MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3.345

Materials Handling
REFERENCES
American Society of Mechanical EngineersASME Materials Handling Handbook; AppleMaterial Handling
Systems Design, Wiley; BrookMechanics of Bulk Materials Handling, Butterworths; DomanDesign Guides for
Radioactive Material Handling Facilities and Equipment, American Nuclear Society; EastmanMaterials Handling, Marcel Dekker; FrazelleWorld-Class Warehousing and Material Handling, McGraw-Hill; Fruohtbaum
Bulk Materials Handling Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold; HollierAutomated Materials Handling, Springer
Verlag; LevineGuidelines for Safe Storage and Handling of High Toxic Hazard Materials, American Institute of
Chemical Engineers; LindkvistHandbook of Materials Handling, Ellis Horwood; Meyers and Stephens
Manufacturing Facilities Design and Material Handling, Prentice Hall; MulcahyMaterials Handling Handbook, McGraw-Hill; Nicholson, Ayoub, and MitalA Guide to Manual Materials Handling, T&F STM;
ReeseMaterial Handling Systems: Designing for Safety and Health, Tylor & Francis; Skocir and Fayed
Mechanical Conveyors: Selection and Operation, Technomic; Wasp, Kenny, and GhandiSlurry Pipeline Transportation, Trans Tech; WilliamsUsing Industrial Trucks for Materials HandlingCentury Hutchinson.

BULK MATERIAL ELEVATOR AND CONVEYOR SELECTION

Choose a bucket elevator to handle 150 tons/h (136.1 t/h) of abrasive material weighing 50 lb/ft3
(800.5 kg/m3) through a vertical distance of 75 ft (22.9 m) at a speed of 100 ft/min (30.5 m/min).
What hp input is required to drive the elevator? The bucket elevator discharges onto a horizontal conveyor which must transport the material 1400 ft (426.7 m). Choose the type of conveyor to use, and
determine the required power input needed to drive it.
Calculation Procedure
1. Select the type of elevator to use. Table 1 summarizes the various characteristics of bucket elevators used to transport bulk materials vertically. This table shows that a continuous bucket elevator
TABLE 1 Bucket Elevators
Centrifugal
discharge
Carrying paths

Vertical

Capacity range,
tons/h (t/h),
material
weighing 50 lb/ft3
(800.5 kg/m3)
Speed range,
ft/min (m/min)
Location of
loading point
Location of
discharge point
Handling
abrasive
materials

Perfect
discharge

Continuous
bucket

Gravity discharge

Pivoted bucket

Vertical to
inclination
15 from
vertical
345 (312.9)

Vertical and
horizontal

Vertical and
horizontal

78 (70.8)

Vertical to
inclination
15 from
vertical
34 (30.8)

191 (173.3)

255 (231.3)

306 (93.3)

120 (36.6)

100 (30.5)

100 (30.5)

80 (24.4)

Boot

Boot

Boot

On lower
horizontal run
On horizontal run

On lower
horizontal run
On horizontal run

Not recommended

Recommended

Over head
Over head
wheel
wheel
Not preferred Not preferred

Over head
wheel
Recommended

Source: Link-Belt Div. of FMC Corp.

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
3.346

SECTION THREE

would be a good choice, because it is a recommended type for abrasive materials. The second choice
would be a pivoted bucket elevator. However, the continuous bucket type is popular and will be
chosen for this application.
2. Compute the elevator height. To allow for satisfactory loading of the bulk material, the elevator length is usually increased by about 5 ft (1.5 m) more than the vertical lift. Hence, the elevator
height = 75 + 5 = 80 ft (24.4 m).
3. Compute the required power input to the elevator. Use the relation hp = 2CH/1000, where C =
elevator capacity, tons/h; H = elevator height, ft. Thus, for this elevator, hp = 2(150)(80)/1000 = 24.0 hp
(17.9 kW).
The power input relation given above is valid for continuous-bucket, centrifugal-discharge,
perfect-discharge, and super-capacity elevators. A 25-hp (18.7-kW) motor would probably be
chosen for this elevator.
4. Select the type of conveyor to use. Since the elevator discharges onto the conveyor, the capacity of the conveyor should be the same, per unit time, as the elevator. Table 2 lists the characteristics
of various types of conveyors. Study of the tabulation shows that a belt conveyor would probably be
best for this application, based on the speed, capacity, and type of material it can handle. Hence, it
will be chosen for this installation.
5. Compute the required power input to the conveyor. The power input to a conveyor is composed
of two portions: the power required to move the empty belt conveyor and the power required to move
the load horizontally.
Determine from Fig. 1 the power required to move the empty belt conveyor, after choosing the
required belt width. Determine the belt width from Table 3.
Thus, for this conveyor, Table 3 shows that a belt width of 42 in (106.7 cm) is required to transport up to 150 tons/h (136.1 t/h) at a belt speed of 100 ft/min (30.5 m/min). [Note that the next larger
capacity, 162 tons/h (146.9 t/h), is used when the exact capacity required is not tabulated.] Find the
horsepower required to drive the empty belt by entering Fig. 1 at the belt distance between centers,

FIGURE 1 Horsepower (kilowatts) required to move an empty

conveyor belt at 100 ft/min (30.5 m/min).

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2160 (1959.5)

600 (182.9)

Any point

Over end wheel

and
intermediate
points by
tripper or
plow

Recommended

Capacity range,
tons/h (t/h)
material weighing
50 lb/ft3 (800.5
kg/m3)

Speed range, ft/min

(m/min)

Location of loading
point

Location of
discharge
point

Handling abrasive
materials

Source: Link-Belt Div. of FMC Corp.

Horizontal to 18

Carrying paths

Belt conveyor

TABLE 2 Conveyor Characteristics

Recommended

Over end wheel

Any point

100 (30.5)

100 (90.7)

Horizontal to 25

Apron conveyor

Not
recommended

At end of trough
and
intermediate
points by gates

Any point

150 (45.7)

360 (326.6)

Horizontal to 45

Flight conveyor

Recommended
with special
steels

At end of
trough

Any point

20 (6.1)

20 (18.1)

Horizontal or
slight incline,
10

Drag chain

Not
recommended

Any point on
horizontal runs
by gate

On horizontal
runs

80 (24.4)

100 (90.7)

Horizontal to 90

En masse
conveyor

Not preferred

At end of trough
and
intermediate
points by gates

Any point

100 (30.5)

150 (136.1)

Horizontal to 15;
may be used
up to 90 but
capacity falls
off rapidly

Screw conveyor

Recommended

At end of trough

Any point

40 (12.2)

100 (90.7)

Horizontal or
slight incline,
5 above or
below
horizontal

Vibratory
conveyor

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3.347

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
3.348

SECTION THREE

TABLE 3 Capacities of Troughed Rest [tons/h (t/h) with Belt Speed of

100 ft/min (30.5 m/min)]
Belt width, in
(cm)
30 (76.2)
36 (91.4)
42 (106.7)
48 (121.9)
60 (152.4)

Weight of material, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)

30 (480.3)

50 (800.5)

100 (1601)

150 (2402)

47 (42.6)
69 (62.6)
97 (87.9)
130 (117.9)
207 (187.8)

79 (71.7)
114 (103.4)
162 (146.9)
215 (195.0)
345 (312.9)

158 (143.3)
228 (206.8)
324 (293.9)
430 (390.1)
690 (625.9)

237 (214.9)
342 (310.2)
486 (440.9)
645 (585.1)
1035 (938.9)

Source: United States Rubber Co.

1400 ft (426.7 m), and projecting vertically upward to the belt width, 42 in (106.7 cm). At the left,
read the required power input as 7.2 hp (5.4 kW).
Compute the power required to move the load horizontally from hp = (C/100)(0.4 + 0.00345L),
where L = distance between conveyor centers, ft; other symbols as before. For this conveyor, hp =
(150/100)(0.4 + 0.00325 1400) = 6.83 hp (5.1 kW). Hence, the total horse-power to drive this horizontal conveyor is 7.2 + 6.83 = 14.03 hp (10.5 kW).
The total horsepower input to this conveyor installation is the sum of the elevator and conveyor
belt horsepowers, or 14.03 + 24.0 = 38.03 hp (28.4 kW).
Related Calculations The procedure given here is valid for conveyors using rubber belts reinforced with cotton duck, open-mesh fabric, cords, or steel wires. It is also valid for stitchedcanvas belts, balata belts, and flat-steel belts. The required horsepower input includes any power
absorbed by idler pulleys.
Table 4 shows the minimum recommended belt widths for lumpy materials of various sizes.
Maximum recommended belt speeds for various materials are shown in Table 5.
When a conveyor belt is equipped with a tripper, the belt must rise about 5 ft (1.5 m) above
its horizontal plane of travel.
This rise must be included in the vertical-lift power input computation. When the tripper is driven
by the belt, allow 1 hp (0.75 kW) for a 16-in (406.4-mm) belt, 3 hp (2.2 kW) for a 36-in (914.4-mm)
belt, and 7 hp (5.2 kW) for a 60-in (1524-mm) belt. Where a rotary cleaning brush is driven by the
conveyor shaft, allow about the same power input to the brush for belts of various widths.

SCREW CONVEYOR POWER INPUT AND CAPACITY

What is the required power input for a 100-ft (30.5-m) long screw conveyor handling dry coal ashes
having a maximum density of 40 lb/ft3 (640.4 kg/m3) if the conveyor capacity is 30 tons/ h (27.2 t/h)?
Calculation Procedure
1. Select the conveyor diameter and speed. Refer to a manufacturers engineering data or Table 6
for a listing of recommended screw conveyor diameters and speeds for various types of materials.
TABLE 4 Minimum Belt Width for Lumps
Belt width, in (mm)
Sized materials, in (mm)
Unsized material, in (mm)

24 (609.6)
41/2 (114.3)
8 (203.2)

36 (914.4)
8 (203.2)
14 (355.6)

42 (1066.8)
10 (254)
20 (508)

48 (1219.2)
12 (304.9)
35 (889)

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3.349

TABLE 5 Maximum Belt Speeds for Various Materials

Light or freeflowing
materials,
grains dry
sand, etc.

Width of belt

Moderately
free-flowing
sand, gravel,
fine stone, etc.

Lump coal,
coarse stone,
crushed ore

Heavy sharp
lumpy
materials,
heavy ores,
lump coke

in

mm

ft/min

m/min

ft/min

m/min

ft/min

m/mim

ft/min

m/min

1214
1618
2024
3036

305356
406457
508610
762914

400
500
600
750

122
152
183
229

250
300
400
500

76
91
122
152

250
350
400

76
107
122

250
300

76
91

Dry coal ashes are commonly rated as group 3 materials, Table 7, i.e., materials with small mixed
lumps with fines.
To determine a suitable screw diameter, assume two typical values and obtain the recommended
rpm from the sources listed above or Table 6. Thus, the maximum rpm recommended for a 6-in
(152.4-mm) screw when handling group 3 material is 90, as shown in Table 6; for a 20-in (508.0mm) screw, 60 r/min. Assume a 6-in (152.4-mm) screw as a trial diameter.
2. Determine the material factor for the conveyor. A material factor is used in the screw conveyor
power input computation to allow for the character of the substance handled. Table 7 lists the material factor for dry ashes as F = 4.0. Standard references show that the average weight of dry coal
ashes is 35 to 40 lb/ft3 (640.4 kg/m3).
3. Determine the conveyor size factor. A size factor that is a function of the conveyor diameter is
also used in the power input computation. Table 8 shows that for a 6-in (152.4-mm) diameter conveyor the size factor A = 54.
4. Compute the required power input to the conveyor. Use the relation hp = 106 (ALN + CWLF),
where hp = hp input to the screw conveyor head shaft; A = size factor from step 3; L = conveyor
length, ft; N = conveyor rpm; C = quantity of material handled, ft3/h; W = density of material, lb/ft3;
F = material factor from step 2. For this conveyor, given the data listed above, hp = 106(54 100
60 + 1500 40 100 4.0) = 24.3 hp (18.1 kW). With a 90 percent motor efficiency, the required
motor rating would be 24.3/0.90 = 27 hp (20.1 kW). A 30-hp (22.4-kW) motor would be chosen to
drive this conveyor. Since this is not an excessive power input, the 6-in (152.4-mm) conveyor is suitable for this application.

TABLE 6 Screw Conveyor Capacities and Speeds

Material
group
1
2
3
4
5

Maximum material
density

Maximum r/min for diameters of:

lb/ft3

kg/m3

6 in (152 mm)

20 in (508 mm)

50
50
75
100
125

801
801
1201
1601
2001

170
120
90
70
30

110
75
60
50
25

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
3.350

SECTION THREE

TABLE 7 Material Factors for Screw Conveyors

Material
group

Material type

Material factor

Lightweight:
Barley, beans, flour, oats, pulverized coal, etc.
Fines and granular:
Coalslack or fines
Sawdust, soda ash
Flyash
Small lumps and fines:
Ashes, dry alum
Salt
Semiabrasives; small lumps:
Phosphate, cement
Clay, limestone
Sugar, white lead
Abrasive lumps:
Wet ashes
Sewage sludge
Flue dust

0.5
0.9
0.7
0.4
4.0
1.4
1.4
2.0
1.0
5.0
6.0
4.0

If the calculation indicates that an excessively large power input, say 50 hp (37.3 kW) or more, is
required, then the larger-diameter conveyor should be analyzed. In general, a higher initial investment
in conveyor size that reduces the power input will be more than recovered by the savings in power
costs.
Related Calculations Use the procedure given here for screw or spiral conveyors and feeders

handling any material that will flow. The usual screw or spiral conveyor is suitable for conveying
materials for distances up to about 200 ft (60.9 m), although special designs can be built for
greater distances. Conveyors of this type can be sloped upward to angles of 35 with the horizontal. However, the capacity of the conveyor decreases as the angle of inclination is increased.
Thus the reduction in capacity at a 10 inclination is 10 percent over the horizontal capacity; at
35 the reduction is 78 percent.
The capacities of screw and spiral conveyors are generally stated in ft3/h (m3/h) of various
classes of materials at the maximum recommended shaft rpm. As the size of the lumps in the
material conveyed increases, the recommended shaft rpm decreases. The capacity of a screw or
spiral conveyor at a lower speed is found from (capacity at given speed, ft3/h) [(lower speed,
r/min)/(higher speed, r/min)]. Table 6 shows typical screw conveyor capacities at usual operating
speeds.
Various types of screws are used for modern conveyors. These include short-pitch, variablepitch, cut flights, ribbon, and paddle screws. The procedure given above also applies to these
screws.

TABLE 8 Screw Conveyor Size Factors

Conveyor diameter,
in (mm)

6
(152.4)

9
(228.6)

10
(254)

12
(304.8)

16
(406.4)

18
(457.2)

20
(508)

24
(609.6)

Size factor

54

96

114

171

336

414

510

690

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3.351

DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS

A pneumatic conveying system for handling solids in an industrial exhaust installation contains two
grinding-wheel booths and one lead each for a planer, sander, and circular saw. Determine the
required duct sizes, resistance, and fan capacity for this pneumatic conveying system.
Calculation Procedure
1. Sketch the proposed exhaust system. Make a freehand sketch, Fig. 2, of the proposed system.
Show the main and branch ducts and the booths and hoods. Indicate all major structural interferences, such as building columns, deep girders, beams, overhead conveyors, piping, etc. Draw the
layout approximately to scale.
Mark on the sketch the length of each duct run. Avoid, if possible, vertical drops or rises in the
main exhaust duct between the hoods and the fan. Do this by locating the main duct centerline 10 ft
(3 m) or so above the finished floor.
Number each hood or booth, and give each duct run an identifying letter. Although it is not
absolutely necessary, it is more convenient during the design process to have the hoods in numerical
order and the duct runs in alphabetical order.
2. Determine the required air quantities and velocities. Prepare a listing, columns 1 and 2,
Table 9, of the booths, hoods, and duct runs. Enter the required air quantities and velocities for
each booth or hood and duct in Table 9, columns 3 and 4. Select the air quantities and velocities
from the local code covering industrial exhaust systems, if such a code is available. If a code does
not exist, use the ASHRAE Guide or Table 10.
Use extreme care in selecting the air quantities and velocities, because insufficient flow may
cause dangerous atmospheric conditions. Harmful process wastes in the form of dust, gas, or moisture may injure plant personnel.
3. Size the main and branch ducts. Determine the required duct area by dividing the air quantity,
ft3/min (m3/min), by the air velocity in the duct, or column 3/column 4, Table 9. Enter the result in
column 5, Table 9.

FIGURE 2

Exhaust system layout.

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3.352

Duct
run

Booth or
hood

(2)

(1)

4000
(1219)
3500
(1067)
4000
(1219)
4000
(1219)
4000
(1219)
4000
(1219)
4000
(1219)
3000
(1914)
2000
(610)

Design
velocity,
ft/min
(m/min)

ft3/min
(m3/
min) in
duct

600
(16.98)
800
(22.65)
800
(22.65)
2200
(62.28)
550
(15.57)
550
(15.57)
3300
(93.42)
3300
(93.42)
3300
(93.42)

(4)

(3)

TABLE 9 Exhaust System Design Calculations

0.150
(0.014)
0.228
(0.021)
0.200
(0.019)
0.550
(0.051)
0.137
(0.013)
0.137
(0.013)
0.825
(0.077)
1.10
(0.102)
1.65
(0.153)

Duct area
= column
3/column
4, ft2 (m2)

(5)

5
(127)
6
(152)
6
(152)
10
(254)
5
(127)
5
(127)
12
(305)
14
(356)
18
(457)

Duct
diameter,
in (mm)

(6)

4300
(1311)
4200
(1280)
4200
(1280)
4000
(1219)
4000
(1219)
4000
(1219)
4200
(1280)
3000
(914)
2000
(610)

Actual
velocity,
ft/min
(m/min)

(7)

10
(3.0)
20
(6.1)
10
(3.0)
20
(6.1)
10
(3.0)
5
(1.5)
10
(3.0)
10
(3.0)
200
(60.9)

Length
of
straight
duct, ft
(m)

Actual
velocity
pressure,
inH2O
(mmH2O)
1.15
(29.2)
1.0
(25.4)
1.0
(25.4)
1.0
(25.4)
1.0
(25.4)
1.0
(25.4)
1.0
(25.4)
0.55
(13.9)
0.25
(6.4)

(9)

(8)

0
(0)
18
(5.5)
6
(1.8)
0
(0)
5
(1.5)
5
(1.5)
0
(0)
14
(4.3)
0
(0)

Equivalent
length of
elbows, ft
(m)

(10)

10
(3.0)
38
(11.6)
16
(4.8)
20
(6.1)
15
(4.5)
10
(3.0)
10
(3.0)
24
(7.3)
200
(60.9)

Total duct
length =
column 9 +
column 10,
ft (m)

(11)

5.4
(137.2)
4.0
(101.6)
4.0
(101.6)
2.1
(53.3)
4.6
(116.8)
4.6
(116.8)
1.9
(48.3)
0.84
(21.3)
0.25
(6.4)

(12)
Friction
per 100 ft
(30 m) of
duct,
inH2O
(mmH2O)

0.54
(13.7)
1.57
(39.9)
0.64
(16.3)
0.42
(10.7)
0.69
(17.5)
0.46
(11.7)
0.19
(4.8)
0.20
(5.1)
0.50
(12.7)

Actual
friction,
inH2O
(mmH2O)

(13)

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0.42
(10.7)

0.42
(10.7)

0.19
(4.8)
0.20
(5.1)
0.50
(12.7)
2.00
(50.8)
4.43
(112.4)

C
D

F
G

Collector or filter resistance, in

(mm) H2O
Total resistance in each branch,
in (mm) H2O

Branch and main duct resistances

0.58
(14.6)
0.54
(13.7)

Entrance loss, in (mm) H2O

0.19
(4.8)
0.20
(5.1)
0.50
(12.7)
2.00
(50.8)
4.99
(126.8)

1.57
(39.9)

0.11
(2.8)

(11)

(50)

Entrance loss (% of velocity

pressure)

2
1.0
(25.4)
11

1.15
(29.2)
50

System resistance

Velocity pressure in hood branch,

in (mm) H2O

TABLE 9 Exhaust System Design Calculations (Continued)

0.19
(4.8)
0.20
(5.1)
0.50
(12.7)
2.00
(50.8)
4.45
(113.1)

0.64
(16.3)
0.42
(10.7)

0.50
(12.7)

(50)

1.0
(25.4)
50

Hood number
4

0.19
(4.8)
0.20
(5.1)
0.50
(12.7)
2.00
(50.8)
4.18
(106.1)

0.69
(17.5)

0.60
(15.2)

(60)

1.0
(25.4)
60

0.46
(11.7)
0.19
(4.8)
0.20
(5.1)
0.50
(12.7)
2.00
(50.8)
3.95
(100.3)

0.60
(15.2)

(60)

1.0
(25.4)
60

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3.353

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
3.354

SECTION THREE

TABLE 10 Recommended Exhaust Air Quantities

Operation
Sanding:
Single drum, [10-in (25.4-cm) diameter]
Disk
Circular saws [16- to 24-in (40.6- to 60.9cm) diameter]
Shoe machinery
Buffing and polishing wheels [16- to 24-in
(40.6- to 60.9-cm) diameter]
Grinding wheels [16- to 20-in (40.6- to 50.8cm) diameter]
Abrasive blast rooms
Pharmaceuticals

ft3/min
(m3/min)

Branch duct
velocity, ft/
min (m/min)

Branch duct
diameter, in
(mm)

400 (11.32)
550 (15.57)
450 (12.74)

4000 (1219)
4000 (1219)
4000 (1219)

4 (101.6)
5 (127)
4.5 (114.3)

550 (15.57)
600 (16.98)

4000 (1219)
4500 (1372)

5 (127)
5 (127)

600 (16.98)

4500 (1372)

5 (127)

3500 (1067)
3000 (1067)

Conveying velocities
Material conveyed

Conveying velocity, ft/min (m/min)

Vapors, gases, fumes, fine dusts

Fine dry dusts
Average industrial dusts
Coarse particles
Large particles, heavy loads, moist materials, pneumatic
conveying

1500 to 2000 (457 to 610)

3000 (914)
3500 (1067)
3500 to 4500 (1067 to 1372)
4500 and higher (1372 and higher)

TABLE 11 Duct Diameters and Areas

Diameter

Area
2

in

mm

ft

m2

4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
10.0
12
14
16
18
20
22
24

102
127
152.4
178
203.2
254
305
356
406.4
457.2
508
559
610

0.0873
0.1364
0.1964
0.2673
0.3491
0.5454
0.7854
1.069
1.396
1.767
2.182
2.640
3.142

0.008
0.013
0.018
0.025
0.032
0.051
0.073
0.099
0.130
0.164
0.203
0.245
0.292

Once the required duct area is known, find from

Table 11 the nearest whole-number duct diameter
corresponding to the required area. Avoid fractional diameters at this stage of the calculation,
because ducts of these sizes are usually more
expensive to fabricate. Later, if necessary, two or
three duct sizes may be changed to fractional
values. By selecting only whole-number diameters
in the beginning, the cost of duct fabrication may
be reduced somewhat. Enter the duct wholenumber diameter in column 6, Table 9.

4. Compute the actual air velocity in the duct.

Use Fig. 3 to determine the actual velocity in each
duct. Enter the chart at the air quantity corresponding to that in the duct, and project vertically to the
diameter curve representing the duct size. Read the
actual velocity in the duct on the velocity scale, and
enter the value in column 7 of Table 9.
The actual velocity in the duct should, in all cases, be equal to or greater than the design velocity shown in column 4, Table 9. If the actual velocity is less than the design velocity, decrease the
duct diameter until the actual velocity is equal to or greater than the design velocity.
5. Compute the duct velocity pressure. With the actual velocity known, compute the corresponding
velocity pressure in the duct from hv = (v/4005)2, where hv = velocity pressure in the duct, inH2O; v =
air velocity in the duct, ft/min. Thus, for the duct run A in which the actual air velocity is 4300 ft/min

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FIGURE 3

Duct resistance chart. (American Air Filter Co.)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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3.355

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
3.356

SECTION THREE

(1310.6 m/min), hv = (4300/4005)2 = 1.15 in (29.2 mm) H2O. Compute the actual velocity pressure in
each duct run, and enter the result in column 8, Table 9.
6. Compute the equivalent length of each duct. Enter the total straight length of each duct,
including any vertical drops, in column 9, Table 9. Use accurate lengths, because the system resistance is affected by the duct length.
Next list the equivalent length of each elbow in the duct runs in column 10, Table 9. For convenience, assume that the equivalent length of an elbow is 12 times the duct diameter in ft. Thus, an
elbow in a 6-in (152.4-mm) diameter duct has an equivalent resistance of (6-in diameter/[(12 in/ft)
(12)]) = 6 ft (1.83 m) of straight duct. When making this calculation, assume that all elbows have a
radius equal to twice the diameter of the duct. Consider 45 bends as having the same resistance as
90 elbows. Note that branch ducts are usually arranged to enter the main duct at an angle of 45 or
less. These assumptions are valid for all typical industrial exhaust systems and pneumatic conveying
systems.
Find the total equivalent length of each duct by taking the sum of columns 9 and 10, Table 9, horizontally, for each duct run. Enter the result in column 11, Table 9.
7. Determine the actual friction in each duct. Using Fig. 3, determine the resistance, inH2O
(mmH2O) per 100 ft (30.5 m) of each duct by entering with the air quantity and diameter of that duct.
Enter the frictional resistance thus found in column 12, Table 9.
Compute actual friction in each duct by multiplying the friction per 100 ft (30.5 m) of duct,
column 12, Table 9, by the total duct length, column 11 100. Thus for duct run A, actual friction =
5.4(10/100) = 0.54 in (13.7 mm) H2O. Compute the actual friction for the other duct runs in the same
manner. Tabulate the results in column 13, Table 9.
8. Compute the hood entrance losses. Hoods are used in industrial exhaust systems to remove
vapors, dust, fumes, and other undesirable airborne contaminants from the work area. The hood
entrance loss, which depends upon the hood configuration, is usually expressed as a certain percentage of the velocity pressure in the branch duct connected to the hood, Fig. 4. Since the hood
entrance loss usually accounts for a large portion of the branch resistance, the entrance loss chosen
should always be on the safe side.
List the hood designation number under the System Resistance heading, as shown in Table 9.
Under each hood designation number, list the velocity pressure in the branch connected to that hood.
Obtain this value from column 8, Table 9. List under the velocity pressure, the hood entrance loss from
Fig. 4 for the particular type of hood used in that duct run. Take the product of these two values, and
enter the result under the hood number on the entrance loss, inH2O line. Thus, for hood 1, entrance
loss = 1.15(0.50) = 0.58 in (14.7 mm) H2O. Follow the same procedure for the other hoods listed.
9. Find the resistance of each branch run. List the main and branch runs, A through F, Table 9.
Trace out each main and branch run in Fig. 2, and enter the actual friction listed in column 3 of
Table 9. Thus for booth 1, the main and branch runs consist of A, D, G, H, and I. Insert the actual
friction, in (mm) H2O, as shown in Table 9, or A = 9.54(242.3), D = 0.42(10.7), G = 0.19(4.8), H =
0.20(5.1), I = 0.50(12.7).
Determine the filter friction loss from the manufacturers engineering data. It is common practice
to design industrial exhaust systems on the basis of dirty filters or separators; i.e., the frictional resistance used in the design calculations is the resistance of a filter or separator containing the maximum
amount of dust allowable under normal operating conditions. The frictional resistance of dirty filters
can vary from 0.5 to 6 in (12.7 to 152.4 mm) H2O or more. Assume that the frictional resistance of
the filter used in this industrial exhaust system is 2.0 in (50.8 mm) H2O.
Add the filter resistance to the main and branch duct resistance as shown in Table 9. Find the sum
of each column in the table, as shown. This is the total resistance in each branch, inH2O, Table 9.
10. Balance the exhaust system. Inspection of the lower part of Table 9 shows that the computed
branch resistances are unequal. This condition is usually encountered during system design.

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FIGURE 4

3.357

Entrance losses for various types of exhaust-system intakes.

To balance the system, certain duct sizes must be changed to produce equal resistance in all ducts.
Or, if possible, certain ducts can be shortened. If duct shortening is not possible, as is often the
case, an exhaust fan capable of operating against the largest resistance in a branch can be chosen.
If this alternative is selected, special dampers must be fitted to the air inlets of the booths or ducts.
For economical system operation, choose the balancing method that permits the exhaust fan to
operate against the minimum resistance.
In the system being considered here, a fairly accurate balance can be obtained by decreasing the
size of ducts E and F to 4.75 in (120.7 mm) and 4.375 in (111.1 mm), respectively. Duct B would be
increased to 6.5 in (165.1 mm) in diameter.

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
3.358

SECTION THREE

11. Choose the exhaust fan capacity and static pressure. Find the required exhaust fan capacity
in ft3/min from the sum of the airflows in the ducts, A through H, column 3, Table 9, or 3300 ft3/min
(93.5 m3/min). Choose a static pressure equal to or greater than the total resistance in the branch
duct having the greatest resistance. Since this is slightly less than 4.5 in (114.3 mm) H2O, a fan
developing 4.5 in (114.3 mm) H2O static pressure will be chosen. A 10 percent safety factor is usually applied to these values, giving a capacity of 3600 ft3/min (101.9 m3/min) and a static pressure
of 5.0 in (127 mm) H2O for this system.
12. Select the duct material and thickness. Galvanized sheet steel is popular for industrial exhaust
systems, except where corrosive fumes and gases rule out galvanized material. Under these conditions,
plastic, tile, stainless steel, or composition ducts may be substituted for galvanized ducts. Table 12
shows the recommended metal gage for galvanized ducts of various diameters. Do not use
TABLE 12 Exhaust-System Duct Gages
galvanized-steel ducts for gas temperatures
higher than 400F (204C).
Duct diameter, in (mm)
Metal gage
Hoods should be two gages heavier than the
Up to 8 (203.2)
22
connected
branch duct. Use supports not more
9 to 18 (228.6 to 457.2)
20
than 12 ft (3.7 m) apart for horizontal ducts up
19 to 30 (482.6 to 762)
18
to 8-in (203.2-mm) diameter. Supports can be
31 and larger (787.4 and larger)
16
spaced up to 20 ft (6.1 m) apart for larger ducts.
Fit a duct cleanout opening every 10 ft (3 m).
Where changes of diameter are made in the main duct, fit an eccentric taper with a length of at least
5 in (127 mm) for every 1-in (25.4-mm) change in diameter. The end of the main duct is usually
extended 6 in (152.4 mm) beyond the last branch and closed with a removable cap. For additional
data on industrial exhaust system design, see the newest issue of the ASHRAE Guide.
Use this procedure for any type of industrial exhaust system, such as
those serving metalworking, woodworking, plating, welding, paint spraying, barrel filling,
foundry, crushing, tumbling, and similar operations. Consult the local code or ASHRAE Guide
for specific airflow requirements for these and other industrial operations.
This design procedure is also valid, in general, for industrial pneumatic conveying systems.
For several comprehensive, worked-out designs of pneumatic conveying systems, see Hudson
Conveyors, Wiley.

Related Calculations

Pumps and Pumping Systems

REFERENCES
American Water Works AssociationAmerican National Standard for Vertical Turbine Pumps; AndersonComputational Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill; Carscallen and OosthuizenCompressible Fluid Flow, McGraw-Hill;
ChaurettePump System Analysis & Sizing, Fluide Design Inc.; Cooper, Heald, Karassik and MessinaPump
Handbook, McGraw-Hill; European Association for Pump ManufactutreNet Positive Suction Head for Rotodynamic Pumps: A Reference Guide, Elsevier; European Committee Pump Manufacturers StaffEuropump Terminology, French & European Publications; Evett, Giles and LiuFluid Mechanics and Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill;
Finnemore and FranziniFluid Mechanics With Engineering Applications, McGraw-Hill; HicksPump Application Engineering, McGraw-Hill; HicksPump Operation and Maintenance, McGraw-Hill; JapikseCentrifugal Pump Design and Performance, Concepts ETI; Karassik, Messina, Cooper, et al.Pump handbook,
McGraw-Hill; KennedyOil and Gas Pipeline Fundamentals, Pennwell; Larock, Jeppson and Wattors
Hydraulics of Pipeline Systems, CRC Press; Lobanoff and RossCentrifugal Pumps: Design and Application,
Gulf Professional Publishing; McAllisterPipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook, Gulf Professional Publishing;
McGuirePumps for Chemical Processing, Marcel Dekker; Mohitpour, Golshan and MurrayPipeline Design
& Construction, ASME; Myers, Whittick, Edmonds, et al.Petroleum and Marine Technology Information
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