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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
TO DIODES
BY AZRUL GHAZALI

TYPES OF DIODES

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CONTENT
1. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND
PROPERTIES
ELEMENT & COMPOUND
SEMICONDUCTOR
INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTORS
P-TYPE AND N-TYPE
SEMICONDUCTORS
DRIFT & DIFFUSION CURRENTS
2. THE PN JUNCTION

3. DC MODEL AND ANALYSIS

IDEAL MODEL
PIECEWISE LINEAR MODEL
CONSTANT VOLTAGE DROP MODEL
4. AC MODEL
5. OTHER TYPES OF DIODES

SOLAR CELL
PHOTODIODE
LIGHT-EMITTED DIODE (LED)

EQUILIBRIUM PN JUNCTION

SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE

REVERSED-BIASED & FORWARDBIASED PN JUNCTION

ZENER DIODE

IV RELATIONSHIP

ELEMENT & COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS

Compound semiconductor is
composed of elements from two
or more different groups of
periodic table.

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INTRINSTIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Intrinsic semiconductor is a pure, single-crystal semiconductor with no impurities or lattice
defects.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the no. of holes equals to the no. of electrons. The
concentrations of electrons and holes are represented as ni, measured in cm-3.
The valence electrons of semiconductor are shared among its atoms. This sharing of
electrons is known as covalent bonding.

Valence electrons
are electrons located
at the most outer
shell of an atom.
Silicon has 4 valence
electrons.
Valence electrons in Silicon
are shared in covalent bond

Crystal lattice structure of Silicon

ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

At T = 0K, all valence electrons occupy the valence band. Semiconductor behaves like an
insulator.
When T increases, the valence electrons gain thermal energy. When the energy is
sufficient enough, the covalent bond can be broken. An electron-hole pair is generated.
The valence electrons are now known as free electrons and exists in conduction band.
The minimum energy needed by an electron to become a free electron from a valence
electron, is known as bandgap energy (Eg).

Energy band diagram of semiconductor

Crystal lattice structure of Silicon

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EXTRINSTIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor having impurity in its crystal.
An intrinsic semiconductor can be turned into extrinsic semiconductor when it is doped with
controlled amount of dopants (impurities).
Doping semiconductor with donor atoms (Group V elements P, As, Sb) creates n-type
semiconductor. Doping semiconductor with acceptor atoms (Group III elements B, Al, Ga)
creates p-type semiconductor.
Doping concentration for donor atoms (ND) and acceptor atoms (NA) is measured in cm-3.
Group V elements has 5
valence electrons. When
this impurity atom
displaced a Si atom, the
4 valence electrons
made covalence bonds
with neighboring Si
atoms, leaving some
free electrons.

Negative-charged electrons in ntype silicon and positive-charged

holes in p-type silicon

Group III elements has 3

valence electrons. When
this impurity atom
displaced a Si atom, the
3 valence electrons
made covalence bonds
with neighboring Si
atoms, creating some
holes.

DIFFUSION AND DRIFT CURRENTS

Diffusion current is the current in semiconductor caused by variations in the dopant
concentration. Carriers flow from region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
Drift current is the electric current, or movement of charged carriers, which is due to the
applied electric field. The direction of applied electric field will determine the direction
of carrier.
Current in semiconductor material is normally measured as current density (current per
unit area of cross section, with unit in A/cm2]

Drift current in n-type and p-type

semiconductor

Diffusion current in n-type and ptype semiconductor

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Drift current in n-type and p-type
semiconductor

EXCESS CARRIERS (UNDER THERMAL NONEQUILIBRIUM)

Carrier Generation = process whereby
electrons and holes are created.

Conduction Band

Carrier Recombination = process

whereby electrons and holes are
annihilated.
When an external excitation is applied,
an electron-hole pair is generated.
These additional electrons and holes
are called excess electrons and excess
holes.
These excess electrons and holes will
not last forever. They will recombine
again to achieve equilibrium or
steady-state value. This forms the basis
of solar cells and photodiodes.

Valence Band
(1) Electron-Hole pair
generation
(2a) Excess hole
(2b) Excess electron
(3) Electron-Hole pair
recombination

EQUILIBRIUM PN JUNCTION
Majority carrier in p-type region
is holes while majority carrier in
n-type region is electrons.
At the boundary of pn junction,
some holes diffuse from pregion to n-region, while some
electrons diffuse from n-region
to p-region. This creates a
space charge region
(depletion layer). An electric
field exists in the region due to
the static charges.
The potential difference across
this region is called built-in
voltage, given by
Vbi = VT ln (NAND/ni2)
where VT = thermal voltage
= 0.026V at T = 300K

In equilibrium, the net current is zero. The electron drift current and
electron diffusion current exactly balance out. Similarly, hole drift
current and hole diffusion current also balance each other out.

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BIASED PN JUNCTION
The pn junction is in forward-bias when +ve terminal of applied voltage is connected to pregion while ve terminal is connected to n-region. If the polarity is reversed, the pn junction
is in reverse-bias.
In forward-biased pn junction, holes in p-region and electrons in n-region are pushed
towards the depletion layer. The width of the layer becomes narrower. When the applied
voltage is larger than cut-in voltage (V), minority carriers in the space-charge region will
diffuse into the respective region, thus creating a current in the pn junction.
In reversed-biased pn junction, holes in p-region and electrons in n-region are attracted
towards the supply terminals. The width of the layer becomes wider and now function as an
insulation layer, preventing diffusion from taking place. Ideally, no current flow in the pn
junction.
The cut-in voltage (or
turn-on voltage) is the
minimum voltage
needed to turn on the
diode, i.e., overcome
the barrier and cause
current to flow.

BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE IN REVERSE-BIASED

PN JUNCTION
The maximum reverse bias voltage that can be
applied to a pn junction is limited by
breakdown.
When the junction is reverse-biased, the electric
field in the space charge region increases. If
the electric field is large enough, covalent
bonds will be broken and electron-hole pairs
will be generated.
Electrons are then swept into n-region while
holes are swept into p-region by the electric
field, generating large reverse-biased current.
The corresponding applied voltage is referred
to as breakdown voltage.
There are two mechanisms that can cause
breakdown avalanche multiplication
(avalanche breakdown) and tunneling of
carriers (Zener breakdown).

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APPLICATIONS OF PN JUNCTION
A range of devices can be created using the
principles of pn junction.

The first device to be explored is the pn

junction diode, which symbol is shown in
Figure below.

ANALOGY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

A diode can be thought as a directional valve (check valve).
In the forward direction, the diode (check valve) will exhibit a small resistance,
which will be a function of V.
In the reverse direction, the diode resistance is very large and is treated as infinite
(i.e., diode is replaced by an open circuit.

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IV CHARACTERISTICS OF PN-JUNCTION DIODE

In forward bias operation, diode will
not conduct significant current until
the bias reaches about 0.7V, which
is the diode internal barrier voltage.
After that point, forward current
increases rapidly for a very small
increase in voltage.
In reverse bias operation, diode
blocks current except for an
extremely small leakage current. The
current blocking continues until
some breakdown voltage is
reached, resulting a sudden
IS = reverse-bias saturation current (in the range of 10-18 to 10-12).
increase in reverse current.

(Actual value depends on doping concentrations and cross

sectional of pn junction)
n = ideality factor (in the range between 1 and 2)
vD = voltage across diode
VT = 26mV (thermal voltage at room temperature)

DC ANALYSIS & AC ANALYSIS

DC ANALYSIS

AC ANALYSIS (SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS)

The analysis determines the behavior or

response of a circuit with only DC supply
(voltage or current) and no AC supply.

The analysis determines the small-signal

response of a circuit with only AC supply
(voltage or current) and no DC supply.

The results of this analysis is generally

referred to as bias operating points or
quiescent point (Q-point).

In AC analysis, non-linear components (diodes

and transistors) have to be linearized at the DC
operating point.

In DC analysis,

In AC analysis,

All AC voltage sources are shortedcircuited

All DC voltages sources are shortedcircuited

All AC current sources are openedcircuited

All DC current sources are openedcircuited

All large capacitors are opened-circuited

All large capacitors are short-circuited

The results from DC and AC analysis need to be summed

together to produce total instantaneous value.

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DIODE DC ANALYSIS IDEAL MODEL

An ideal diode will conduct or
turned on when the voltage across
diode is greater than zero (forward
bias). Current then flows through the
diode. Under forward bias, the ideal
diode is modelled as a closed-circuit
or short-circuit.
An ideal diode will turned off when
the voltage across diode is less than
zero (reverse bias). No current flow.
Under reverse bias, the ideal diode is
modelled as an opened-circuit.

DIODE DC ANALYSIS PWL MODEL

In piecewise linear (PWL) model, the currentvoltage characteristics of a real diode is
approximated using two linear segments.
The diode will conduct or turned on
when the voltage across diode is greater
than cut-in voltage (V). Current then flows
through the diode.

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DIODE DC ANALYSIS CVD MODEL

Constant voltage drop (CVD) model is similar
to PWL model, except that the forward
diode resistance is considered to be 0.
Hence, a vertical slope at cut-in voltage (V).

The diode will conduct or turned on

when the voltage across diode is greater
than cut-in voltage (V). Current then flows
through the diode.

DIODE DC ANALYSIS SUMMARY

(CVD
model)

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DC ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY
Identify the state of diodes (ON or OFF). If unsure, make assumptions.
Replace diode with appropriate model (ideal, PWL or CVD).
Solve I and V using KCL, KVL and other circuit techniques.
Check your assumptions. Make sure that there is no contradiction in DC
operating points.

Example of contradictions:
- Diode is ON but current flows in the
opposite direction (i.e., negative
current), indicating diode supposed
to be OFF.
- Diode is OFF but voltage across diode
is positive (forward biased), indicating
diode supposed to be ON.
- When more than one diodes are ON,
a short-circuit occurs.

If real diode model is used,

- When VD and I D are both unknowns, use
iterative analysis or graphical analysis to
determine its operating point.
- When one value is known, use KCL and
KVL techniques to solve the other
unknown.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the values of I and V of each circuit. Assume ideal diode model.

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EXAMPLE 2
Find the values of I and V.
Assume ideal diode model.

EXAMPLE 3
Solve i, using PWL diode model. Let V = 0.7V and rf = 80.

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EXAMPLE 4
Find the values of I and V.
Assume CVD diode model, with V = 0.7V.

EXAMPLE 5
Find the values of I and V.
Assume CVD diode model, with V = 0.7V.

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DC ANALYSIS (REAL DIODE) ITERATIVE

SOLUTION
Applying KVL to the circuit yields V = I R + V
S

Current that flows through resistance, R and diode can be

derived using the following equations:
IR = (VS VD) / R

--------- Eqn (1)

ID = ISeVD/VT

--------- Eqn (2)

Important to notice that current I R equals to current I D.

The iteration starts with an assumption of VD= 0.7V (cut-in
voltage) in Eqn (1).
IR can then be solved. Since I R = I D, VD in Eqn (2) can then be
solved.
If both VD in the two equations do not converge to a single
value, the iteration process continues. This time, the new
assumed VD is the midpoint between the two values of VD.
This iteration continues until the two VD closely matches with
each other.

DC ANALYSIS (REAL DIODE) GRAPHICAL

SOLUTION
Load line = a linear relationship between I D
and VD for a given voltage supply and
resistance, R.
Load line equation can be obtained by
deriving the KVL equation from the circuit.
VDD = IDR + VD
The load line must be plotted on the same
graph as the IV characteristics of the
diode.
When VD = 0, ID = VDD/R y-intercept

(VDQ, IDQ)

When ID = 0, VD = VDD x-intercept

The intersection of load line and diode IV

curve is the operating point (Quiescent
point) of the circuit.

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EXAMPLE 6
Design the circuit to provide an output voltage of 2.4V.
Assume all diodes have 0.7V drop at 1mA.

SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS
Small-signal analysis is
performed after dc
analysis is carried out to
determine its operating Qpoint.
At Q-point, the diodes
small-signal resistance, rd
can be determined.

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SMALL-SIGNAL ANALYSIS AC MODEL

In small-signal analysis, replaced
the nonlinear diode with
linearized small-signal resistance,
rd in the ac equivalent circuit.
The circuit can then be solved
using KCL and KVL techniques.

EXAMPLE 7
Find vo. Assume CVD diode model, with V = 0.7V.

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OTHER TYPES OF DIODES

OTHER DIODE: PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

A solar cell is a pn junction device with no direct
applied voltage across the junction.
The pn junction has the ability to convert solar energy
(photons) into electrical energy (current).
When light hits the space-charge region of the pn
junction, electron-hole pairs are generated. They are
then quickly swept out of the region by the electric
field, thus creating a photocurrent.

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OTHER DIODE: PHOTODIODE

Photodiodes is similar to solar cells except that the pn
junction is operated with reverse-bias voltage.
When light hits the space-charge region of the pn
junction, electron-hole pairs are generated. They are
then quickly swept out of the region by the electric
field, thus creating a photocurrent.

OTHER DIODE: LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

LEDs are made from compound semiconductors. They
convert current to light.
When the pn junction is forward-biased, electrons and
holes flow across the space-charge region and
become excess minority carriers.
The electron and holes can recombine and a photon
or light wave can be emitted.

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OTHER DIODE: LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED) 2

OTHER DIODE: SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE

Unlike pn junction, Schottky diode is composed of
metal made in contact with n-type semiconductor.
The current-voltage characteristics of Schottky diode
is very similar to pn junction diode, but with two major
differences:
Current is resulted from the flow of majority carriers over
the potential barrier.
The reverse-saturation current I S for a Schottky diode is
larger than that of a pn junction

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OTHER DIODE: ZENER DIODE

For a pn junction, the applied reverse-bias voltage cannot be increased without limit. At
some point, breakdown will occur and the current will increase rapidly. The voltage at this
point is called breakdown voltage.

A Zener diode can be designed to have a specific breakdown voltage, |VZ|.

Zener diodes are normally operated with reverse-bias voltage.

SUMMARY
A pn junction diode is turned on or conducting when a forward
bias is applied to the diode. If a reverse bias is applied, the diode is
turned off or non-conducting.
The current that flows through the pn junction is due to the
movement of minority carriers.
DC analysis on diode circuits can be simplified by modelling the nonlinear diode using diode equivalent circuits. Three models were
discussed; ideal, piecewise linear (PWL) and constant voltage drop
(CVD).
Graphical and iterative techniques can be applied to determine the
operating point of the nonlinear diode, when both VD and ID are
unknown.
If a circuit has both dc and ac supplies, then ac analysis also need
to be performed. In ac analysis, the non-linear diode is replaced with
a small-signal resistance, rd.

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COURSE OUTCOME
CO1- Understand the characteristics of
diode, and its DC and AC models and
behavior in relation to circuit analysis.

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