MEI TeachingSlides

Measurement and Electronic
Instruments (EE 21004)

Dr. Nirmalya Ghosh
Electrical Engineering, IIT Kharagpur
Figures Courtesy:
"Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements 3rd
Edition" book by David A. Bell
Electrical Bridge Circuits

Measurement of Resistance, Inductance, and
Capacitance
Measurement and Electronic Instruments

(EE 21004)
Resistance Measurement
Voltmeter and Ammeter
Methods
Two connections
Case 1: Voltmeter across
load
Error in current measurement
Applicable: R << R
Case 2: Ammeter in series
with load
Error in voltage measurement
Applicable: R >> R
Substitution Method
3

(EE 21004)
Bridge Circuits: Basics

Null detection method
At balanced condition
Va Vb Z1 Z 4 Z 2 Z 3
For resistance measurement
Supply and detector: dc
Magnitudes are only balanced
For inductance and
capacitance measurement
Supply and detector: ac
Magnitude and phase both
balanced

(EE 21004)
Wheatstone Bridge: for

initially shunted
resistance Galvanometer
with a low resistance
SP
At balance,
R
Q
Bridge Accuracy:
%error of R: sum % errors of (S, P,
Q).
Sensitivity of G.
S P
Bridge Precision:R
Q
Bridge sensitivity depends on:
Supply voltage: E
Galvanometer resistance: rG
Current sensitivity of Galvanometer
Applicable: 5 to 1012
5

(EE 21004)
Bridge Sensitivity
R
S
R P S Q
r P || R Q || S
VR VS E B
Thevenin equivalent circuit
at G terminals
IG
R that produces smallest
IG to shift G pointer by 1 mm
on scale (sensitivity of G)

(EE 21004)
VR VS
r rG
Wheatstone Bridge: limits
Low resistance measurement

Connecting lead resistances
4-terminal resistors
Kelvin Bridge
High resistance measurement

Insulation resistances
Voltmeter-Microammeter
method
High voltage DC supply
Voltmeter across supply (R >> RV)
Modified Wheatstone Bridge

To separate out volume current
and surface current
Guard wires, guard rings

(EE 21004)
Kelvin Bridge: low resistance
Lead resistance Y is removed
if
A P
SP
Q
B R
R
Equate voltages of across G
i1 R i2 B I S

i1 P i2 A I Q
I Q P i1 i 2 A P
IS
R i1 i 2 B R
Applicability: 10 to 1
Thermo-electric voltage drop
Balance with supply polarity
switched
Take average
(EE 21004)
Wheatstone Bridge for high R

Insulations
Guard wire, guard rings
Surface resistances: b, c
Modified Wheatstone
bridge
Cable fault detection

(EE 21004)
Inductor/Capacitor: Basics
At resonance :
VL VC and I
E
R
L
1
R
CR
VL VC
Q
E
E
Q
10

(EE 21004)
AC Bridge: Balancing
Both magnitude and
phase to be balanced
Two (or more) elements
are adjusted in turn and
iteratively
Bridge sensitivity
Defined and computed
similarly, but with

impedances
Depends on: E and IG
11

(EE 21004)
Series RC Bridges
Simple Capacitance Bridge

De Sauty bridge
R
C x C1
4
Series-Resistance Capacitance
Bridge
Modified De Sauty bridge
R
R
RS R1 4
C S C1 3
Applicable: Rlow
3
D (pure) R4
capacitors
12

(EE 21004)
Parallel RC Bridge
Applicable: low D capacitor (with
higher leakage current)
R4
R3
RP R1
C P C1
R3 for mid D capacitors
R4
Also applicable
Note similarities:
Circuit elements in balancing
branches
Balanced equations
(R3 R4) as voltage divider
Reciprocal nature in balanced equation
Wrong selection of bridge leads to
inconvenient sizes of variable

precision elements (resistances) for
balancing
13

(EE 21004)
Schering Bridge
A series RC bridge
Standard low D air/mica C1
To balance, adjustable C3
RX R4
C3
C1
C X C1
R3
R4
D C X RX C3 R3
Applicable:
Small Cx at low E
High V capacitance
Guard ring to isolate leakage
current
Grounded screens: eliminate
stray C
Insulation/dielectric material
Substitution method
C X C S ( 2) C S (1)
14

(EE 21004)
Wien Bridge
Combination of series-
parallel RC
combinations
Balanced in a particular
frequency
Often R1 = R2 and C1 =
C2
Applicability
R3
R
C
1 2
R4 R2
C1
15
1
f
2 C1C2 R1 R2

(EE 21004)
Filters, oscillator circuits

Might be used for
frequency measurement
Inductance Comparison
Similar to series RC bridge
Bridge
R and R (or R ) are
1
adjusted in turn
Balancing Re and Im parts
Z1 Z 4 Z 2 Z 3
R4
RS R1
R3
R4
LS L1
R3
Note similarity &
dissimilarity with series RC

bridge equations.
Reciprocal nature of L and C
Voltage divider is applicable
16

(EE 21004)
Maxwell Bridge
Accurate standard
RS R1
Q
R4
R3
LS C3 R1 R4
LS
R3 C3
RS
variable C is more
available than standard
variable L
Note: series RL and
parallel RC to nullify
phases
Most suitable: low Q
factor coils
Q is limited by size of
standard variable R3
Sometimes called
Maxwell-Wein bridge
17

(EE 21004)
Hay Bridge
Standard capacitor is series RC
in Maxwell bridge
Balance equations simpler with
parallel RL representation
As phases nullify
Form is same as Maxwell bridge
Convert back to series RL form
Most suitable: high Q coils
RP R1
Q
R4
R3
LP C3 R1 R4
natural series RL circuit
18
Mid-level Q: both bridges work

Maxwell bridge preferred for
RP
1
LP R3 C3
R1 R3 R4 2C3
RS
2
2
1 2C3 R3
Small R3 is more convenient
LS
R1 R4C3
2
2
1 2C3 R3

(EE 21004)
Anderson Bridge
Similarity with Maxwell bridge

Fixed standard C3: Easier to
balance
First balanced with DC supply:
varying (R1, R3, R4)
Second balance with AC supply:
varying only R5.
Star-delta conversion of (R1,
R3, R5) for deriving balanced

equations.
Boils down to Maxwell bridge
Applicability: wide range of
R4
RS R1
R3
LS C3
19
low Q inductance
measurement
R4
R5 R1 R3 R1R3
R3

(EE 21004)
Rae
R1 R5 R5 R3 R1 R3 N
R3
R3
Rce
N
R1
Rac
N
R5
Owen Bridge
Another modification of
Maxwell bridge
Fixed standard C3
Variable C1
C1 fixed: if adjustable R2
used
Applicability: Wide range of
LS C3 R1 R4
RS R4
C3
C1
inductance measurement
When additional R2 used :

RS R4
20
C3
R2
C1

(EE 21004)
Carey-Foster Bridge:
Also called Heydweiller
bridge
Note: one arm is shorted
At balance: VZ1 = VZ2 = 0
M balances in Z1
Applicability: Measurement
of
Mutual inductance (M) when C3
VZ 1 VZ 2 0
is standard
C3 when M is standard
i1 ( R1 j L1 ) (i1 i2 ) j M
VZ 3 VZ 4
R j
3
i2 i1
21
M C3 R1 R4
C3
R4

(EE 21004)
R
L1 M 1 3
R4
Multifunction bridge
Many bridges can be
constructed with:
One standard capacitor

Three adjustable
standard resistors
Examples:
Wheatstone bridge
Series or parallel RC
bridge
Maxwell bridge
Hay bridge
Commercially available
multifunction bridges:
Switch connections as
needed
22

(EE 21004)
Bridge Screening: Wagner

Why screening/shielding:
Earth
Eliminate stray capacitance
errors
Min. capacitive/inductive
coupling
Null might not be true balance
Three levels of screening:
Individual impedances, detector

Transformer secondary, Z3, Z4
Entire bridge shield is grounded
Wagner Earth: for any bridge

Va & Vb: forced to ground
potential: Z5-Z6 is similar to Z2-Z4

Iterative balancing
Substitution
Most stray impedance problem
solved
Unknown ZX in series or parallel
combination with a similar but
known ZS (e.g., Schering bridge)
23

(EE 21004)
Unbalanced bridge
If a bridge is in unbalanced
condition
First check whether
balancing possible at all
Both Real and Imaginary parts
to be balanced
Often Mag-Phase balancing in
polar coordinates simplifies
If not, then what and where
an extra element to be
added
Check what elements are
adjustable
Often an iterative method
If multiple possibilities, weigh
out component availability
To find currents/voltages:
Apply KCL, KVL
24

(EE 21004)
Potentiometers
Instrument Calibration
25
Measurement
Measurementand
andElectronic
ElectronicInstruments
Instruments
(EE
(EE21004)
21004)
DC Potentiometer: Basics
AB: Slide wire
uniform resistance per
unit length
Scale to read voltage
C: Sliding contact
B1: normal battery
R1: current adjustment
B2: Standard cell

Protective resistance
G: Null detector
Sensitive, center-zero
Protective shunt
resistance
VBC = VB2 and VBC= VX
Standardization
Open-circuit terminal
voltage
26

(EE 21004)
No current when Null
DC Potentiometer: Switched
Extending: accuracy and range
resistors
Precision resistors: initial
adjustment
Rotary slide-wire: final
adjustment
Vx = VR11 + VR12 + VBC
Voltage divider:
VR3 = VB2
Extends range
Current level adjuster

Small R1: course adjustment
Large R2: fine adjustment
Iterative adjustment:
B1 closed-circuit voltage drifts
(F, C) and (R1, R2) and repeat
27

(EE 21004)
DC ammeter calibration:
Instrument types
Potentiometric
Absolute instruments
Rayleigh current
balance
Secondary
instruments
Standard (ref.)
instrument
Comparison method:
Standard instrument
Accuracy: > 4 times
Calibration chart: error
adjustment
Precise values of
resistance and
voltage
Shunt box
28

(EE 21004)
Shunt box
Precision resistors
Movable contact (actually rotary switch), Left-side carries ammeter current
Right-side no current when balanced (null). No effect on measurement
Current = potentiometer reading X multiplication factor

Max. Amps: Limits resistor power, temperature error. V out = 150 mV.
29

(EE 21004)
DC voltmeter calibration:
Potentiometric
Comparison method
Precision voltage divider
Not required for small voltage
range
Volt-box
Simple multi-level voltage
dividers
loading effect changes current
and hence Vout

Kelvin-Varley V-divider
30

(EE 21004)
Volt-box
Voltage divider
Line voltage: across voltmeter
Voltage = potentiometer voltage X multiplication factor

Max. volts
150 mV to Potentiometer. Sensitivity: 750 ohm/V. Max. current: 1.33 mA
31

(EE 21004)
DC Potentiometer for AC
measurements
Conditions
AC voltage to be measured should be derived from
same ac supply to the potentiometer: no phase shift

No component (instrument, resistors) should introduce
phase shift
AC/DC ammeter to measure potentiometer current
Frequency-sensitive null detector: Galvanometer tuned
with supply frequency.
32

(EE 21004)
AC measurement: DC pot.
Standardize using
DC setup
Both switches at 1
Measure I1dc
Rebalance with AC
setup
Both switches at 2
So that, I1ac (rms) =
I1dc
Then make G2 null
Phase balance
makes it possible
33

(EE 21004)
Polar AC Potentiometer DC
1.
standardization
2. Make Iac same
as Idc
irrespective of
rotor = 0, 90,
45
By R2, R3, C1
3. Connect VX.
4. Get G2 null
By (Y1-Y2) and
rotor
5. Mag (rms) from

When same-phase condition not met
Drysdale AC potentiometer:
pot. And phase

from rotor
position.
Phase shifting transformer: Constant amplitude, adjustable phase

Stators L1 and L2. Currents made in exact quadrature.
Rotor L3: Phase shift adjustable.
34

(EE 21004)
Co-ordinate AC
Potentiometer
1. P1
standardized
by DC (& R2).
2. P2
standardized
by P1 (& R1,
C1, R3) to give
specified V3
Null in ac G
3. Vx connected.
Gall Tinsley potentiometer
Two separate potentiometers: (R 1, C1) give 90 phase shift
V3 in phase with P1 supply as M nullifies (R 1, C1) phase shift.
When standardized, IP1 and IP2 are equal but at 90 phase
shift
If phase > 180 , then terminal connections are reversed.
35

(EE 21004)
Null in ac G
by Y1-Y4.
4. Read P1 and
P2 .
Strip-chart Recorder: self-balancing

pot.
36

(EE 21004)
Electromechanical
Instruments
Deflection instrument, PMMC meters,
Electrodynamometers
37
Measurement
and
Electronic
Instruments
(EE
Measurement
Measurement
and
and
Electronic
Electronic
Instruments
Instruments
21004)
(EE
(EE21004)
21004)
Deflection instruments
Pointer moving over
calibrated scale
Three forces:
Deflecting force
Controlling force
Damping force
Permanent magnet moving
coil (PMMC) instruments

Galvanometers: Sensitive
PMMC
Electrodynamic instruments
Magnet replaced by stator coil
Moving iron: repulsive force
Electrostatic: attractive-
repulsive
Thermoelectric:
thermocouples
38

(EE 21004)
Working principles: example PMMC
Deflection force: Pointer
motion
Faradays Law (PMMC)
Controlling force: Restoring
spring
Zero current case. zero adjustment.

At equilibrium, equal to deflection force.
Non-magnetic, low-resistance: Phosphor bronze
39
Measurement and Electronic Instruments (EE

21004)
Damping force:
Aluminum former
Only during coil motion.
Eddy current (PMMC):
nonmagnetic conductor
Under/over/critical damping
Suspension
Jeweled bearing
suspension
Breakable: to sudden
socks
Sock-absorbing springs
40

21004)
Taut band or ribbon
suspension
Two flat metal ribbons
Phosphor bronze or platinum
alloy
Controlling force
Coil current conducting
PMMC: ConstructionDArsonvol instrument
Soft-iron core
Increase field uniformity
Narrow air gap

strong & uniform
magnetic field
Controlling spring
Between coil and zero
adjustment screw
Counter-weights
Mechanical balance
Nullify gravitational
effects
Polarized instrument
Positive/negative
deflection
Only for dc.
For ac, need rectifiers.
41

21004)
PMMC: Torque equation

Soft iron
cylinder
Permanen
t magnet
core
Core magnet PMMC

Permanent magnet core
Soft iron cylinder
Magnetic shielding
Torque equations
Faradays law
I : current (Amp)
B : magnetic flux density (Tesla)
L : length of coil (meters)
D : diameter of coil (=2r)
N : number of coil turns
F : force = 2 B I L N (in Newton)
TD : deflection torque = F r
TD= BILND (in Newton-meters,
Nm)
TC : control torque = K x
deflection angle (K: spring
control constant)
42

21004)
At equilibrium: TD = TC
PMMC: Pros, Cons, Errors

Errors
Bearing friction
Tapping before reading
Improper zero
adjustment
Control screw to adjust
Parallax (reading) error

Knife edge pointer
Mirror alignment of
pointer
Advantages
Linear scale: deflection = C x
I
Low operating current
FSD: Jeweled (~50 uA)
High torque-to-weight ratio

No hysteresis loss
Actually used for damping
Can be used as ammeter,
voltmeter, or ohmmeter
Core-magnet PMMC:
magnetic shielding
Disadvantages
Polarized terminals: mainly
dc measurements. Ac with
rectifier.
More expensive to
manufacture
43

21004)
DC Ammeter
Ammeter circuit
Shunt resistor:
4-terminal Precision resistor
Smaller RS: larger I measured
Linear ammeter scale

Swamping resistor
To reduce thermal effect in
copper coil
Made of Manganin or Constantan
Same for shunt resistor also
Burden voltage
Ammeter voltage drop
44

21004)
Ammeter: Range extension

Multi-range ammeters
Changing shunt resistance
Make-before-break switch
High coil resistance not changing I
High current not damaging PMMC
During switching: resistance in
parallel
Ayrton shunt
Different resistance in series and
parallel
45

21004)
DC Voltmeter
Small coil voltage: multiplier resistor (RS)

Voltmeter resistance: RV = RS + Rm
Swamping resistance: same RS

For small voltage: manganin or constantan
Voltmeter sensitivity: Resistance per volt

RV / VFSD = 1/Im,FSD
RV = sensitivity X range
Loading effect: Effect of voltmeter current

Multirange voltmeter
46

21004)
Full wave rectifier voltmeter

PMMC: Polarized terminals
AC voltage: reads Avg. value
Rectifier: AC to unidirectional
Positive cycle: D1, D4
Negative cycle: D3, D2
Silicon/Germanium diodes: VF =
0.7V
Measures Iav : for sinusoids

Iav= 0.637 x Ipeak
Irms = 0.707 x Ipeak = 1.11 x Iav
Generally scales calibrated for
rms
Linear scale
Variation in VF affects low voltage
measurement
True for pure sinusoids
For other AC signals: rescale
starting from Iav computation
47

21004)
Half-wave rectifier voltmeter

Shunt resistance in
parallel
ISH >> Im means ID is
large
Diode biased beyond
knee
in linear V-I zone
Small VF of D2 ensures
Low reverse leakage
current of D1 through M
Protects M against
reverse Voltage
Iav = 0.5 (0.637 Ipeak)
48

21004)
Half-bridge full-wave rectifier

Two-diodes: Half bridge
voltmeter
Part of current bypass M

Effect of shunt resistor
Positive cycle current

A D1 M R2 B
R1 in parallel to (Rm +
R2)
D2 reverse biased
Negative cycle current

B R1 M D2 A
R2 is shunt to (Rm + R1)
D1 reverse biased
Im direction: same for
both
49

21004)
Full-wave rectifier ammeter
Required: Low resistance and low burden voltage (~ 100 mV)

VF = 0.3 0.7 V gives the problem: simple rectifier dont work
Current transformer + full-wave rectifier voltmeter across R L

Steps up voltage: sufficient for rectifier to work
Steps down current (Ip/Is = Ns/Np): suitable for PMMC meter
Precise RL selected to bypass current not required by M for FSD

Range extension: By switching R L or variable primary tapping in CT
50

21004)
Electrodynamometer:
Permanent magnet is
construction substituted by
stationary field coils
Same or different currents
in moving and stationary

coils
Interaction between
magnetic fields
Air damping: Moving
vane
Air-tight enclosure, air
passing slowly
Eddy current loss in AC: so,
not used
51

21004)
Electrodynamometer:
Operation
Magnetic field produced by current flow: repulsive effect

Flux direction: right-hand palm rule
Independent of current direction. Non-polarized. AC application.
Measures I2. Reads I(rms). Nonlinear scale.

Transfer Instrument: Might be calibrated in DC and used in DC/AC.
Coil reluctance increases with frequency: Normally low-frequency
meters.
52

21004)
Electrodynamic voltmeter &

Voltmeter
ammeter
Need high resistance:
All coils in series

Higher FSD current than in PMMC
Lower coil resistance: Loading effect.
Multiplier resistance
Ammeter
Field coil current is measured I
Thermal effect not important
Shunt and Swamping resistor

Thermal effect important as in PMMC
Deflection torque
Energy (W): 0.5 If2Lf + 0.5 Im2Lm + If
ImM
TD = If Im dM/d(theta) : Theta =
deflection (in radians)
Nonlinear scale
53

21004)
Moving Iron (MI) Meters:

construction
Attractio
n type
Repulsio
n type
Concentri
c-vane MI
54

21004)
MI instruments: Torque, Pros,

Cons
W = 0.5 I2L
TD = 0.5 I2 dL/d(theta) : Theta = deflection (in radians)
Advantage
Terminal non-polarized can be used in AC and DC
Can be used as ammeter or voltmeter
Inexpensive
Robust
Disadvantage
Nonlinear scale
Larger operating current than PMMC
Limited ac frequency operation
Higher power consumption
Errors due to hysteresis and stray magnetic fields
55

21004)
Electrodynamic Wattmeter
Field (current) coils
single coil symbol
Moving (voltage) coil
Multiplier resistor to restrict
current
Reversed polarity: still positive
Transfer instrument
Calibrated in DC: P = V I (in watts)
In AC: actual P = Vrms Irms cos
59

21004)
Wattmeter: Errors,
Burdens of the coils
compensation
Compensated wattmeter
Field coil: Thick copper wire
Compensating coil: Thin, reverse-
way
Varmeter: Reactive power

Rv replaced by inductance: Iv lags V
Reactive P = Vrms Irms sin
60

21004)
Wattmeter: Range extension
Multirange wattmeters:
Current coils: series parallel
Multiplier: different values
Check: neither coil to be overloaded
Often, V is constant: W linear to I.
Neg. deflection: reverse one coil
polarity
Not suitable at high frequency
Using instrument transformers
61

21004)
Multiplication factor: (V1/V2). (I1/I2)
Power measurement w/o

Three voltmeter
wattmeter
method
Low power
High frequency
Three ammeter
method
62

21004)
3-phase power: 3 - wattmeter
Phase power: Pp = Vp Ip cos p

Check terminal connections
Total power in balanced load

P = 3 VL IL cos p
Balanced load: Single
wattmeter
63

21004)
3-phase power: 2-wattmeter
Most common: balanced/unbalanced, star/delta

Instantaneous phase powers
wattmeter readings average power
If > 90, power factor negative, reverse one coil
connection, mark as negative.

64

21004)
3-phase 2-wattmeter:
Phasors
Example: -connected load

Line voltage = phase voltage
Wattmeter connection: Note vector polarities
Power-factor measurement
A = P - 30 and B = P + 30
tan P = 3 [(P2-P1)/(P2+P1)]
65

21004)
3-phase: CT and wattmeter
Effectively two wattmeter method

Powers are summed in single meter: total power
Three-phase wattmeter:
Two wattmeters merged: two field coils, two moving coils
Total power is indicated
66

21004)
Energy Meters
Energy: (V I cos ) t
Induction watt-hr meter
~(V, I) ~flux eddy current opposing flux

Driving force power
Breaking force speed of the disc
Equilibrium: Power speed
Meter constant = Disc rotation/kWh

Errors and compensation:
No multiplier resistor: Iv lag V by ~90
Pole shading: Compensating coils with lag
adjustment.
Breaking (high current), creep (zero current),
thermal effects, bearing friction, supply
voltage change.
Connections same as in different wattmeter
connections
67

21004)
Capacitive Voltage Transformer

PT: Application in relays
(CVT)
Fixed VS: high Vp bulky PT
Capacitance potential
divider
Voltage drop: relay accuracy
Tuning Inductor
Resonance at power freq.
Nullify capacitive drop
68

21004)
CVT: Transient response

Resonating RLC
Fault at t=t0:
CVT effect
Amplitude at t0
Small R:
underdamped
Called: subsistence
transients
69

21004)
CVT: Power line

communication
Shunt path for RF

RF: 50k 400kHz
Low Capacitive drop
communication signal
Relay interactions
Drainage reactor
50Hz: small drop
CVT performance intact
RF: high impedance
RF signal blocked
CVT blocks RF from
secondary
Tuning pack
Relay operation control
Ferroresonace
Single-phase fault in 3-
phase system
Frequency, magnetic flux,
voltage, fault-time, circuit
loss
Dangerously high voltage
70

21004)
Hall Effect Principle

Lorenz force (I x B)
Left hand cork-screw rule
I B: an emf both (B,I)

Small emf
Semiconductors
Germanium or Indium
antimonide: measurable
I N q vbt
FB q v B q v B sin
FE q E H
&
EH
I B sin
Nqbt
q E H q v B sin 0
I B sin
VH E H b
K H IB sin
Nqt
71

21004)
Hall effect devices

Germanium or Indium
antimonide:
Measurable (V or mV range)
-ive (electrons) and +ive (holes)
carriers
Amplifier circuit
Applications:
Electrical measurements:
Flux (B), current (I)
Hall-effect multiplier (small power)
Electronics measurements:
Type of carrier: n- or p- type doping
Carrier concentration,
72

21004)
Hall effect current sensors

Instrument is small
Physically confined space
B or I measurement
Non-contact type
measurement
B Im
I
Im
73

21004)
Hall effect: Electronic

measurements Charge density: rho =
J v I
wd
VH Bvd BJd
BI
74

21004)
Nq
J = current density
Sigma = conductivity
= mobility
N = carrier
concentration
Electronic level
multiplier circuits
Analog Oscilloscopes
Cathode-ray Oscilloscopes (CRO), Dual trace CRO,
Probes, Displays
75

21004)
Cathode-Ray tube
Electron beam from cathode to screen
76

21004)
Electrostatic Focussing
Electrons pass perpendicular to equipotential
lines
A2 : focusing ring
77

21004)
Deflection
Sensitivities: cm/volts
Deflection factor: volts/cm
78

21004)
Deflection Amplifier
Differential amplifier, DC shift control, AC- or DC- coupling, volts/div
79

21004)
Waveform display
Across deflection plates: Horizontal: sawtooth wave. Vertical: input
signal
Need of synchronization: Repetition and sweep
Deflection sensitivities
80

21004)
Horizontal sweep generator

Time-base circuit
Repetitive charging-
discharging of C1
Schmitt trigger points
Upper (UTP)
Lower (LTP)
Numerically equal
Controls ramp
amplitude
Saturation of op-amp
UTP = (Vcc -1)
(R6/R5)
Q1: constant current
source
I1 = (Vb1 Vbe)/R3
V1 = I1 (T/C1)
T depends on: C1, R3

Variable C1 switch
81

21004)
Automatic Time-base
Synchronizatio
n
Schmitt trigger
Inverting type
Zero-crossing
detector
Positive clipper
Sweep gen.
Sync i/p
inverting
-ive spike sync
Hold-off ckt.
For multiple
cycles
S1 switches
triggering
waveform
82

21004)
Synchronization
Negative spike
and inverting
input of Schmitt
in sweep gen.
Hold-off circuit
Otherwise just
one cycle
Compare ramp
level to ignore
unwanted
spikes
83

21004)
Trigger level control and

Trigger control
Adjusted by R9
Blanking
Waveform can
commence at
any level
Blanking
Fly-back
suppressed
Short -ive pulse
makes grid ive
during sweep
(max-to-min in
ramp)
84

21004)
Dual trace CRO
Multiple signals compared

Two sets of vertical deflection systems; one
set for horizontal
85

21004)
Deflection system in dual trace

Dual
CRO
beam
Split
beam
86

21004)
Switched Channel Method
Single-beam, single set vertical deflection plates

fast switching between (two or more) signals
time base circuit controls switching speed
Dual trace or multitrace

87

21004)
Dual trace display in Alternate

Both signal
mode
with same
period T
DC shift added
intentionally
Alternately
and repeatedly
displayed
High switching
frequency:
displays seem
simultaneous.
Except at low
frequency
88

21004)
Dual trace display in Chop

Alternate display
mode
time slots
Appear
simultaneous
for low and mid
frequency
89

21004)
Oscilloscope controls
Single beam dual trace analog oscilloscope

Trigger-settings, signal positions, channels, AC-DC, GND, time-dial, volts dials
Vernier knob of dials in CAL (calibrated position)
90

21004)
CRO based measurements
Peak-to-peak voltage, frequency, phase
difference
Vernier knob should be in CAL position
91

21004)
Pulse measurements
Pulse amplitude, pulse width, space width

Rise-time, fall-time, delay time
Pulse distortions:
Low freq: Tilt/slope/sag: AC coupling capacitor:
PW or SW < 0.1 (Ri Cc)
High frequency distortion: CRO input (Ri, Ci),
source (Rs):
92

21004)
t ro 2.2 RS Ci
t rd
tri 2 tro 2
t ri 3 t ro
OR PW 10 t ro
Oscilloscope Probes
Typically CRO input
impedance: (Ci, Ri) =

1M || 30 pF
At normally operating
frequencies:
Capacitor reactance
very high
Vi = Vs Ri /(Ri + Rs)
To avoid significant
attenuation or phase
shift, signal
frequency < (3dB
cut-off frequency)/10
At 3dB cutoff (f2),
resistance =
reactance
Assuming deflection
amplifier cutoff is
much higher
93

21004)
Attenuator probes
Generally 10:1 probes with R1 = 9M
Screw-controlled variable capacitance (C1)
Compensating C1 = C2 (Ri/R1)
94

21004)
Probe calibration
Every probe to adjusted when first use in a
particular CRO
Front panel control
Active probes
FET voltage followers: Electronic amplifiers to
increase probe input resistance and minimize

input capacitance.
95

21004)
Display of device
characteristics
AB-SWP switch in CRO is put to A-B.

Channel grounds should be same.
Current and voltages are fed in deflection plates.
Settings based on limits of the graph
96

21004)
X-Y Displays, Z- Displays
Lissajou figures
One signal
Same frequency, different phase
Different frequencies (with ratio = rational
number)
Z-Display
Z-input (backside) for intensity modulation
(fm)
Number of gaps = fm/fp
97

21004)
Oscilloscope specifications
Sensitivities
Horizontal/vertical
2mV/div 10V/div
0.5 s/div 200 ns/div
Probe ratio (1:1, 10:1)
Time-base mignifier
Generally 8 mV 800 V
Accuracies
Voltage measurement:
V/div: 3%
Time/div: 5%
Reading: 5% of one div.
Rise-time specification
T_ro = 0.35/f_hi
T_ri > 3 x T_ro
98

21004)
Oscilloscope performance
Frequency response: 2 Hz 100 MHz
Attenuation for input circuit (amplifiers), probe and oscilloscope

Deflection amplifier cutoffs
Signal frequency: > 10 f_low AND < f_hi/10
When i/p and o/p both displayed, CRO attenuations and phase-
shifts are same and nullified during comparison if i/p amplifier

gain is high
99

21004)
Special Oscilloscopes
Analog and Digital Storage Oscilloscopes,
Sampling Oscilloscope
100

21004)
Bistable ASO
Need:
Persistence
(ms)
Transient
events
Storage layer
of phosphor
for secondary
emission
Write-gun
+ive charge-
path
Flood gun
Low energy
electrons
Collimator
Metal film
Slightly +ive
101

21004)
Variable-persistence ASO
Storage mesh (0 to -10V)

collector mesh (100V)
Control grids in flood guns
102

21004)
Waveform sampling
Sampling theory, Nyquist frequency, aliasing

Sampling rate of oscilloscope
Stable displays at different time-base settings (frequencies): Harmonics
Low-frequency dot representation

Disadvantages:
Only purely repetitive signals can be displayed
Transients cannot be displayed
103

21004)
Sampling Oscilloscope
Staircase generator
Ramp starts every time staircase voltage changes
Sampling gate: Hold circuit
Unblanking pulse to display only dot sample at that
moment
104

21004)
Expanded mode operation

DC bias to
sample and
display
certain
portion
Bias voltage
and stair
density
defines
location and
sensitivity to
detect signal
details
105

21004)
Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Time
(DSO)
sampling
Amplitude
Quantizati
on
Analog to
digital
conversio
n (ADC)
106

21004)
Basic DSO storage
Semiconductor memory storage

Byte representation: sign-bit at the beginning
107

21004)
Basic DSO display
Digital to analog converter (DAC)

Dot waveform generated
by staircase time-base, sample-hold output and unblanking pulses
108

21004)
LCD display
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Liquid with some solid properties
Crystals and polarizer controls light
passing
Either ON or OFF
Energizing: reorientation of crystals
LCD matrix for HD display

Pulse on TFT gate (entire row)
Ac supply pulse in source (entire
column)
Dot waveforms: dpi concept
Digitized sample can be directly fed
in
109

21004)
DSO: Resolution, interpolation

Bit/Byte
concept
Memory size
Num. of
samples
(bytes)
stored
4000 words
(4K)
Interpolation
Linear
Sinusoidal
110

21004)
DSO: Sampling rate, bandwidth,

Sampling dictates
rise time
accuracy of display
Samples/cycle =
Tsignal/Tsampling =
fsampling/fsignal
Real-time sampling
Equivalent-time
sampling (high
freq)
Aliasing utilized
Real-time and
storage
Oscilloscope (RSO)
Pulse rise time
10 or more samples
Min. rise time <
sampling time
Trise(min) =
1/SamplingRate
111

21004)
DSO: Applications
Autoset
Multichannel
112

21004)
display
Waveform
processing
Pre-triggering
Post-triggering
DSO: Applications (contd.)
Zoom
Time delay selection: Time
expansion
Restart
Zoom + resampling
Glitch and Runt catching

Glitch: HF on-off switching
Runt: low pulse incapable of
triggering
Max/Min level detector
Baby sitting mode
Transients detected compared
to recent stored history
Roll mode
Slow processes, slow
113

21004)
sampling, speed-up display
Documentation and Analysis
Digital RCL meters

Portable &
bench
instruments
Equivalent
circuit
determinatio
n
Terminals
Test
Frequency
Bias voltage
or current
114

21004)
Q-Meter
RF range (L,C)
Resonance property
VL = VC and I = E/R
Q = L/R = 1/ CR
Q = VL/E = VC/E
Fixed E
Linear Q scale
Variable E
Multiply-Q-by scale
Calibrated C dial
Coil inductance meter
Residuals
High impedance
measurements
Parallel connection
Low impedance
measurements
Series connection
115

21004)
Spectrum Analyzer
Tuned for RF
Signal
harmonics
116

(EE 21004)
Applications
117

(EE 21004)

MEI TeachingSlides

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

MEI TeachingSlides

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Measurement and Electronic

Instruments (EE 21004)

Electrical Bridge Circuits

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Case 2: Ammeter in series

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Bridge Circuits: Basics

For inductance and

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Wheatstone Bridge: for

%error of R: sum % errors of (S, P,

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Wheatstone Bridge: limits

Low resistance measurement

High resistance measurement

Modified Wheatstone Bridge

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Kelvin Bridge: low resistance

Lead resistance Y is removed

Equate voltages of across G

Wheatstone Bridge for high R

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

similarly, but with

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Simple Capacitance Bridge

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

higher leakage current)

Reciprocal nature in balanced equation

Wrong selection of bridge leads to

inconvenient sizes of variable

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Filters, oscillator circuits

Note similarity &

dissimilarity with series RC

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Most suitable: high Q coils

natural series RL circuit

Mid-level Q: both bridges work

Small R3 is more convenient

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Similarity with Maxwell bridge

Star-delta conversion of (R1,

R3, R5) for deriving balanced

Applicability: wide range of

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

When additional R2 used :

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Also called Heydweiller

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Many bridges can be

One standard capacitor

Measurement and Electronic Instruments

Bridge Screening: Wagner

Three levels of screening:

Individual impedances, detector

Wagner Earth: for any bridge

potential: Z5-Z6 is similar to Z2-Z4

Most stray impedance problem