /FP ) and homomorphisms
Gal(FP ab /FP ) Gal(F ab /F ) .
The analog of the reciprocity law is that the kernel of F contains the image of
F in IF .

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Alg number theory

Part of class field theory associates to every open subgroups N in IF /F its class
field L the unique finite abelian extension of F such that NL/F (IL )F = N .
It also contains information on arithmetical properties of the behavior of prime
numbers in finite abelian extensions as a generalization of Theorem 3.5.9 and Gauss
quadratic reciprocity law.