NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING IN

THE OFFSHORE INDUSTRY

Lecture 8
25 April 2015

Topic
1.Introduction in Nondestructive testing.
2.Discontinuities , origin and classification
3.Visual testing.
4.Liquid penetrant inspection method.
5.Process control and interpretation of liquid penetrant inspection
6.Ultrasonic inspection method
7.Ultrasonic inspection equipment's and materials.
8.Ultrasonic inspections process control and safety.
9.Magnetic particle testing theory
10.Magnetic particle inspection applications and interpretations
11.Eddy current inspection method.
12.Application on eddy current inspection
13.Acoustic emission testing.
14.Thermal infrared testing.

7. Ultrasonic inspection
equipment's and materials

PART - II -

Transducers
The transducer is the actual front end of the
system. It is analogous to the microphone in a
public address system. If the public address
system is of the best quality and a poor
microphone is used, the sound will be only as
good as the microphone.
The same principle can be applied to an
ultrasonic system. The use of an inferior quality
transducer on the best system can result in
deficient data.

Different NDT transducers

As far back as the year 1880, the Curie brothers, Pierre

and Jacques-Paul, discovered that when sectioned in
specific planes certain crystal materials would generate a
voltage when distorted. This is called piezoelectricity
electricity due to pressure. The opposite effect is also
valid; i.e., if a voltage is applied to the crystal material, it
will distort.
Lippman documented this about a year later. Quartz
crystal is a prime example of this type of crystal. Other
naturally occurring piezoelectric materials exist, such as
tourmaline and Rochelle salt.
These crystals were used in the early days of ultrasonic
testing until polycrystalline ceramic materialsmaterials
that do not exhibit piezoelectric properties in their original
statewere developed to perform this function.

Some of the more common polycrystalline materials used

in transducers are lead zirconate titanate (PZT) and lead
metaniobate (PMN). The material is mixed in the form of a
slurry, poured into a mold, then dried under pressure. It is
then sliced to the required thickness.

This is the thickness at which the element will resonates at

its designed frequency. (Materials resonate according to
their formulation and thickness. For example, a 5 MHz
transducer element from PZT may be a different thickness
than its counterpart made from PMN).
The slices are then placed on a lapping table and precision
lapped to the final thickness. The next step is to coat the
element with a very thin layer of conductive material,
usually silver.
This is sometimes electrostatically applied. At this stage,
the element is not yet active.

A second major step forward occurred in the 1940s with the

development of poled ceramic transducers of the lead zirconate (PZT)
family, which were relatively inexpensive, rugged, high performance,
and ideally suited to field work. For the laboratory, more expensive but
very high-performance new crystals such as lithium niobate entered into
widespread use. A third wave occurred with piezoelectric films.

The development of polyvinylidine (PVDF) and then copolymers based

on it was important for many niche applicationsparticularly in medical
ultrasonics, as the acoustic impedance is very well matched to water..
More recently, the original PZT family has been improved by the use of
finely engineered piezocomposites for general BAW applications. New
SAW substrates are still under development, particularly with the push
to higher frequencies.
Microelectromechanical (MEMS) transducers are under a stage of
intense development as they have potential for high-quality, real-time,
mass-produced acoustic imaging systems.

The transducer incorporates a piezoelectric

element, which converts electrical signals into
mechanical vibrations (transmit mode) and
mechanical vibrations into electrical signals
(receive mode).
Many factors, including material, mechanical and
electrical construction, and the external
mechanical and electrical load conditions,
influence the behavior of a transducer.
Mechanical construction includes parameters
such as the radiation surface area, mechanical
damping, housing, connector type and other
variables of physical construction.

Mechanical construction includes parameters

such as the radiation surface area, mechanical
damping, housing, connector .

The piezoelectric element is cut to 1/2 the desired

wavelength. To get as much energy out of the
transducer as possible, an impedance matching is
placed between the active element and the face of
the transducer.

Optimal impedance matching is achieved by sizing

the matching layer so that its thickness is 1/4 of the
desired wavelength. This keeps waves that were
reflected within the matching layer in phase when
they exit the layer (as illustrated in the image above).
For contact transducers, the matching layer is made
from a material that has an acoustical impedance
between the active element and steel.

The backing material supporting the crystal has a great

influence on the damping characteristics of a transducer.
The bond between the backing material and the element is
of primary importance, as is the acoustic impedance match
between the element and the backing material.

Using a backing material with an impedance similar to that

of the active element will produce the most effective
damping. Such a transducer will have a wider bandwidth
resulting in higher sensitivity.
As the mismatch in impedance between the active element
and the backing material increases, material penetration
increases but transducer sensitivity is reduced.
It is also important to understand the concept of
bandwidth, or range of frequencies, associated with a
transducer.

The frequency noted on a transducer is the central or center

frequency and depends primarily on the backing material.
Highly damped transducers will respond to frequencies above and
below the central frequency. The broad frequency range provides
a transducer with high resolving power.
Less damped transducers will exhibit a narrower frequency range
and poorer resolving power, but greater penetration.
The central frequency will also define the capabilities of a
transducer.
Lower frequencies (0.5MHz-2.25MHz) provide greater energy and
penetration in a material, while high frequency crystals (15.0MHz25.0MHz) provide reduced penetration but greater sensitivity to
small discontinuities.

Different materials have different acoustic properties. In some a sound wave

can travel easily, in others it's absorbed which can make achieving an accurate
measurement difficult. Different frequencies of sound allow measurement of
different materials, so when selecting a transducer the material type and
therefore the frequency are the first consideration.

Low frequency ultrasonic transducers have the highest power and can
penetrate deeply into a material in the same way that the bass notes of music
from a car stereo can penetrate the body of a car and be heard outside. Low
frequency ultrasonic transducers are best materials that absorb sound like
plastics or composites. A low frequency transducer increases the chance of
getting a strong return echo and a good quality measurement on these
materials.
High frequency ultrasonic transducers are ideal for precision
measurement because the pulse they emit is highly focused, reducing the risk
of return echos outside of the measurement area. The high frequency and
shorter wavelength also lends itself well to measuring thin materials. A third
advantage is that high frequency ultrasonic transducers reduce troublesome
surface noise that can be present on some metals such as aluminium or
titanium and can cause measurement error.

Larger diameter probes feature larger crystals which transmit and

receive the sound wave.
A large crystal transmitter will produce a more powerful sound wave and
a larger receiving crystal will be more sensitive.
As a result, larger ultrasonic transducers tend to have better penetration
characteristics than the smaller types. If this extended range is not
required, the smaller ultrasonic transducers can be placed more
precisely and in hard to reach areas such as narrow grooves in a
material.
Smaller diameter transducers also couple more easily to curved
surfaces so have applications in corrosion testing pipes and cylinders.

Types of transducers

Transducers are classified into groups according to the

application.
Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and
are generally hand manipulated.
They have elements protected in a
rugged casing to withstand sliding
contact with a variety of materials.
These
transducers
have
an
ergonomic design so that they are
easy to grip and move along a
surface. They often have replaceable
wear plates to lengthen their useful
life. Coupling materials of water,
grease, oils, or commercial materials
are used to remove the air gap
between the transducer and the
component being inspected.

Single Element Contact Transducers are longitudinal

wave transducers designed for general purpose manual
ultrasonic inspection where test materials are relatively flat
and smooth.
Contact transducers provide high sensitivity for better
penetration and are ruggedly constructed for extended
service life under the roughest testing conditions.

www.olympus-ims.com

Dual Transducers - Transducers that incorporate separate elements for transmission

and reception of the ultrasonic energy are referred to as dual transducers. Designs
vary, but a typical dual transducer construction is as shown in Figure.

As can be seen, the elements are mounted on separate delay lines that are separated
by an acoustically opaque (nontransmitting) material such as cork.
The receiver element must not be able to receive energy directly from the transmitter
element. In other words, they must not indulge in cross-talk. The primary purpose of
this type of transducer is to enhance the near-surface resolution capability of the
ultrasonic system. The dual transducer can be designed to resolve reflectors that are
very close to the scanning surface. To this end, they are designed with a certain roof
angle or squint angle. This produces energy in the test piece that is refracted in the
direction of the receiver side of the transducer. It is obvious that the greater the roof
angle, the better the resolution close to the scanning surface.

Dual element transducers are especially well suited for

making measurements in applications where reflectors are
very near the transducer since this design eliminates the
ring down effect that single-element transducers
experience (when single-element transducers are
operating in pulse echo mode, the element cannot start
receiving reflected signals until the element has stopped
ringing from its transmit function).

Dual element transducers are very useful when making

thickness measurements of thin materials and when
inspecting for near surface defects. The two elements are
angled towards each other to create a crossed-beam
sound path in the test material.

The dual transducer can be used in angle beam

applications. In this case, the same advantages are
present. The sound energy intersection area can be
predetermined to enhance a specific area in the test
piece or component under test.

It is incorrect to refer to this type of transducer as a

focused transducer, but the technique does limit the
received reflected energy to the zone where the
beam from the transmitter intersects the hypothetical
area of the receiver beam.

Angle beam transducers and wedges are typically used

to introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material.
Transducers can be purchased in a variety of fixed angles
or in adjustable versions where the user determines the
angles of incidence and refraction. In the fixed angle
versions, the angle of refraction that is marked on the
transducer is only accurate for a particular material, which
is usually steel. The angled sound path allows the sound
beam to be reflected from the backwall to improve
detectability of flaws in and around welded areas. They are
also used to generate surface waves for use in detecting
defects on the surface of a component.

Immersion transducers do not contact the component.

These transducers are designed to operate in a liquid
environment and all connections are watertight. Immersion
transducers usually have an impedance matching layer
that helps to get more sound energy into the water and, in
turn, into the component being inspected. Immersion
transducers can be purchased with a planer, cylindrically
focused or spherically focused lens.
A focused transducer can improve
the sensitivity and axial resolution by
concentrating the sound energy to a
smaller area. Immersion transducers
are typically used inside a water tank
or as part of a squirter or bubbler
system in scanning applications.

Single Element Immersion Transducers are longitudinal

wave transducers typically used in manual, semi-automatic,
and automatic scanning systems.
Scanning parts with irregular or complex geometries is possible
because of the conforming water path layer between the
probe and the inspected material.
Superior near-surface resolution can be achieved when
compared to contact transducers. Angle beam inspection is
possible by simply angling the probe or search tube in relation
to the part surface. Focal length must be specified.

Spherical (point) or cylindrical (line)

focusing can also be accomplished
using acoustically matched lenses.

Transducer Problems
As mentioned previously, the ultrasonic test begins with
the transducer. It is therefore of all most importance that
the transducer is performing as required.
Problems with the transducer need to be identified prior to
any test. It is advisable to document the performance of
each transducer when purchased so that its performance
can be monitored during its lifetime. Items such as pulse
width, amplitude, and angle (if appropriate) should be
quantified.
Photographs of the spectrum and wave-form should be
acquired. These parameters should be checked on a
regular basis and the performance verified. It is advisable
to verify the parameters on the same system each time it is
used.
Variables such as pulsers, receivers, and cables, can
exhibit anomalies that may be erroneously attributed to the
transducer alone.

Possibilities of changes in performance include,

but are not limited to:
1. Pulse length. This can increase for the following
reasons:
a) The backing or damping material becomes detached from the
transducer.
b) The wear face becomes detached from the transducer.
c) The element or wear-face is cracked.
d) The tuning coil is detached.

2. Low sensitivity. This can occur for a number of

reasons such as, but not limited to:
a) Deterioration of or damage to the transducer element material.
b) Detachment of the transducer face.
c) Detachment of the tuning coil.

3. Beam skew (apparent) due

detachment of the transducer face.

to

partial

4. Faulty connections. Damaged or loose wires in

the transducer housing.

5. In the case of angle beam transducers,

wearing down of the Plexiglas wedge may cause
the refracted angle to change.

Couplant
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of
ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is
generally necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch between air
and solids (i.e. such as the test specimen) is large. Therefore, nearly all of the
energy is reflected and very little is transmitted into the test material. The
couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get more sound energy into
the test specimen so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be obtained. In contact
ultrasonic testing a thin film of oil, glycerin or water is generally used between
the transducer and the test surface.

When scanning over the part or making precise measurements, an immersion

technique is often used. In immersion ultrasonic testing both the transducer and
the part are immersed in the couplant, which is typically water. This method of
coupling makes it easier to maintain consistent coupling while moving and
manipulating the transducer and/or the part.

TECHNIQUES
The ways in which sound waves propagate through materials and are
attenuated, reflected, or transmitted dictate the different ultrasonic
methods or techniques used to detect the many types of discontinuities
that can exist in materials.
These techniques fall into two main categories, one called pulse-echo,
and the other called through-transmission.
Any of the techniques that may be used requires calibration of the
ultrasonic system so that the time base can have some meaning in
terms of material thickness.
Calibration Techniques
The process of calibration needs to be just as disciplined as
inspection technique. In fact, the whole inspection relies on
calibration process. Some of the following calibration techniques
concerned with measuring and documenting the characteristics of
transducer and flaw detector.

the
the
are
the

The basic calibration blocks define by BS 2704 A.2 block, also

known as the International Institute of Welding (IIW) block, is
illustrated below. Also in USA, this block is known as the IIW Type
A2 block and the dimensions are in inches.

The block can be used for the following assessments:

Calibration of the time base in terms of thickness;

Checking linearity of the time base;
Assessing overall sensitivity of probe and amplifier;
Determination of the angle of refraction;
Determination of beam characteristics;
Checking linearity of the amplifier
Checking resolution;
Determination the probe index;

The BS 2704 A.4 calibration block, also known as the V2 block, is

more compact form of the V1 block suitable for site use.

7. Ultrasonic inspection
equipments and materials

Topic
1.Introduction in Nondestructive testing.
2.Discontinuities , origin and classification
3.Visual testing.
4.Liquid penetrant inspection method.
5.Process control and interpretation of liquid penetrant inspection
6.Ultrasonic inspection method
7.Ultrasonic inspection equipments and materials.
8.Ultrasonic inspections process control and safety.
9.Magnetic particle testing theory
10.Magnetic particle inspection applications and interpretations
11.Eddy current inspection method.
12.Application on eddy current inspection
13.Acoustic emission testing.
14.Thermal infrared testing.

8.Ultrasonic inspections
process control and safety.

Inspection Techniques
Pulse-Echo Techniques
Contact Scanning Using Compression Waves. Compression wave pulseecho techniques usually employ, either a single or dual crystal transducer
directing ultrasonic energy perpendicular or near perpendicular to the scanning
surface.
These techniques are often known as straight beam testing techniques. There
are some special techniques using compression waves at steeper angles used,
for instance, in detecting cracks in ferrous materials under stainless steel
cladding and for time of flight diffraction (TOFD) testing, but these will be
covered separately.
In the standard compression wave techniques, reflections from the back wall
and discontinuities are used to assess the suitability of a component for service.
In order to obtain a reflection, it is necessary for the reflector to be orientated
so that part of its surface is parallel to the scanning surface, in other words,
normal to the beam.
Laminar discontinuities and volumetric discontinuities like gas pores and
nonmetallic inclusions are all suitably orientated.
Discontinuities that are angled to the scanning surface may either not reflect at
all or may reflect the sound away from the transducer.

Thickness measurements
The Figure (a) shows a single crystal
compression wave transducer set up
for thickness measurement of a metal
part, and Figure (b) shows the
corresponding ultrasonic Ascan trace
in which the time base has been
calibrated for 25 mm full scale.
The initial pulse appears at zero on
the left of the trace and the back
reflection signal appears threequarters along the time base,
indicating a sample thickness of 18.75
mm.
Thickness gauging is one of the
simplest examples of compression
wave testing.
Notice that the initial pulse occupies
almost a quarter of the time base so
that 6 mm of metal path are obscured.
This obstructed area is known as the
dead zone.

Another example of measurement

The Figure (a) in the right shows a dual element

transducer set up for thickness measurement on
a sample that is 4 mm thick. Figure (b) shows
the trace for this sample with the time base
again calibrated for 25 mm.
Notice that the selection of dual operation of
the flaw detector isolates the transmitter from the
receiver circuit, so there is no initial pulse and,
therefore, no dead zone. The first back reflection
signal (also called back wall echo or BWE)
shows at 4 mm on the time base.
Notice also that multiples of the BWE appear at
8, 12, 16, 20, and 24 mm on the time base.
One way in which the reading accuracy can be
improved is to take a reading from a multiple and
divide the result by the number of passes
corresponding to that multiple.
Take, for example, the reading at 24 mm (which
is the sixth signal). Divide 24 by 6 and the
answer is 4 mm.

Contact Scanning Using Angle Beam Shear Waves.

If the possible orientation of any discontinuity is
considered to be unfavorable to a beam perpendicular to
the scanning surface, it will be necessary to tilt the beam
to an appropriate angle to ensure that the beam strikes
the discontinuity as near perpendicular as possible.

For small angles (up to about 10 in the test material),

compression waves may be used. However, for larger
angles, mode conversion to shear wave energy makes
the use of compression waves alone impossible.
It therefore becomes necessary to increase the incident
angle beyond the first critical angle, leaving only a shear
wave in the part.

The lowest practical angle for testing with a shear wave alone
is about 35 refracted shear wave angle. This does not mean
that testing at angles between 10 and 35 is impossible.
However, if an angle in this range needs to be used, the
practitioner must consider carefully the geometry of the part.
The next decision is whether to use the compression wave or
the simultaneous shear wave, depending on what happens to
the unwanted mode. Regular off the shelf transducers are
either straight beam compression wave or shear wave angle
transducers of 35 to 70.
The common or preferred angles available in ultrasonics for
shear wave testing are 45, 60, and 70, although other angles
can be made to order. The angles marked on a shear wave
transducer are for steel, unless followed by an identifying letter
for other materials.
For instance, 45Al would denote a 45 shear wave angle
transducer for aluminum.

Half Skip and Full Skip Techniques

The simplest angle beam test is one that looks only for vertical
surface-breaking discontinuities
originating at the scanning surface or back wall. Next illustration
in the figure (a) shows a 45 shear wave transducer positioned
on a 20 mm thick plate.
The beam reflects at the bottom and then top surfaces at an
angle equal to the angle of incidence of the shear wave beam,
45 in this case.
Note that with no discontinuity present, no echo energy returns
to the transducer.

Figure (b) shows the transducer

aimed at a slot breaking the
bottom surface.
This slot will produce an echo
arriving back at the transducer at
a fixed time that is twice the
beam path distance AB divided
by the shear wave velocity.

The trace is shown at Figure (c )

the time base is calibrated for
100 mm return trip time, and the
beam path distance is shown as
28 mm.

In Figure (d), the distance AB along the

scanning surface is called the half skip
distance and for a 45 probe this is
equal to the specimen thickness.
Position C is called the half skip position.

Any discontinuity breaking the bottom

surface of this part will produce a signal
at 28 mm.
Figure (d) shows the transducer
positioned to reflect from a top surfacebreaking slot.
The distance AD is called the full skip
distance and a full skip signal would
appear at 56 mm on the time base, as
shown in Figure (e).

If the transducer is scanned along a 20 mm plate

containing top and bottom surface-breaking
discontinuities, only three signal patterns are
possible:
1. No signal representing sound material
2. A signal at 28 mm representing a bottom corner
reflector
3. A signal at 56 mm representing a top corner
reflector
For the practitioner, interpretation of results is
relatively simple since there are only two screen
locations on which to concentrate.
The technique is commonly used to detect fatigue
cracks during the in-service inspection of critical
components.

Beam Path Distance Techniques

Of course, not all discontinuities occur at the top or bottom
surfaces.
In welds or castings, for example, planar and volumetric
discontinuities may occur anywhere within the volume of
the part.
In order to detect, correctly assess, and position such
discontinuities, it is necessary to determine the distance
along the beam path at which the reflection occurs.
This distance together with the known beam direction and
angle allows the position of the discontinuity to be plotted.

Volumetric discontinuities, such as gas pores or slag

inclusions in welds, are not very sensitive to beam
angle.

Approached from almost any direction, there is likely

to be a facet of the discontinuity that will reflect back
to the transducer.
On the other hand, planar discontinuities, such as
lack of side wall fusion in welds and angular cracks,
are very sensitive to beam angle.
The practitioner must be aware of the types of
discontinuities that might occur during fabrication
and service in a part to be inspected.

To be able to measure beam path distance, the time

base must be calibrated for the shear wave velocity
in the material to be inspected.
This process of calibration requires suitable
calibration blocks. Such calibration blocks should be
capable of being used for a variety of beam angles.
An example of a calibration block (IIW) is shown in
Figure below.

8.Ultrasonic inspections process

control and safety.

END of PART - I -