NASA-CR-202414

030601-10-T

ROBUST

HYBRID

FINITE

FOR ANTENNAS

AND

J. Gong

Volakis

and

National

J.L.

Aeronautics

Space
Langley
Hampton,

ELEMENT

MICROWAVE

METHODS
CIRCUITS

and

Administration
Research
Center
VA
23681-0001

October

1996
THE

UNIVERSITY

Radiation
Department
and
Ann
USA

MICHIGAN

Laboratory
of Electrical

Computer
Arbor,

OF

Engineering

Science

Michigan

48109-2122

Report

NASA
Grant

Langley

Grant

NAG

#030601-10-T

1-1478

Title:
Simulation

of Conformal

Antennas
Report

Title:

Report

Authors:

Primary

University

Primary
tor:

on Composite

Robust
Development
nite Element
Methods
and

Microwave

J. Gong*
Collaborator:

NASA-Langley

J.L.

John

L. Volakis

Platforms

of Hybrid
FiFor Antennas

Fred

Beck

Volakis

Collabora-

Address:

(804)

Radiation
ing and

864-1829

Laboratory

Department

of Electrical
Computer

Engineer-

Science

Ann Arbor,
Michigan
48109
Email:
volakis_umich.edu
Phone:
Date:

*This
ment

October

report

of the

was also submitted

requirements

Slot

Circuits

and

Telephone:

University

Spiral

for the

(313)764-0500
1996

by the first author(JG)

Ph.D.

degree

at the

2122

toward

University

the

fulfill-

of Michigan.

TABLE

DEDICATION

OF

CONTENTS

..................................

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST

OF

FIGURES

LIST

OF

TABLES

LIST

OF

APPENDICES

ii

..........................

iii

...............................

ix

................................

xv

............................

xvi

CHAPTER
I. Introduction

II.

..............................

1.1

Overview

1.2

Fundamentals

Finite
2.1

Maxwell
Boundary

1.2.3

Uniqueness

1.2.4

Integral

Element

2.2

Galerkin

2.3

Total

and

Theorem
Equation

and
and

Value

Equivalence

Problems

Principle...

Green's

in Electromagnetics

Function

..........

Pertinent
Functional
-- II
..........................

For

Formulation

21
Lossy/Anisotropic

Media
25

Lossy/Anisotropic

Media
27

Field

2.3.1
2.3.2

Scattered/Incident
Galerkin's
Method

2.3.3

Variational
Extraction

'28

Formulations

Fields and
...................

Method

Radiation

and

2.4.2

Gain

Axial

RCS

..................

Ratio

vi

Pattern

.........

Boundary

Conditions

'.30
31
34
36

......................

2.4.1

13
20

......................

Scattered

7
10

. .

.....................
For

and

5
6

Boundary

Dyadic

Pertinent
Functional
-- I ...........................

and

...........

..................

Conditions

Formulation

Field

Parameler

Theory

Equations

Analysis

Functional

of Electromagnetic

1.2.2

2.1.'2

2.4

.............................

1.2.1

2.1.1

38
.............

.................

38
10

III.

Edge-Based
3.1

Inlroduction

3.2

Hybrid

3.3
3.4

IV.

V.

VI.

FE-BI

Efficient

...................

l:_

...........................

S\slenl

13

Functional

....................

I1

:1.:2.1

FK.M Subs\stem

....................

15

3.:2.2
3.2.3

Boundary
('ombined

System

Numerical
Selected

Integral
FE-Bl

Subs\slenl

lmt_lementation
Numerical
Results

Boundary

4.1

Introduction

4.2

Application

Integral

-IT
5(}

............

...............

...................
...................

Subsystem

31
3t

--

I ...........

(il

...........................
of Conjugate

4.9.1

BiCG

4.:2.:2

BiCG-FFT

4.2.3

Convolutional

6I

Gradient

Algorithm

With

........

Preconditioning

Algorithm
Form

Algorithms
For Linear

of Boundary

6:2

.......

(;:2

System

......

6-1

Integral

......

65

4.3

Mesh Overlay
Scheme
......................
4.3.1
Field Transformations
.................

71
71

4.4

Results

76

..............................

Efficient

Finite

5.1

Introduction

,5.2

Hybrid

,5,3

Edge-Based

5.4

Applications

5.,5

Concluding

Antenna
6.I

6.2
6.3

Element

Feed
Probe

Remarks

Simple

Probe

6.1.2

Voltage

Gap

Aperture-coupled
Coax Cable Feed

Modeling

II

............

Motivation
Hybrid

S0
80

...................

Elements

S1

................

85
87

.......................

95

.......................

98

............................

6.1.1

Conclusion

--

...........................

Feed

6.3.3
6.3.4

Circuit

Formulation
Prismatic

Modeling

6.3.2

6.4

Subsystem

...........................

FE-BI

6.3.1

VII.

Technique

98

Feed
Feed

..................
...................

Microstrip
Model
.........................

99
..............

.......................
FE-BI

System

...........................

vii

99
102
10:2

................

Proposed
Coax Feed Model
..............
Results
and Conclusion
................
............................

98

103
]03
10S
109

115

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

VIII.

AWE:

I] ",
117
12tJ
I:21
1_._'
121

Asymptotic

133

8.1

Brief

8.2

Theory

8.3
IX.

[m rodu(liolJ ...........................
.Nunwrhal Do en,}wdding ....................
TrullcatioiJ l_si_g I).MT . ....................
]rullcation l'six_gP.XIL .....................
7.4.1 -I'heorv . ........................
7.4._ Results .........................

Overview

of AWE

.....................

8.2.1

FEM

8.2.2

Asymptotic

Numerical

.............

1:_3

System

13-1

Recast

..................

\Vaveform

Implementation

Evaluation

...................

...............................

9.1

Discussion

9.2

Suggestions

9.3

Modular

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Evaluation

. .............................

Conclusions

APPENDICES

Waveform

on the

Development

136
138
142

Research

for Future

13-1
..........

Work

Tasks

..................

.......................

..................................

................

142
145
14,5
147

................................

159

Vlll

LIST

OF

FIGURES

Figure
1.1

(a)

Recessed

cavity

a dielectrically
Illustrations
shown
1.3

PEC

of equivalence

Illustrations

(by Recessed

cavity

in

when

12

applied

to tile

structure
14

principle

when

applied

to the

structure

in fig. 1.1 b .............................

Examples

of protruding

conformal

Illustration
of a scattering
lation ...................................

of a typical

A tetrahedron
3.3

Pair

3.4

A typical

and

of triangles

A flow

chart

its local

the

BiCG

solution

Comparison

of the

the

angle

30 off the

was

ith

.......

setup

for scattered

field

edge

major

finally

scattering

and

for the
ground

16
'2"2

formu-

data

.......

scheme

45

......

46

.................

49

circular

implementation
output

measured

shown

circular

plane ...................

ix

problem

numbering

preprocessors,
the

computed

of frequency

configuration

node/edge

the

and

(by

principle.

antenna

and

a few data

a function

equivalence

for a cavity-backed

describes

generation,

platform

30

geometry/mesh

mesh

on a planar

of the

problem

radiation

sharing

the

(a)

in consideration

of a typical

Illustration

15

configurations

platform

Illustration

3.6

plane.

plane ................

principle

of equivalence

on a curved

3.5

ground

ground

in fig. 1.1a .............................

shown
1.4

in a PEC

coated

patch

antenna.

procedures
the

FE-BI

from

kernel,

to

.............

53

aoo backscatter
patch.

51

The

RCS

as

incidence
56

3.7

('onlpari-wl,
circular

palch

center
3._

:howll

of lh(. patch

Illustration
spiral

3..9

c_f tim cunltJutcd

of the

o = 90-plane.

3.10

3.11

Visualization

of the

mesh

Illustration

of two

Printed

the

t_f the

paltern
for the

:l I_, 3.', (ill/.

tm_.-arIik

c,,_ical
5",

(Ec,).
one-arm

lakel,

iit lhe

conical

spiral

FE-BI

shown

right

with

the

property

antenna

cavil v-

the

lower

laver

of a
60

triangles

...........

corresponding

is modeled

boundary
using

the

algorithm.
(a)
of the BiCG-FFT
presented

triangular

here

at

of the

technique

of a structured
mesh,

distribution

the BiCG-FFT
(b) Comparisons

ordinary

illust ral_'d

.....................

of equal

convolutional

ions for the

59

field

triangles

patch

calculat

antenna

consists

circular

Overlay
tured

n_'_,h

radiation

in reference

near

patch

Structured

of the

,xv,,t)T tronl

5_

circular

to incorporate
configuration:

4.5

data

Comparison
of input impedance
backed
slot .................................

to prove

4.4

a1,d

wa,

of tig. 3.. t)................

calculated

with

I_,l 1t_,'

in fig..3.,_

stacked

4.3

contiguratiotl

illl_Ul il_ll,,'_l,Ll_,'

h'_'d v,a> l,lac_,_t 1).', c_1, tI,,x_t I tJ_.

tl,(, fr(,(lu(,n(-v

for the computation

('omparison
shown

in tio. :l.(;. lh_'

and

of the

used

al_,l lll,'a.._ir_.cl

indices

to help

integral

.....

recessed

mesh

to a circular

70

scheme

Illustration
of the
result with that

in chapter

aperture

to conform

66

3 ........

over
patch

an

72
unstruc-

........

7:3

Illustration
of the parameters
and geometry
used in constructing
the
transformation
matrix elements
between
the structured
and unstructured

mesh ................................

4.6

Illustration

4.7

Comparisons
2 triangular

of the

cavity-backed

of the monostatic
patch

using

the

regular

using

the

BiCG-FFT

74

array
BiCG

shown
FE-BI

triangular
radar

cross

in fig. 4.6.
technique

proposed

in this

patch
section
The

.......

scattering

reults

described
chapter

array.

were

by a 2
computed

in chapter

.............

77

3 and
78

-t..',

('on_parison._
empty

of I}_e nlollO_.lalic

aperlure

with

a._ the slructure

4.9

Ill(' regular

using

the

BiCG

regular

BiCG

transform

5.1

Geometry

5.2

Illustration

5.3

Right

5.4

Geometry"

of the
and

FE-BI

servation

cut

slot antenna

RCS patterns

code

and

prismatic

wave

is polarized

the

FE-BI

along

the

to that

lines

whereas

the

dotted

Upper

code

periodic

element

Upper
face

FE-BI

transmission

setup

and

coefficient

Illustration

of a typical

5.10

Radiation

Pattern

axial

is achieved

from

are

norinallv

and

the
are

probe

the

ob-

X-pol

and

annular

slot

computed

lines

excitation

using

computed
is placed

the
us-

at the
89

computing

periodic

the

element

FSS

(top

(cross-sectional

view);

view)

of transmission

transmission

co-

Lower

figure:

...........

through

90

the FSS struc-

..........................
of the

used for modeling;

5.9

ratio

for

comparisons

geometry

The

Radiation:

_ = 0 plane

The

the tetra-

5.4 .....................

in cavity

in fig. 5.6

figure:
(FSS)

code.

in fig.

figure:

cm in

using

code.

plane.

solid

marked

23.7

o = 0 plane

The

FE-BI

by a cavity

computed

in the

efficient

8-1

88

(co-pol)

of the

51

........................

patterns

shown

o\cr-

...........

backed

in fig. 5.4.

Calculations

wilh

S-I

shown

Illustration

usil_g

................

radiation

ture
5.8

prisms

is perpendicular

(y=0)

modeled

algorilhm

antennas

antenna

point

:{ al_d

7,9

using

annular

ing the prismatic

5.7

alltcnna

Co-pol
tetrahedral

ilt clial,lCl

...........................

Bistatic
plane

!i

............

BiCG-EFT

microstrip

3 cm deep

incident

_.=

xv,lc alcutal,'_t

described
chal)ICr.

patch

},_ a:_

ric lilliz_

.............................

prism

Scattering:

the

dich'cl

_IL(' resull._

in this

and

of tessellation

diameter

Again.

a crcular

of cavity-backed

angled

hedral

by

FE-BI

size and

BI Iechni(lUe

proposed

R(_'S scattering

laying

5.6

t'E

cro>> ._.clit,_L .callc_i_u

cavity

ill fig. 4.6.

Bi('G-FFT

Bistatic
the

5.5

shown

usillg

radar

t}l_' same

92

multilayer

lower

through

the

figure:

FSS structure

2-arm

slot-spiral

at f=l.lGHz

(center

up to 60 degree

xi

frequency
measured

design
frequency
.................

selective
and

sur-

calculated
93

..........
...........
design).

96
A good
96

5.11

Hadiation

Pallern

II call

t,e seen

compared
3dB

5.12

6.1

turns

can

seen
shows

increased

to insure

center

frequency

the

aperture

computation

(c) uniform

of the

distribution

element

method

using

(a)

most

is the

point

coordinate

Field

calculated

Measured

and

lar patch
r=13mm;

antenna
cavity

Our

and
on

the

modeling

feed

!_7

raIlgCi.

frequency.
slill

Ihib

needs

lo

l,c
97

showing

II for two

the

different
100

line
with

with

surface)
cable

expansion

a coax

A/4 from

impedance

100

cable

cable

feed.

feed:

junction

(the

--:

the

by the
analytical:

of the

Field

110

(b)
field
110

as computed

(b)

from

.............

the length

short);

mesh

region ......

a coax

(6.18).

e0 along

input

typical

cavity-cable

coax

of the

(b)

antenna

at the

at a distance

calculated

....

is deleriorated

antenna,

region

antenna

coefficient

location

loops

microstrip

conductor

the

sutticien_

of frequency

_l,,'

...............

aperture:

patch

mesh

center

likel\

lower

patch

from

in a shorted

numerical.

based

mesh

FEM

at the

l,uxnt,'vt,f

pattern

and

line

slot

of a cavity-backed

is set to zero

e_=2.4;

(a)

of a cavity-backed

Illustration

Field

coupled

th,'

.......................

its discretization

Side view

end

pattern

microstrip

domains

wiIl_i_

of inner

quality

the

litlgCl

reniai_>

of the

number

a good

},ccolIl','.-

thai

(higher

ial_,.:,,',.

])atlcrll

is mosl

at the

of an

(a)

design

of frcqucIic.',

}nil still

in(licales

ratio

I and

region:

Ihis

axial

cavity

and

of lh_'

the

that

cmt

flequcltcv.

colllour

('ross-section

slot

ratio

at f=l.256GHz

certainly

Illustration

6.6

range.

that

to those

region

lh,xvvr

ccnler

spiral

Pattern
be

cavity

6.5

angle

compared

FEM
6.2

the. axial
at tile

in the

Radiation
It

that

to thal

for a wide

outer

at f=(I.!144(;tlz

xxx:

cable

along

the

shorted

finite
(leftradial

termination.

for a cavity-backed

111

circu-

having
the following
specifications:
patch
radius
radius
R=21.1mm;
substrate
thickness
t=4.1mm:
location

simple

probe

retains

the

x/=0.8
model
vertical

uses the incoming

coaxial
mode
(b) Imaginary
part ............................

xii

cm
are
wire
field

distance
also

from
shown

connection
for excitation.

center.
for
to the
(a)

Results

comparison.
patch
Real

and
part:
112

(;.7

Measured

and (alcula1('dinlml i1_ll)(',lal,c

fl,vi_circ_larl>a_,l_
,_-

t('nna having th(' followin.o_. _l>('(ilicalion_:

l)aI(l_ radiu:
v=:&n_: >ul,stra_(" thickness
d=t).21_l-tcm:
f('('d It,(a_it,n
t rt)))l (('lll_'I .:..=0.7,)i_:
_,=2.33:

/an/_=(}.0012.

pro})(, model.

(a)

-"

Ileal

part

7.I

Illustration

of a shielded

7.2

Illustration

of the

7.3

7.4

A rectangular

perfectly

Plane

wave incidence

half-spaces
7.5

Typical

7.7

Field

field

7.11

7.13

line.
(b)

]aver.

....

1:21

truncal('d

........

1:22

two diagonally

inside

matched

TErn

mode

inside

uniaxial

element

was 0.5 cm which

per

wavelength

Reflection

aniso)VOl)iC

layer

used

vs 2i3t/Ag

layer

absorber

128

terminated

by a

is 10 elements

translates

to about

thick

13 samples

used

with

to terminate

the

vs 2_t/Ag

by the

coefficient

to the

by the

calculations

of a meander
line
...............................

Comparison

of calculated

and

perfectly
shown

matched

in fig. 7.6.

a = '3, for the perfectly

waveguide
o=l,

with

matched
. . 129

microstrip

laver ........

_3, for

matched

PML

129

in fig. 7.6.

shielded

uniaxial

geometry

shown

for the

perfectly

reference

Illustration
measurement

in fig.7.12

waveguide

for the

theoretical

1) for the

matched

vs 2/3t/Ag

line terminated
impedance

with

perfectly

128

the

vs 2/3t/Ag,

coefficient

Reflection

(o

to terminate

coefficient

Reflection

laver ...........

a waveguide

The

wavegui(h'

at 4.5 GHz ........................

coefficient

Reflection

layer.

a rectangular

uniaxial

matched

shown

line

absorbing

mode

each

compared
7.12

microstrip

between

and

Input

113
115

a microstrip

perfectly

crostrip

c:

123

of TErn

of the

line terminated
7.10

and

on an interface

values

values

uniaxial
7.9

,7 c

line ................

uniaxiaI

by a perfectly

uniaxial
7.8

lll('l]lt)d:

l)arl ............

of a shielded

(a)

matched

llli_,

................................

terminated
7.6

lmagilmry

section

waveguide

the

(b)

xxx:

microstrip

cross

using

nleasur(,nl('lll:

the

shielded

uniaxial

terminated

130
mi-

layer.

microstrip

130
as

data ...............
used

131

for comparison

with
132

measured

.............................

results

for the

meander

line
132

xiii

8.1

Illustration of the shielded micro,.lrit,-.Tlzl, ecilv_l witt, a cllVl,'I_

probe. ..................................

l ttl

b.2

Impedancecalculalionsusing tradil ional t"KNI frequezlcvanal\si> t_i

a shieldedmicrostrip stul_showlJil_ tigtlrc 8.1. Solid line i> I]1t,l_.'il]
part and the dashedline denotesthe imaginary par! of lhc solutions..
Thesecomputations are usedas refi','cncefor comparisons......
1.10

8.3

4th order and Sth order AWE implenwnta_ionsusing one I)oim expansionat 1.78GHz are shown to comparewith the referencedata.
With the 4th order AWE solutions. 5(;Zand :13_7_
bandwidtl_ agreement can be achievedfor the real (a) and imaginary (b) parts of
impedancecomputations, respectively. It is also shown that the _th
order solutions agree excellently with the refe,'encedata over the
entire band. (a) Real Part (b) Imaginary Part computations ....
1-tl

9.1

Multi-modular FEM environment ...................

146

A.1

(a) A tetrahedron. (b) its local node/edgenumbering scheme....

148

xiv

LIST

OF

TABLES

Table
5.1

Comparisons

6.1

The

of gain

correspondence

for each
parameters

coordinate(r,o

and

axial

between

ratio
the

or z) along

in (6.18) ...........................

XV

at different

edge

numbers

with

the

operating
and

definition

frequencies

tilt'

node

pairs

of tilt'

tildcd

95

108

LIST

OF

APPENDICES

Appendix
A.

Evaluation

of Matrix

B.

Evaluation

of the

C.

Formulation

D.

System

Elements

Boundary

for Right

Derivation

Integral

Angle

From

for Tetrahedrals

Prisms

A Functional

xvi

System

............

.Matrix

...................

..................

..........

t-t'_

152

154

157

CHAPTER

Introduction

One

of the

of robust
and

hybrid

design

integral
on

primary
finite

recently

wave
the

chapter

with

are

(FE-BI)

techniques

shape.

overviewed

FE-BI

of the

of certain

important

Both

in this

methodologies

structure

discussions

with

integral

of arbitrary

The

which

development

on vehicles
are

restricted
have

loaded

with
gain

of simulation

is a challenging

niques

and

hybrid

is concerned

for

finite

chapter

with

antennas,

dissertation

develol)_n('nt
for modeling

the

element

and

an emphasis

microwave

is then

fundamental

to this

the

and

outlined.

concepts

and

We

methods

study.

Overview

The

ods

dissertation

will be first

applications.

in electromagnetics,

1.1

antennas

methods

developed

millimeter

in this

element-boundary

of conformal

equation

conclude

goals

to

difficulty

planar
in being

dielectrics

performance

a sophisticated

task.

feeding

and
[1-4].

and

techniques
By and
mostly

extended
comprised

large,

existing

rectangular

antennas
analysis

patch

of intricate

such

practical
as coaxial

shapes
antenna
cable,

typically
and

to attain
designs
microstrip

mounted

design

antennas.

to non-rectangular/non-planar

Moreover,

structure,

for conformal

These

methtech-

configurations
larger
may

bandwidth
also

line.

require
stripline.

proxin_itv or al,erlur,,
are

riot

easi]\

co,,]4e_t

adaptal,le

sized <tMecTric

(e.g.

elemenl

and finite

unbouilded

field

modeling
scattering.
velop

The

antennas

loading-.

personal

cellular

GPS

for

such

techniques

are

being

re-designed

and

other

since

even

diverse

traditional

this

can be applied

to medical

complexity

veloped
able.

based

with

finite

element

tenna

structure

design,
analvsis
the

most

bination

feed

application

more

been

method

variety

of existing

is indeed

(multi-layer
network

methods
accurate
of the

and

substrate,
cavity

in engineering.

element

and

that

versatile,
finite
approach

the

and

other

hand.

boundary

anlennas
of new

have

in

shown

exterior

method
quite

volume

is one

of the

the

boundary

integral

be deadapt-

when

antenna.

(FE-BI)

[9]. The
of the

stacked
most

methods

an-

element
celebrated

integral
Thus

cou-

attractive

configurations

loading,

to the

software

geometrically

interior

size dielectric

etc.)

design

becomes

modeling

the

which

element

for

fields

need

for a host

and

antenna

of the

of

electromagnetics

and

emerging

the

growth

rapid

is an increasing

treatment

and

finite

the

low frequency

analysis

the

equation

volume,
On

representation
finite

ideal

('onformal

[7, 8].

that

integral

aim

simulate

requirements

and

robust,

demonstrated

traditional

a wide

are

there

protruding

diagnosis

demands
that

\Vith

of computational

potential

of new antennas

it has

the

for modeling

development

on methodologies

Recently'

pled

and

accurately

to meet

radiathm

based on the need To ds.-

schemes.

and

_cct,,,icim._.

ditticultiv-izl

in a,:enlm

systems,

and

most

The

feeding

for conformality

research

can

,,_,'_it,,,l-

i,_ _l_' t'"'""_'"'

al>o ('t..riciic_.

is therefol'e

communication

[5, 6]. Besides,

tremendous

niav

which

_.,l_.,li,,,_

_.(lUa_iv,_ I1_I)I]!

such as _hose found

applications
subject

method_.l

techniques

with

i_I,.._,,,l
e>t..ci_,llv

(litt'crciltial

of this dissertation

shape

a,_l

_.truclu,,.-.

Partial

difference

analysis

of arbitrary

lh,'.-v

problems,

motivation

general-purpose

nelwork.,.I<,

to nlo&'li,,g

of finitely
finite

circuit

offers

the

com-

provides

for thehandlinaoftlle_eometricalcoml_h'xitvwithout

cunlpr_,llli_inaaccut_,,x. [t_i-

hybrid methodology appearsto b(' very attracli\_' [oz COllfOrnlalantcilna lll_.i,']ill_.

However.its (h,velopnlent and application to more practical a1_dcnler_iIh,-t'
_llt_'llI_presentsus witt, many theoretical and numericalchallenges,whicl, will t_,cxlci>iv'l\
investigatedin the work.
Specifically.meshtermination plays an important role in FENI simulations _nd.
in many cases,the accuracyis subjecl to the performanceof the domain truncation
scheme. For conformal antenna modeling, a boundary integral (BI) equation llas
been employedin this dissertation for terminating the antenna's radiating surface
and this method is theoretically free of approximation. Thus, a desiredaccuracycan
be achievedwithout fundamental limitations. Antenna configurations of arbitrary
shape can be readily tessellatedusing mesh generation packagesin the context of
the FE-BI technique. In modeling the interior regionor the feed network, a superior
artificial absorbing material-

perfectly matched layer (PML) -- has been usedto

ensurea minimum impact dueto

performance
been

has

designed
Frequency

design.

and

waveform

been

successfully

shall

investigate
of the

using

the

out

employed

used
the

suitability

important
finite

(AWE;),

issues

element

An intensive
selection

in shielded
the

are

needed,
A method,

can be used

to alleviate

circuit

and

validity

in antenna

method

analysis.

they

PML's

parameters

In the

referred
this

has

context

analysis

is the

feed

engineering

quickly

become

to as the

asymp-

It has

already

issue.

for simulating

a challenging

for

can

of AWE

is indeed

of the

modeling.

information

techniques.

and

study

of PML

structure

necessary

responses

domain

in VLSI

walls.

the optimal

provide

wideband

to time

evaluation

and

herewith

methods

when

compared

totic

One

carried

domain

However,

expensive

feed

been

truncation

of the

FEM,

MMIC

devices.

design.
problem,

we

Modeling
and

a sin>

pliii('d prol,e
other

hand.

fe,_d n,,.,<i,_'l fai]_. I<, _ccmat,:lv

the

is modeled

numerical

without

careful

will he investigated
and

vohage

b('cL, n_(' ill-(_)lldil,

consid('rations.

generators,

In till,

of accuracy

stripline,

iom.d

wll('ll

ef[icienc\.

line. coaxial

()I_ _it,'

a f('('(I l_,,lx_,I-k

<li.-._er_atiolJ xari_m>

and

microstrip

ilIIt,(',tatl,,'.

f_,('(l lla,(],,l-

"]-tl(,v ilhclmh'
cabh,,

<urn,hi

al)erl ur(' c_)ul)h'd

etc.

In regards
test

and

and

circular)

cone

(all

in consideration

gap

microstrip,

svsten_

pv_.,clict l tl,_' iIil,lll

to the

design

development

benchmark
patch

antenna,

models

antennas,

etc.

and

applications

of the

of particular

dual-stacked

]t is noted

that.

dissertation

structure,

and

proceed

interest
patch

some

simulation
are

inicrostrip

antenna,

of thern

ring

are

techniques.

not

_he

(rectai_gular

slot

antenna,

necessarily

and

planar

or

conformal.
Referring
magnetic

to the

fundamentals

alence

principle,

element

method

subsequently
tional
the

Dyadic

Galerkin

inclusion

eralization

Green's

as applied

described

and

lossy

materials

are

edge-based

FE-BI

feed

network

methodologies
Chapter
for

guide

basic

structures

The

present.

The
the

to circuit
are

and

emphasis

electromagnetic

fields

presented.

are

in these
computing
where

equiv-

The
and

from

finite

waves

both

is

varia-

in algebraic

form

allowing

discussion

is on

the

techniques
6 discuss

efficiency

The

derived

of the

and

of electro-

conditions,

theorems.

Galerkin

modeling

boundary

is given

3,4,5

a description

related

emphasis

significant

required

the

equations

Chapter
with

with

the

derivation

functional

modeling.

7 is devoted

and

FEM

The

techniques

to minimize

wave

the

anisotropy.

variational

and

functions

techniques.

of general

to discuss

to time-harmonic

and

of the

and

then

we begin

when
the

is on

anisotropic

development

improvement

chapters

gen-

of

for antennas
developing

novel

resources.
specialized

perfectly

matched

truncations
laver

suited

(PML).

an

5
anb,olropic aNiticial absorber usedfor nlesb truncalhm, i, inve',_lieal_'t]irl 1,'Illl'- L,I
perfornlanceand applications.
\\ide}_and svslem responses])lompt us to look at lnore c[tichql/ allal\-i_ t_,t,lto replacetile
discusses

last

the

list of suggested

capability

topics

ployed,
This

man5

will also

domain

of the

and

is included

FEM

and

anal\sis

describe

discuss

tile

ensure

with

recommendations.

and

pertinent

consistency'

anticipaled

of the

specific

('ltat_I'i

Wil}l lhe

applications

concepts
the

apl)roaches.

in connection

robusl

of Electromagnetic

fundamental

we will

frequency

we summarize

Fundamentals

Since

force

development

chapter,

to extend

1.2

brute

a preliminary

In the
work

current

.-\\V[:'.
research

future

FEM

,',

deve]opz_enl.

Theory

theorems

ones

of electromagnetics

in this

in nomenclature

section

and

for

will be em-

reference

conventions

purpose.

throughout

the

(PDE)

con-

dissertation.
The
sidered

vector

wave

in this

research

boundary

conditions

boundary

value

the

half-space

in radiation

equation
--

and

will

the

(BVP).

Green's

scattering

only

be first

will be studied

problems
dyadic

--

partial

derived

to establish
The

functions

problems.

equivalence
are

then

differential
from
the

Maxwell

general

principle,
briefly;

equation
equations.

Various

mathematical
uniqueness

discussed

models
theorem

for EM

of
and

solutions

1.2.1

Maxwell

Tinle

Equations

harnxoriic

uniform

I_ledinm

NIaw'll equa_ i,>tl_-of <lifl-_'rci_ial

aro aixexl

E and

radian

frequency

dissertation;
to serve
denote

the

and

Mi and

VE

-j_'_.H-M,

t l.1)

VH

j.:_.E+J,

(1.2)

V'._-E

p,

(1.3/

pm

(1.4/

the

electric

the

and

magnetic

which

medium

charge

the

_=

respectively,

e0L

#o_

#o

_o and/_o

being

the

free

space

may

_23

_31

_32

_33

p_ and

fictitious

problems

and
when

_ represent

in general,

p_,

the

as

_13

tA12

_13

/_22

/123

P32

F33

and

are

_ and

be written,

(22

permittivity

p_

this

respectively.

finally

and

tensors

e21

_u21

current,

of physical

_712

F31

with

M,

(11

_11

_u =

Both

_ is the

throughout

consideration;

material
and

e0

electric

formulation

The

respectively.

suppressed

and

under

density.

facilitate

intensity,
and

magnetic

is employed.

permeability,

field

e a'_t is assumed

in the

magnetic

principle
and

and

factor

sources

quantities,

equivalence

permittivity

electric

J, are the impressed

as possible

non-physical
the

H are

;,i,ci

t)5 [10]

V. .H

where

f,,Hl_ ill a lil_'at, aIli..,,l t,,l,i,

permeability.

(1.5)

(1.6)

The
the

procedure

two

of (1.1)

to (h'rixe

lhe

fi('ld quanlilies

from

with

_-l

the

tensor

Substitution

(1.7)

(--,
p,.

and
then

(1.2}.
take

equation

-v'g

I,t,oitl>

I,x t'lillliILalitlC

To do _.,. w_. til..I

the curl

E=-j_'poV

of (1.'2)into

V" x

(l.lt
and

V p,l.V

way('

v(,ctor

on I,oth

H-V

lake" a dot

sides

H_

t_It_' _,f

cd tl.l!

i,v_,tul

to ol,_ail_

L.7]

-M,

yields

=_2,Uo_o_,..E-j,_',,o.li-K

(--,)

H,

.M,

or

X-7

where

_:_.V

ko = Wv//2oeo

and

can

vector

1.2.2

carefully

types

finite

Dirichlet

medium

space

of the

of boundary

two media

1 to medium

-H=

with

desired

number.

(--,)
P,.

The

dual

"M,

of (1.8)

-jwe0Mi+Vx

(')

(1.2).

(1.8)

_,

Equations

1.S)

is given

by

.J,

and

(1.9)

(1.9)

are

the

form.

and

Boundary

conditions
these

follows

-j,_/.t0J,-V

wave

starting

method,

In what

.E=

-koCh,

Conditions

Boundary

Consider

free

derived

element

treated.

-k02_,.

xH

equations

Boundary

Three
of the

_-'.V

be similarly

wave

is the

V x

Value

are typically
boundary

we shall

Problems

encountered,

conditions

discuss

these

and

must

in the

context

be considered

and

conditions.

Condition
separated
2. The

by a surface

fields

on two sides

(E2 -

El)

F whose

unit

of the

interface

= -Ms

normal
satisfy

_ points
the

from

relation

(1.10)

where .M, is a h('_iliou_,

inside

nlediuml

conductor

aad medium

11'.\I('1.

magnetic

then

current

(induced)

_:_x E2 also

vanishes

Et vanish,'_

and

and

J,

denotes

currents,

given

the

surface

PMC

thus

M_

magnetic

The
They
the

become

homogeneous

tangential

introduced
special

field

where

later

Neumann

In formulating
work

with

then

(1.11)

where
the

(_-'-V

boundary

must

H1)

electric

nlav

r_,l,t_'-t.I_T

conducl_r

(Pl(('t.

surface.

(1.11t

The

H1 is zero

PEC

surface

within

the

currents,

when

the

i.e.

can

support

conductor.

electric

By duality.

V x H2.

Dirichlet

J_ = 0, and

dielectric

boundary

in those

interfaces.

conditions.

cases

Often,

they

J,

applying

the

equivalence

principle

a priori).

The

implication

of this

Boundary

and

imply
M,

are

(except

in

issue

will be

problem

Condition
using

hybrid

El or H field.

If, for instance,

be rewritten

as

(from

"lhc-_ll,_'

development.

Mixed

x E)

= -M,.

= J_

M_ = 0 and

are specified

a physical

either

electric

across

currents

in the

and

when

they

l>_'Jt_'ctlv lll_l,,'_i_

(excilationtor

(1.11 ) are inhomogeneous

continuity

as fictitious

cases

discussed

and

PE('

current.

since

not support

(1.10)

source

:_ , E,

1 is a perfectly

= 0 on the

surface

by _ x H2 = J,,

relations

I,_.come,

I i:-a

field.

an electric

does

an,I E, aild E: alc It,_" <'l_.<_i< I_,'1,i

If nl_'diunl

(1.101

If mediunl

x (H2

where

curry'hi

be an impressed

current.

for the

surface

2. r_'spectivel.v.

M_ can either

a secondary

Similarly.

n_agnetic

the

i=
ith

1,2 are evaluated

medium).

finite

we choose

just

If medium

inside

element

methods,

El as the

the

1 is a PEC.

working

ith medium
then

we usually
quantity,

approaching

V x El

= 0. and

(l.l "_} reduces

to _ standard

on the derivative

Xeunlann

boundary

of E at the inlerface

colldi_i_lz,

is defim'd.

l)kt'

and

this condition

single

field

in this
use

formulation

manner.

of the

is rather

is used

when

However.

second

order

desired

straightforward

with

the

seen

that

referred

to impose

the H field.

since

it is already
conditions

dual of t l.12*

i_, ,.z'i\_'I_ I,',

lJ

working

is often

l,v wtLictz a ,t,tl-1_,_i_

system
the

Ill many
size may

single

field

be kept

conditiom_,

of conditions

in regard

_hc

millimum

formulation

to as nat_lral

this type

at)t)licatioil_.

implios

l:ortunalelv,
to finite

it

element

simulations.
As for mixed
electric

and

boundary

magnetic

conditions,

fields

satisfy

with

R being

difference

the

above

effective
and

geneous

boundary

mission

line

problem

electric

and

magnetic

the

_ E+

the

condition.

R_

[H] +=0

of the

surface

surface.

Another
a coax

fields

is the

resistive

surface

where

the

condition

resistivity

below

(e.g.

an example

This

and

[H] +=

is a typical

mixed

example

cable,

(1.14)

of a mixed

or other

at a cross-section

guided

of the

line

H + - H(third

condition
wave

type)

occurs

structures),

are given

the

field

homoin trans-

where

the

by

Eie -_

+ FEiC '_

(1.15)

Hie -'_

(1.16)

rHie

"_

and

h x E i = -ZH

where
or load

i_ = -3. and
along

the

(E i, H i) are the incoming

transmission

line.

Also,

fields

(1.17)

before

Z is the

wave

encountering
impedance

a discontinuity
associated

with

llJ
the _ransrnissionline me,dr of the _uide wav_,_.Iructur,'. i_tit_ii_ati,,..:'l troIl, 1.1"_i
and (1.1(;) in view of I 1.17i yields._h_'relatioll
;t _: E -

which

is an example

becomes

the

tities.
The

of inhomogeneous

apparent

therefore

(In this
mixed

when

left

case.

a form

of absorbing

structures

uniqueness

itly applied
and

tions,

it becomes

associated
intent

Partial
the

with

convenient
various
the

far-field

and

derivalive
and

very

useful

condition.
(curl)

Thi.-

of E. 1 and

undifferentiated

considered

excitation

as a known

when

applying

simultaneously.

quanfunctioil.)

the

FE.XI to

It is basically

Principle

principle

integral

pattern.
these

equations

concepts

principle

will be explicitly"

Together

in radiation
the

1,oundarv

to terminate

with

dyadic

to construct

and
(without

or implicthe

Green's

integral

scattering

for later

func-

equations

problems.

proof)

FEM

It is our
applications.

Theorem
differential

equations
results

conditions.
etc.)

is t, suallv

with

to apply

theorem

of lhe

differentiated

the equivalence

geometries

type)

Equivalence

dealing

the

1.1,',t

(ABC).

and

and

(third

and

condition

when

evaluating

corresponding

boundary
ation,

when

to discuss

Uniqueness

theorem

mixed

is found

for truncation

to this work

mesh

side

(1.18)

Theorem

_: E',-':

both

hand

boundary

= 2b

in terms

contains

condition

Uniqueness

The

side

the right

boundary

wave

1.2.3

H is expressed

hand

guided

ZH

conditions

can

(PDE)
also

can

be solved

be represented

Moreover,

many'

of PDE

models

1Care must be taken when a curl operation

be appropriate
to evaluate the field derivative
distance tend to zero.

(boundary',
can

be

using

various

in numerous
initial,
extracted

approaches

forms

natural,
from

given
essential,

the

and
certain
radi-

mathematical

is performed at a boundary" discontinuity.

It should
at a distance from a discontinuity and they let the

11
si,ecification._of well (letin('d l_lly.'.i(altm,l,h'n_.. lh(' (tm'_.lit,tl 1tL_'llati-.,'- a- _, I,_,x_
to relate the solulion_ and how n_anv(,J_dition_.arc
rect"

solution.

Uniqueness

electromagnetics,
region

plus

the

components

Equivalence
the

tangential

uniqueness

(either

exists

slab.

half

space

in the

The

presence

typical

exterior

analysis,

the

containing

the

expressed
the

currents

are

used

through

the

uniqueness

EM field
When

for the

dete r'mi,ed
field

on bouT_daries.

EM

problem

"cor-

(iUi'SliOll.._i),'citicallv

ii_

b!l the .,,urce.,

II_ a 91t'_ J_

o12 bour_dari.,,

field

and

equivalent

near

or l_lu., th,

in terms

the

theorem

may

currents.

2See the proof in reference

[10].

From

currents
the

region

substitution

the

represented

upper

in integral

or (1.11)

discontinuity

Ji.

the

tangenmay

It can
ensures

be

By 'equiva-

fictitious

volume).
indeed

the

region)

and/or

when

(cavity

a diehw-

region.

(1.10)

same

is l)r ,-

with

we consider

be

Mi

if t t_,

inhomogeneous

coated

interior
can

surface

this

surface
be shown

an identical

region.

is excluded

However,

the

region

remain

that

be arbitrarily

cavity

solved

boundary

a dielectric

probably

(or the

interior

at the

where

aperture

distribution

region

component

sources.

of the

be uniquely

in fig. 1.1. where

exterior

the

can

platform,

the

current

in the exterior

interior

(1.11)

and

in the

field

field

PEC

are shown

region

to replace

distribution
the

of a large

fields

field

is an EM problem

equivalent

equivalently

we demand

an

geometries

or magnetic

(1.10)

thi-

10

electric

or magnetic)

of interest

tial electric

lence',

theorem,

to be the

In EM
form

of the

magnetic

the electric

In this work,

tric

uniquely

componenl._
of the

lh(' aliswer

_, ;,c[_i,.v_. tl_'

Principle

From

region

offer

E.il ,,.olutiom._ ore

the tangential

tangential

scribed.

theorenls

...uilicic_

from

chosen
in our

consideration,

leading
work

the

to an infinite
the

field

current

sources

number

of choices

behavior

in the

interior

in

equivalent

currents

cavity

ground plane
(a)

equivalent

currents

l
cavity

coated ground plane

(b)

Figure

1.1" (a)

Recessed

dielectricallv

cavity

in a PEC

coated

PEC

ground

ground
plane.

plane.

(b)

Recessed

cavity

in a

13

regi(m

is a]_o need_,(l,

outer

cavity

electric

regions

and

m(,sl

i._ d(,sired.

or magnetic

field

spe(iti('a]ly,
It i, t]l('i'('for_'

Io specify

M+=E

This

choice

implies

is considered,
and

(1.3)

affect

and

region

observed

that
coupling

1.2.4

Integral

recessed
The
lations.

choice

of the
the

containing

a possible

has

been

dyadic

region

used

on

Green's

formulation,

magnetic

of the

aperture.

protrusion
the

outer

contours

FEM

(1.2)

ROI.

It is

interior/exterior
applications.

for constructing

platforms.

infinite

For a planar

ground

depending
varies

end,

plane

structure,

in which

depending
seeking

the

a cavity

on the

using

us start

structures

FEM

an appropriate

region
let

integral

on applications.

in fig. 1.4, where

of the

of the

a convenient

in the exterior

as shown

Fig.

the fict it ious currents

outside

convenient

To this

regiott

Function

we are

field

('xterior

is nee(le(t.

where

in hybrid

function

the

region

permits

canonical
PEC

when

EM fields

Green's

or absorption

field

zero

are particularly

is the

loading

to find the
the

Dyadic

i1.191

fields

the principle,
with

a.,,

interior

formulation"

of certain

electric

on or near

ple

and

the

currents

field

interest

dielectric

only

functions

presence

with

representation

"total

Green's

of particular

For

(ROI)

Equation

in the

platform

of applying

tail_'lltial

;, >,,H.

interior

when

to .,,,,]t,(t t]w tt,ta]

currellts

,],=

of zero

of equivalent

for the

an(l

fields

details

of interest

Dyadic

equations

the

(ottw'niCllt

e(luixalent

i_

exterior

this choice

system

the

assumption

zero

illustrate

the

The

the

t lJ_+ct,lzlflii_,.2+t,f lh,. fi,'l,l_ ilJ th,, iJltl,'I a_l,l

the

the

with

integral
information

the

equivalence

t.o obtain

formu-

the

structure
princiequivalent

currents.
Consider

the

wave

equation

V x V G(r,r')-

..'2poeoG(r,r')=

-I_5(r-

r')

(1.20)

is

11

equivalent

currents

(E,H)=(O,O)

ground

plane

(ROI):

Exterior

Region of Interest

(a)
equivalent

currents
(E,H)=(O,O)

cavity

Region of Interest

(ROI): Interior

(b)
Figure

1.2:

Illustrations
in fig. 1.1a.

of equivalence

principle

when

applied

to the structure

shown

15

equivalent

currents

(E,H)=(O,O)

I
ground

Region of Interest

plane

(ROI): Exterior

(a)
equivalent

currents
(E,H)=(O,O)

cavity

Region

of Interest

(ROI): Interior

(b)
Figure

1.3: Illustrations
in fig. 1.lb.

of equivalence

principle

when

applied

to the structure

shown

Me

Je

(a)

Je

Me

(b)
Figure

1.4

Examples

curved

where

G is the

0), and

of protruding

platform

dyadic

i is the

idem

configurations

in consideration

Green's
factor

function

defined

fff {p.(v

upon

setting

{H.

a planar

with

(1.9)

and

(1.20),

LHS

(assuming

note

the

right

hand

left

hand

= -H(r')

RHS

side

[[
JJS

can

H.

the

M,

identity

(1.21)

N)

(V

H)-G}

side

[[[

dV

(1.2"))

dX
(LHS)

of

V" x J.

(1.22)

reduces

to

G(rfr')dV

JJJ_

and

on

Q = G, we get

(V

the

(b)

P).Q}

=-J_h.[HVg+(VH)_
From

(1.9)

as i = 2.? + _)!) + 55. Also.

platform

principle.

[v v _+ (v P) q--]as'

P = H and

fff

on

G in association

= - fla.
and

(a)

of tile equivalence

be rearranged

[fi VxG----]

as

+(V

H)-[;,

G----]dS

17

|':quating

the

IAtS and

H(r)

R|lS

vield._

//S

V'

xJ.G(r'irtdl"

(H.

[5 x V'>,

"t

tf

G'--; + (V',

Hi.

ii, ". G-_j I d."'

tl.2:_,

J ,) S !

where

r and

_"' is the
surface

r' have

volume

been

containing

enclosing

the

To eliminate

the

the

curl

where
infinity.

divergence

the

cavity

since

inserting

to represent

(1.24)

H(r)

into

electric

currenl

can

source

be realized.

and

S'

is i])(,

space.
the

=(V

radiation

field

loss of generality..-ks

dyadic

identity.

xJ)-G-J.

(V

x G)

to get

S' is only

this

half

on .1. we use

theorem

Therefore,

without

distributed

upper

(J x G)

Sommerfeld

It remains

the

entire

V.

and

interchanged

condition
over

the

outer

surface

is typically
(1.23),

the

was

surface

integrals

the

invoked

of the

in terms

computable

to eliminate

the

integral

at

body.

of the

quantity.

electric
This

field

is carried

near
out

the
bv

yielding

i/iv J.(V'xG)dV'

-SL,{H'(fixV'xG)+(V'xH-J)'(_xG)}
-

dS'

/iS,, J-(V'xG)dV'

- if
JTS

where

the

Maxwell

above

field representation

{H'(h

xV'xG)+j_0E-(fi

xG)}

dS'

(1.25)

equation

(1.2)
is general,

has
i.e.

been

used.

not restrictive

It should

be remarked

to planar

or conformal

that

the
cases.

For iil_.talkce,
tiguration.out

over
The

and

in tho

as shown
the

step

-/t,

Vx/Z

T denotes

of (1.26)

vanishes

dielectric

protrusion,

function

which

definition

of the

kind

Green's

G is referred

of both

definitions

functions

[11].
PEC

Go is the

free

platform,

space

to the

condition

the

al. c,rii(.(t

as

>'-G)T(i_

x _)r
leads

function

with

only

in the
the

over the

an electric
=

0.

to the
of first
properties

As

same

in the

dyadic

term

integrand
For

outer

contour

dyadic

Green's

be seen.

vanishing

of the

las_

Green's

platform.

can

kind.

d'q'_:t'o

(1.2l;)

integral

electric

first

> E)}

dS'

the

) is the

symmetry

The

this

term

in

equivalence

dyadic

Green's

to

Go(rlr ) +

function

given

4 lr-

(1.27)

by

e-ik01r-r'l

Go(rlr') -

and

0. the

(V"

Green's

= Go(rtr')-

dyadic

_,,_

for t't)lll't)l'illltl

i_ltegral

(V'

is to define

fix

G reduces

Green's

J-_V

integration

equivalently

from

surface

S' is coincident

An alternative

can be proved

G(rlr')

where

reduces

dyadic

lhe

If G(rlr'

provided

function

ai_d (ontt)arod

of the

as _ x G

platform,

ii11(',.zrati_,ll-

_-'t'oJ(h E).(V'-G)}

field.

defined

to as the

i.. valil t_,t I_I_,trllli,_

>,lt'/It'l IlI'l'>.

[tit'

x H)d'q'

electric

the

of

we rewrite

operation

platform.

11.2-,!

l,e examined

xG)

this term

satisfies

(1.26).

For a planar

dS',
{H.(i,

on the

to the

shall

x-G)T'(i'

to the
first

('OlllOlli'>

To this end.

a transpose

of the

conformal

(1.25)

{ (_

is proportional

platf.r1_t.

Ix1 tll(':' ca_.(,>, tile surl'ac(,

the outer

structures.

function

not

plus

representation

protruding

h,t_,:_

of a P["('

in fig. 1.4.

platform

field

where

im'_.ence

r'l

1!5

and

G-o(rlr')

Inserting

(1.26)

and

H(r)

(1.27)into

H"_(r)

1
I + _-_-_-

(1.25).

+ H"f(r)

) (,o(r,r
.

we obtaill

+ 2jL'}0//

Go(r[r')
J j.

This

is the

boundary

desired
integral

form
equation

of tile

magnetic

for a planar

,t

field
platform.

- (;_ _ E)d.<"

(1.2S)

representation

used

to eslablish

lh(-

CHAPTER

Finite

The
since

Element

finite

element

several

it is observed
engineering
netic

that
grew

problems

approaches

This

chapter

indispensable
associated
merical

with

and

electromagnetic
in the
have

these

literature
been

used

Galerkin's
problems.
related
for domain

[13].

Of interest

This

technique,

the

stage,

usually
some

especially

is the discussion
to general

of the

least

(refer

2O

to Chapter

the

With
has

its
been

theoretical

considered
interesting

of the

and

therefore

the
issues

in terms

Anisotropic
7) and

analytical

FEM

anisotropic

studied

etectromagnetics.

and

[13].

2 describe

though

electromag-

needs.

applications

are

nineties,

in electrical

because

practical

1 and

applied

is one

to computational
truncations

EM

even

when

FEM

techniques,

These

in this context

the

(EM)

early

complex

meet

in development

topic

with

and

is primarily

Section

equations.

techniques

eighties

increasingly

for various

FEM

are still

This

numerical

as follows.

to electromagnetics

late

no longer

other

of the

applied

associated

become

exploited

the

basics

implementation.

functional

over

is organized

been
ill the

techniques

features

fundamentals

pace

designs

numerical

to construct

has

volume

rapid

and

in Electromagnetics

Especially

publication

in engineering

investigated

formulations

(FEM)

[12].

in a fairly

attractive

extensively

ago
the

or other

numerous

Analysis

method

decades

II

of nu-

variational
and

lossv

documented
materials
the general

21

veclor

or _ensor form

for the

t-E3I.

sp('cial

('ascs.

With

The chapter
analysis
given

this

require

Functional

ally,

FEM

many

the

standard

(1.S)

the

or (1.9)

conditions,

FEM.

the

feature

of merit
method

in a final

be used

_x,t,rll,

m,tv

of the physical

of effort

_h.ri_._i,,_-

},. r,',_,_r_t,',l

a>

(]uanliT h,_ l_)r antt'tlm_

fi('lds.

Th(' formulas

fox computations.

(BVP)

of the

cards

convenient
may

in general

section,

other

and

sometimes

represent

Also,

Last,
the

a subset
but

not

expressions

the

function

can

readily

incorporate

hence

as can
cases

physical
this

be seen
may

of which

the

wave

least,

the

variational

based

on Galerkin's

equations

formulation.

quantity

(e.g.

treated

functional
method.

in low

provides

chapter,

to that

It is

approach.

formulation

be rigorously

is identical

t.o

boundary

meaningful

in this

those

approaches

vector

into

be

a discrete

to soh'e

important

physically

and

be used

can

With

onto

for the

constraints

a true

space

can

two

FEM

which

applications)

system,

functional.

of the

and

non-self-adjoint

variational

method

version

Tradition-

in practice

a continuous

A functional

analysis.

encountered

of a certain

one

in this

of functional

functional

for its evaluation.

to validate

aid

becomes

transmission

technique.

the

therefore

resistive

symmetric

Galerkin's

1_.cc>-arv

of e]('ctromagnetic

problems

variational

functional

power

value

to project

and

the

with

procedure

as a natural,

frequency,

developed

is discussed

Furthermore,

i>_,tro[,ic

amount

extremization

sources,

regarded

minimum

to the

space,

problems

formulate

i1_ It.,

the discussion

the computation

boundary

related

expansion

physical

tional

first

Rayleigh-Ritz

finite

with

p_,:>il,t_,

Formulation

was

equivalently

type' of formulation>,

with

in this context

The

be used whencw'r

is concluded

in association

2.1

can

will

the

varia-

to result

obtained

from

formulation

.).)

('om.ider

a tyifica]

radiati_m

or _catt('ri.g

pr.[,h'n_-l.,wn

ill

ll_. 2. I. _l_'I,'

tl..

Z
Radiating

element

Ground

plane

._ Y

Figure

radiating
the

2.1:

elements

Illustration

(or array)

radiation/scattering

shape

of a typical

(cylinder/sphere),

function

is not

available.

or (1.9),

which

can

are

conformal

enclosed

geometry

can

or even

a doubly

be a planar

described

configuration.

Q. The

platform

in a region

curved

In Q, electromagnetic

be concisely

antelma

ground
surface

fields
using

plane,

certain

in which

case

satis_"

a linear

surrounding

the

operator

wave

(I) denotes

Ki

is the

and

may

the

field E or H,

V x/a_--1 T

/;

source

(V

term

be explicitly

Vx

x =-1
_
.Vx

associated
given

K,

=-j_'poJ,-V

K,

= -j_'_oMi

the

Green's

equation

L: given

Z:O = K;

where

canonical

(1.8)

by

(2.1)

and

with

(k02_-)

for

electric

(ko2_ .)

for

magnetic

the

impressed

electric

field

and

field

magnetic

(2.2)
(2.3)

currents

by

(_-1.
+ V

Mi)

for

electric

. J,

for

magnetic

field
field

(2.4)
(2.5)

2:1
As already menliolu'd. is a linear opera_or arid

ore'

sxnlmotric

tuxlc_ional

has

diolectric

lensorb

_ an_l ?. the

perlinem

1
= 7_ < 0-

> -

_ll_,x_ _ti,T

of lhc t,ri_itml

t,,r

t'[)li

tit(' form

.T()

where

the

inner

product

<. > is defined

< A.B

(with

B" being

the

complex

for both
The

lossless
equivalent

functional
BC's).

variational

of B)

for lossless

media,

or more

generally

the

can now be stated

with

the

boundary

essential
value

as the extremization

boundary

problem

conditions

is equivalent

of the

(e.g.
to the

Dirichfollowing

model

=o
Essential
Because
interest

the

to us,

effect

boundary

approach

of (2.9)

physical

mathematical
of a numerical
less storage

of complex

we restrict

Dirichlet

many

as

('_,.s)

>=fnA-BdI:

problem

in conjunction

Specifically,

(2.(;)

media.

variational

(2.6)

>

as

conjugate

and lossv

< qb.K,

>=fnA.B'dI

<A,B

let

cat_ readily

most

conditions
ensures

problems
models
system
requirements.

(2.9)

Boundary
materials
of our

unless

should

a certain
therefore

is always

on

the

discussions

otherwise

a symmetric
retain

Conditions

desirable

in this
specified.

numerical
symmetry
reflect
since

resultant,

this

system.

system

chapter

it leads

to homogeneous

Therefore,

the

This

is significant

property
property.

is of primary

and

the

Moreover.

to more

efficient

variational
since

corresponding
the

symmetry

solution

and

2_
"lh(' ,,xist('n('vof th(" fulJ('tional (2.(;) re(luir_.>tl,.
proper_y

usually

defined

(I) and

does

the

qJ represent

numerical

any

system

concern

is no longer
the

medium,
type

whose

methods

from

is the situation

where

the

),lathematicallv

dielectric

material

tensors

is more

often

problems

seen

is still

partial

(2.(;)

holds,

remain

differential

exists

is the
are

no such

presence

ll()t o111\

SVlnlm,tri(.

The

an early'

operalor

llle

functional

of a lossv and

because

in

anisotropic

or Hermilia,.

development

stage

of a svslenl

a l_alural

not symmetric

nowadays.
at

If (2.10)

meaningful.

there

example

,2.1()b

funclional

physically

A typical

for those

,l,.!:,,:,:.

>

functions.

the

to (2.6).

of problems

(I). _

admissible

becomes

self-adjoint.

case similar

two

derived

minimization/maximization
Of most

/.." I,_...,//

to sat isf',

< (1). _ >=<

where

_,i,rralor

and

of finite
it involves

this

element
numerous

challenges.
Traditionally,
using
with

these

available
three

loss-free
A few

approaches

The

later

with

[15, 16]).

tensors

were

in 1980's,

the

usually

doubled

in size.

Konrad

eigenvalue

worse,

the

As indicated

to reduce

to the

and

to formulate
fields

in anisotropic

subject

structures.

Unfortunately,

the

during

period

systems

(even

systems

in [17]. when
form,

consistently

with

the

derived

a non-standard
the

size of the

aid

in this

but

increased
variational
led to non-

of an
manner

eigenvalue
system

with

in his study'.

in this

that

dealt

a 3-D FEM

to be Hermitian

of publications

numerical

standard

simplified

[14] first tried

assumed

number

authors

fictitiously'

electromagnetic

therefore

to waveguide

by different

Even

were

to represent

non-Hermitian

system

was manipulated

approaches.

applications

reported
and

problems

components

media.

typically

standard

numerical

vector

years

physical

adjoint
were
system

was doubled

25
again. Similar reports wer_'al_,_('enin Inlet pal_'r>!l_
propagation
reporled

inside
in ibis

In what

anisotropic

we generalize

problems.

the aid of an adjoint

to construct

the

to these

two variational
Pertinent

operators
(2.8)),

the

since
one

design.

In these

the

is the

natural

PDE

for

what

_ can

lwo differem
with

tla-

alld

anis_trotm

nwlhods,

the Lagrange

Galel'kin's

functiona]

a self-adjoint

melhod

I.','i,

of,'

wil Ii

nlull iplier,
is thell

qb,_

function

is given

for

operator

> -- < O, Ka

solution

Media

no longer

a generalized

function

as in (2.1).

ca_

col_ll_a1,,d

exists

inner

--

for non-Hermit

products

necessary

for

(see

71alural

ian

(2.7)

or

functional

functional

> -

of the

< k0,K

>

original

Similarly,

(2.11

PDE

q_ is the

problem

solution

and

function

Is

of the

that

be derived

= K_

(2.12)

from

< O,k_

with

aIlalv_i-

Io lossv

Lossy/Anisotropic

/;_

where

lhal

the other

definition

we consider

unknown

such

formulation

functional.

variational

obtain
cases,

right-hand-side

adjoint

amt ,calleriIl-

techniques.

_-=<

where

and

pertinent

no matter

cannot

FE.M
we show

system

Functional

As is known,

1.he

Specifically.

auxiliary

be used

2.1.1

radia_ioll

_,_'

context.

follows,

electromagnetic

media..X_,

231 for llJct_r_,!,lq'lJ_-_,l

>=<

,,,qJ

>

(2.1:3)

- _.
It should

possible

be remarked

constant

coefficient)

that

the

functional

if is self-adjoint.

(2.11)

reduces
Also.

the

to (2.6)

(except

original

PDE

for a
and

its

_(t

_1(ljoilll
COIIIITf'II,aI[
(_.I_P ('_I!I)('
l('(t,V('l('d
|[|Ft,Holl
|h_'\iLliil|it,l_,1]
[_It,_X'---\viIll
respecl
here).
This

Io the

functions

_ and

.-kfler discretizalion
can

be shown

qJ. resp_,ctixcly

is carrh,d

as follows.

(I:) =

oul.

lh,.

ql},,. >iillph,
[iIlal

V,

is the

corresponding

basis

Z.r,V,.

function

expansion

nunwrica]

i- t,II,ill,._l

>x>luIl_ i> >\l_lIllctTic.

Let

,
where

d,'ri',ati_,l,

yjVj

('_.l-l)

j
used

coefficient

for both
s. Insert

unknown

function.,

ing (2.1 -I ) into

and

.r,..tt,

are

the

(2.11 ) yi,'lds

t,l',)
i

Upon
the

performing

the

two decoupled

differentiation

systems

with

of linear

respect

to x, and

Yj individually,

equations

(0:)(:)(,)
=

Qy

where

the

matrices

In general,
These
holds

Even
this

"-'uOx#

relations
for the

The

overall

system

does

the

column

vectors

K _. K _ are

O_
._-- 13

<LIV3.V,

Q_

< Z:V,,V_ >

K_

<Vi,

Ky,

<Vi,K.>

a loss of symmetry

given

by

>

K>

Oz..,.,,7 _ O_a.

However.

of the original

OT./ =

problem,

QYi = (O,y)r.

but the

symmetry

system!

requirement
there

(2.16)

K_

Ox_.,,. Q_, ._ O_.....,,

and

indicate

storage

though

Q_, Q_ and

we get

is a function

is an auxiliary'
not

require

system

storage.

of :/2.
needed

where

N is the dimension

to complete

the

analysis,

of (2.16).
in practice

2.1.2

Pertinent Functional For Lossy/Anisotropic

NIedia--

II

.-\n a]ternatixc lo using an ad.i_fi_)T

s\'stenJi_.I_, emph,y ll_' l.a_ratJecll_l]_il,li_'I
lechniquein
used

conslrucling

to incorporate

consider

the

same

the pertinent

additional
PDE

functional.

constraints

model

Tim l.a,.,rallgc

to a system.

as described

in (2.1).

n_ultit,licr

"lo i[luslxalc

and

we firsl

i> i>u,ll\

l]_c lcc[llliqm'.

rmvrilc

il as

qb __ K, = 0

Next.

we assume

an expansion

unknown

function

If (2.17)

is regarded

and

q) and

the

space

where

multiplier

as a "constraint".

the

(2.17)

solution

function

is defined

A are expanded

we try to add

and
in the

the constraint

solxcd.
same

-l'he
space.

to a "'null'" system

get

Y(l,, A) =< A, - K, >

This

functional

is now used

the

Rayleigh-Ritz

procedure

to formulate
to both

the

FEM.

_5 and

A using

(2.18)

As described
the

same

above,
set

on applying

of basis

functions.

viz.

we obtain

(2.2o)
i
Carrying

out

differentiation

with

j
respect

to xi and

5'j, individually,

yields

(2.21)

where

Or

decoupled

= OU. as in (2.16).
subsystems

of the

\Ve observe
same

size.

that
The

(2.21)
properties

is similar
of the

to (2.16)
subsystems

with

Iwo

are

also

.),,_

sinlilar

Io lho_e

in (2.1_;i.

may

t,e regarded

now

virtually

self-adjoint

and

the

auxiliary

necessary

(for

considered
tions.

assumed

and

the

as a special

problem

approach

ob_cv\_,

ca_'

(i.e.

K,

= 0).

multiplier

subsystem

becomes

multiplier
to the

results

in an

.-\gain.

unknown

fornmlal

either

redundant

ftmction

interesting

iol_:

coincidence

with

ul,'ll

svsl_'_l

nmltil)li,r

the

Galerkin

i>

atq)roac]_)oi

the

using

t'l)tl

-Wl,'_ll

in a svmlnetric

case.

expanded

tidal

[1 l tie adjoi,1

([_oI

(for adjoin_

later

_,,, t_l_i_t/,.

a,li,,iI_l

I,_, leI_latkc_t

will result

In the

ii_ullil,li,._

;1 la,l_,,_,_'l,'_,tl-

il sh,lltd

technique)

technique).

tile l.a,_'ranm'

wild're

the above

Lagrange

the

tha_

I, 12.11!

is considered,

identical

This

\Vc further

sanw

,illtalk

[Jasi,

technique

),'

t_J_c-

h'scril,ed

next.

2.2

Galerkin

Galerkin's

method

ditionally.
the

testing

case

determines

unlike

by a testing

in the

functions
FEM,

and

method
prescribed
q_.

one

constraints

integral

asvmmetric

Galerkin's

method

from

boundary

the

symmetry

feature

approach,

Galerkin's

conditions,
of the

equation

does
the

not

linear

Tra-

emph)ys

dense

resulting

method

method.

numerical
always

operator

lead
of a

system.

solves

the weighted

PDE

as

_ are both
seeks

with

element

to obtain

Apart

< q/,/Z_

where

the finite

in conjunction

of the

the variational

process

to formulate

used

expansion

system.

problem

Also,

technique

and

However,

to asvmmetric
PDE

is now considered

Galerkin's

same

system.

Formulation

the

defined
solution
and

(2.22),

>=<

in the same
for the
with

_,Ki

function

unknown
the

>

(2.22)

space.
function

aid of another

Specifically.

which

arbitrarily

in Galerkin's
satisfies
chosen

certain
function

2_

Similarly

Io tim variational

used

to project

The

malhematical

entries

are

the

be defined
proper

the

coefticients

of the

a tini_e

rephrased

expansion.
space

t{ii:., tm>_cdur,'z_l,_\

discr(qc

T(, seek
"lhe

to ensure

a di:cze1,

testing
that

,-cparal,h'

the

_l-,,

Ililtwrl

-1,a_,'.

_t_lulio_J sol

funclion

qJ

original

PI)E

t,,,

u ij_,.,,

O[ ('t)Ul'SC.

IllU.';I.

is solved

with

if the

linear

operator

in a symmetric

is defined,

the

is self-adjoint,

numerical

final

the choice

svstem.

discrete

system

Otherwise.
in general

of the

_esting

no mailer
does

nol

how
exhibit

property.

We observe
even

when

cases

(as

leads

to the

can

that

product

symmetry

onto

is thcJ_

discrete

_ = results

inner

space

1}_(' t{avh,i,..,h

conditions.

It is obvious

the

same

boundary

function

contilmous
problem

in the

approach.

that

the

Galerkin's

method

corresponding

considered

natural

when

same

be demonstrated

system

as follows.

functional

describing

numerical

x,yj

can usually

the
as the

Inserting

be applied
does

functional
desired

< Vj,V,

>=

exist.

Also

approach).
portion

(2.14)

not

to any linear

into

Yi < Vj,K,

in the

Galerkin's

in (2.16)

(2.22),

operators

and

we readily

general
method

(2.21).

This

obtain

>

or

As assumed,
vanish,

is an arbitrary

function.

the

term

in the

curl3'

bracket

should

yielding

Q_x

which

Thus

is exactly

the

same

as the

= K"

subsystem

(2.24)

derived

from

the

variational

approach.

II i_ holed
as the

testing

though,

the

This

is due

expected,

2.3

that

if o1,e cho-_' the

function
entire

system

to the
obtained

Total

Field

whose

relative

is twi(,

the

size

difference

numerical

systems

Scattered

we focus

on a general

conducting

electric

permeability

1_l_]tii,lh'r,in

mlmerica[

and

In this section,
a perfectly

.,,a_.

fundamental

the

where

qJ. the

Lacran_'

and

>v_.len_

of ll,al

two

of interest

r,._ll.

\ia

,_I,],T ,_,<lJ
.\_La]_ ,,llx

(.;ah'lkill'_

lechlLiques,

are

Field

virt uallv

lll,'T[a,,l

l.aidh,>>,

a,

idenlical!

Formulations

scattering

permittivity

would

derived

of the

(PEC)

I},_, variati<,_,a',

problem

body

as illuslrated

is coaled

are /_d and

with

in tig. 2.2.

a dielectric

_d. respectively.

laver

(Note

that

f2t

_d:

dielectric

_:-: free
_:

coated

space

absorbing

region

(_d,_d)

(_l = P/ = 1)
layer

(_,_)

Fp: boundary

of the

PEC

Fd: boundary

of the

dielectric

body
coating

and

F/: boundary
of the absorber
and free
F0" PEC
boundary
of the outer
absorber

Figure

2.2:

for the

purpose

The
main

has

Illustration

situation
been

of a scattering

of generality,
with
analyzed

the

absorbing
before

problem

medium
boundary

(see e.g.

free

space

space

region

setup

for scattered

is assumed

anisotropic.)

conditions

[24] or [25]).

region

field

for truncating
However.

formulation.

the

two issues

FE.M

do-

associated

:31
with this
of them
the

type

ofl_roblem.

is the equivalence

scattered

tedious
one

field

is used

to assuming

that

relates

including

accuracy

inclusion

and

care

tion,

there

be taken

although

the

conformalitv,

when

conditions

a metal-backed

absorber

cussions

on the

FEM

to scattered

boundary

and

transition

contains

Fields

we begin

be readily

with

ing the

proof.

ma_ched

absorbh_g

male-

handled

absorbing

materials.

etc.

tlowever.

are enforced

in the

FEM

formulation.

the

FEM

implementa-

simplifies

inhomogeneity,

which

we extend
where

our
the

absorber

again

laver

requires

theoretical
treatment

disof the

Boundary

wave

by duality).

Conditions

equation

To proceed

in terms
with

of H

Galerkin's

(the

method,

H tt as

H *_=t and
source

wilholll

be described.

the

H ** = H _t

where

equivalenl

the

high

1,,,

lnforlunalvlx.

treatment,

representations,

and

ca_

inside

layer

will also

wt_,'l_

conditions

To this end,

field

conditions

Scattered/Incident

write

are

of boundary

artificial

those

region

ease

nwll_,d

issue,

to use artificial

of the formulation.

we first

an hnportanl

formulations

()lu'

of lhi., equivalc_l('c

advantages

presentation

may

l'roof

are several

a careful

formulation

II_c Gah'rkil_'s

perfectly

additional

to fig. 2.2,

ill tI.'lil,'raturc.

introduced

FEM

Referring

alld

variabh',

two

multilayered

2.3.1

variational

it is nevertheless
these

addr_>.od

recently

control,

introduces

must

Moreover,

to the

out.

the

as the _orking
but

As it turns

their

is used

cumbersome

issue

no_ bee_l carefully

betweeIL

and

Another
riM.

_ have

H i'_ are the

free

wave

scattered

equation

L{:'
V-Vxe_

with

(225)

+ H mc

and

incident

field,

the

testing

function

.VxH-k02_.H

respectively.

Next.

weight-

V yields

df_=0

(2.26)

with the derivatioi_ of the weak f_,rm wart, (,(ittatit)tt. it i> tlt'(t,s,,_trx
certain

constraints

First.

since

well as the

on the scatter(,_t

the

incident

metal

back

field
wall

a11ct ill('i(lerll

is _ol allowed

F0, we note

ti(,](ls wilhilk

to pass

it, itl_r_,(lu_,'

.Q _md c)n t]_(" })()_Jt.(t,_r_.

through

tl_(' absort_('r

lav('r

a,,

that

r E .Qd + -Qj

(2.27)
Htt ( r ) =

with

the

incidem

HSCa
H
*e=t_

r E otherwise

field satisfying

{V x =-'
e_ .9"x

=0

'k

It is thus
regions

evident
_

The
the

+ fli

boundary

that

the

and

the

conditions

field satisfies
wave

Note

that

(2.28)

r E otherwise
the

homogeneous

equation

on H *_ can be readily

(2.25).

decomposed

:_ 0

inhomogeneous

field decomposition

is likewise

scattered

+
wave

equation

in _a.

derived

in accordance

by consistently

with

(2.27),

the

applying
electric

tions

one

in the

should

be cautioned

dielectric

region.

that

That

E i_ and

(2._9)

H in_ do

field

conflicts
is assumed

dielectric
that

(2.30)

there.

with

what

to exist
After

is against

one would
in the

a quick
Maxwell

not satisfy

Maxwell

equa-

is,

j_oeoE inc # V x H i"_

which

field

as

E *or = E _o_ + E i'_

However,

in

r e fie

intuitively

dielectrically

glance,
theory.

one

assume.
coated

would

In reality,

(2.30)

Conventionally,
region

immediately
it can

the

f_d as if there
arrive

be proved

incident
was

no

at a conclusion
thai

if E ''_' and

33
H'": ir)(leedsatisfied Maxwell equatior_._
in .(),.,,.
a cor)/zadiclo)v t)ouzl(larvc_)_lditi_)r_
would

]rnmediatelv

result.

This

of (2.2.5).

In view of (2.29)

Imposing

the

condition

(aJ) be seen

and

._laxwe]l

of total

field

I)v taking

equations

tangential

_)zl I)_))1) >i(h,-

a el)r] _,p('raIion

in di(,h,ctric

continuity

nwdia,

at the

w(, would

boundary

Ilav_,

I'_ would

yield

which

is a homogeneous

(2.27),

upon

tangential

which
This
tion

_.VxH

Neumann
the

continuity

at the

inconsistency
and

boundary

boundary
and

Neumann

boundary

(2.32) was

equations.

the

However,

to keep

in mind

derived

the

if we start

with

of total

field

condition

on the

field

only

basis

within

decomposition

that

....

condition.

incident
the

=0

However.

imposing

Fa, we get

that

It;

condition.

boundary

assumption

necessary

'Vx

operation

is because

the

Maxwell

is therefore

(2.27)

of the

dielectric

(2.29)
holds

decomposiregions

is artificial
true

when

also
and

it

deriving

conditions.

As a rule of thumb,
the

curl

is an inhomogeneous

(2.29)

satisfies

taking

Ir.+-_f

incident

as if the free

field

an appropriate

inside

space

dielectric

was replaced

interpretation
media
with

ezisted
the

media.

of the phenomenon
in the same

fashion

Mathematically,

should

read:

as i7_ fre_

spac_

this

implies

the

condition

inc = =-1
3_'_oE
ed V x Hinc

r E ft_

(2.34)

('onsistentlv
formulalion
mann

one can derive

following

conditions

tile same

i_ x H __' = K:

- f_ x H ''_ (K_

unknown

cmrenl)

F/

{w_o'l+_ w_o,l_} = -;, n,_h H *_=t = K]

alict N ,ll-

(K,

unknown

current)

Conditions

Boundaries

Conditions
=-1
e4

lPp

Fa

fix

Fj

fix

Fo

fix

and

.V

=-1 .VX
%

negative

Hint

=-1
a .Vx

=fi

H,cat

{} ]+-{}
sides

xej

.V

=0

_ and

e_ and

of a specific

H *_=' should

take

the

values

at

boundary.

Method

to (2.26)

and

A.V

divergence

HSCat =-fixe

.Vx

q. 4
{e-(1. V x H "_' }i+ -h x =-,
+.V x

{} + denotes

Galerkin's

the

as l)irhllhq

{w_'l+- I-V_'l_
}=o

Neumann

and

fl,l _1,, t'l_.kl

cla._siticd

Fe

Fo

Returning

"l-hey arc

r_.quirvd

('onditions

Fp

2.3.2

procedure.

comtition,

Conditions

Boundaries

positive

bouI_dar_

as follows.

Dirichlet

where

the other

theorem,

in view

xB=(V

of the

vector

identity

xA).B-V-(A

we obtain

Intd + Int/+

the

corresponding

Int_

(2.35)

xB)

= 0

weak

form

wave

equation

(2.36)

3?)

wherc

Iilt4

--

j_

[_- >: _r =-l.(,j ._--,

(H '-_

-/<_V-_..IH'

+ H'"

,/(_.)

:'-H"

V.

b o x _e

.V

>:H

d.';'+

(:,

V.

[_1 x t e

._"

H scat

(2.37)

I (=-'
V"

_2

x _I

" _': x H sct

VxV.%

i (:'
V.

.V

rio, ill.

fi2 and

respectively.

They

fi3 x %

-_"

x H "_*

fia being

the

unit

all point

Invoking

the

boundary

integrals

on Fv in (2.37)

integrals

on Ff in

away

C/
=_|

H ''_'_)

d.N'

the

reduces

x (_

V x H '__'')

ds'

(2.:3<,))

at the

center

boundaries

of the
above,

PEC

F v, Fa, Ff and
body

(i.e.

we observe

vanish.

Also,

the

outwards).

that
sum

F0.

the

surface

of the

surface

to

xef

V.fi2

-i_2

dS

F0 in (2.39)

(2.39)

V-

as tabulated

on

(2.38) and

(2.3S)

d.'_'

normals

from

conditions
and

df_+

with

-ill

Into

H .... )

d'2;

V.

.+

=-'

.Vx

dS

(2.40)

Similarly,

the

sum of the surface

integrals

(involving

H sc_t) on Fd in (2.37)

and

(2.38)

becomes

Note
the

that

both

excitation

disappear
an electric

integrals
on the

(2.40)
right

if the

permitivity

field

formulation,

and

hand

(2.41)

side.

Of course,

is continuous
a term

will not

similar

across

contribute
the
the

to (2.41)

to the

excitation
boundary
will appear

system,

term
Fd.

(2.41)
By

but

to

would

duality,

for discontinuous

for

3(;

pern,eabililv.
enl

ItLi> observation

incidenl

shown
the

field definition

in (2.27).

inlegral

system

doe_ m_t h_hl

on the

Furthermore.

on

reduces

two sides

the

Ve involving

for 12.-|(_,. w}lictJ ari,t,-tr,

second

of th,. t,oul,(larv
lern_

H '_: in (2.37).

il_ (2.-11)

After

I,.

ml Ill,, i_llL,'I-

a> nlatl,,'llla_icall\

will 1,. cains'Ileal

a >inlph'

llmnilmlaliolk.

oul

wiltl

_hc

tiltal

to

= ....

/,.0V.

_7.

H ''_"

V.fil

xe/

.Vx

dS+

V._72

where

?_ is again

is the

desired

in [24] using
2.3.3

the

weak
the

relative

form

corresponding

to

representation

and

where,
mebility,

with

in terms

of the

different

form

presented

the

wave

with

equation,

formulation

to employ
To

use the

respect
and

to the

a similar

for isotropic

functional

end,

specific

region.

This

equation

was obtained

to obtain

the

media.

and

_
Also

of linear

denote
similar

decompostion

scattered

field.
system
D.

formulation

it is intuitive

to begin

with

the

equation
total

field

functional

:,

VH.%

field

in Appendix

the

this

.+n1+a.

respectively.

proceed

of the

(2.42).

1
= ,_

as before,

.V

Method

of interest

_'(H)

permittivity

functional

Variational

It is now

x(/

the

.VH-k0_H._

corresponding

to Galerkin's

relative
method,

(2.42)

and

that
the

this
detailed

dQ

(2.43)

permittivity
one

H = H scat + Hinc and

It is unfortunate
than

.H

would

express

approach

now
the

and

logically
functional

will result

mathematical

per-

proof

in a
is

:17
The db,crepancy
a valid expre.,sion
call

in section

the

application

functional
with

this

explicitly

arises
why.

2.1.1

that

the

adjoint

is given

bv a generalized

generalized

functional

the

variation

variational

technique

rather

to note
(2.44)

that

Ha "

seems

retically
adjoint

on the

Apart

required

subsection,
that

from

the

V in that
original

will not

system

-V

adjoint

l_c-

nl_'_lia r_'cluirc-

which

the'

f_vr'tirwrlt

necessary

In a source-free

lo })egin

regioil.

(2.11)

PDE
does

difference

the

FEM

variable

from

9.-14)

2.45)

proves

function

the

is similar

field

the

to that

(2.45)

to Galerkin's
interesting

quantity

However.

as a solution

above,

to avoid
and

identical
It is also

adjoint

latter

to be a solution

as mentioned

here

and

V in (2.11).

whereas

not have

valid
problems.

is defined

problem,

(2.44)

dl

Ho to get

method,

former

system

be discussed

obtained

x H -/"0P_ " H

_H=0 = 0

H)

testing

the

that

concept

to derive

final

(2.43).

than

in electromagnetic

of the

function

the

and

with

in (2.11 ). It is lherefore

to Galerkin's

place

of the

testing

aTld to>>\

[ogether

of this version

operators

compared

from

system

anisotropic

V" c,

method

linear

to take

differs

admissible

dure

functional

once

i_- no l_)_le_'r >cll-_,dit,i_l_.

form

is imposed

for any

tq)erator

system.

form

&T(H_,

The

_ PI)E

of the" fu_lcT h,tlaI _2. t:_ *. xvi_h t_ i- I_,_

thepreselweofge_wral

of ari auxilarv

takes

a>_.uml)_iolk

_h("

the corresl_,ndin

_-(H_ H)

and

fronl

to the

the

is of course

adjoint

for the

system.
proce-

in the

One

theo-

an arbitrary

mathematical

presented

repetition.

Ho

function
is just

H= in

previous

can

be assured

identical

to (2.42).

3"
2.4

Parameter

An

Extraction

accurate

full

methods)

or current

to obtain

certain

terns,
far

involved

practical

network

via

feed

full

or circuit

platform

the

chapter
used

in the

1, where

to consider

2.4.1

the

patterns

and

RCS

such

as input

in later

chapters).
characterized

Consider
distribution

the

with
planar

we can then

ward

approach

plane

is use

for this
of the

includillg

a de-embedding

of the

dvadic

and the

near

free

field

7.

the

For

fox feed

a non-planar

general

Green's

space

distribution

is required

in chapter

in terms

interested
such

as gain

feedline
and

radar

respect

to the

3-D

cavity-backed

antenna

S of the conformal
to evaluate

computation

equivalence

extraction,

process

from

radiation

proceed

_Vllic[L (aXl 1,' U-_'d

and

the

obtained

parameters

on the aperture

T',t,,'

discussion

function

Green's

in

must

be

function.

Pattern

impedance,

Both

I'l)V

t"or in_rica1,.sw-

data

after

be

currents

,f_,I

simulations.

will be discussed
can

ti,'l,l

platforms

de-embedding

we are mostly

related

for output

evaluated

The

formulation

and

other

quantities

analysis,

analysis.

case of antennas,
and

readily

readily

equivalent

Radiation

In the

can

ll'al

I <ti_tri}_ulio11:.

of non-canonical

evaluation

the

ltle

on application.-,

be needed

or circuit

wave

field

lechni(lu_,>

network
be

pr,dict

depending

may

presence

modeling

far

only

based

models

parameters

is achieved

can

parameters

numerical

for antenna

Antenna

analvsi-

(for integral

field evaluation

process

wave

in the

principle.

in their
and

radiation

axial

S-parameters,
cross
spherical

presence

patterns
0 and

in fig. 2.1.

the far field pattern.

The

of an infinite

To do so. we define

the

near

field

will be disccussed

(RCS)

is obtained

scattering

(The

coordinates

as shown
antenna

ratio.
etc.,

section

and

most

be

0.

Once

from

can

the

field

the full wave

straightfor-

conducting

ground

magnetic

current

normal

to the al,ertuw

surface.

Tlw

eh'c_ric

F(O.o)

the

function

electric

field

./_

(Oe-Jk:
4rrr

/L

is typically

S,_. Introducing

t,olcrJtial

i_. tlw_ ...,,ixe_ },_

M _ "k r' d."'

(O(-Jkr

4=r

where

vector

expanded

this expansion.

4rrr
(OC

-jkr

( E'C x

in terms

(2.46)

(2.-161

d.g"

: )erkr'

of the

surface

vector

t,a>i>

becomes

, S', x _c skr' dS;'

E_

__

(".4T)

4 rcr
m

where

elements

denotes
on the

the

sum

aperture.

of the
The

surface

far zone

integral

magnetic

over
field

each

of the

discretization

H becomes

HT = --j,ZFT

where

HT

represents

0 and

0 projections

the

transverse

are

given

Ho = -j..

J kr

4rrr

of the far zone

magnetic

field,

whose

by

'ce-_k_
4rrr

_,,f.oe-

component

( 2.-1S )

{cos 0 cos Ct_. + cos 0 sin 01;

- sin 01:- }

Po
(2.4._))

O(_--J kr

He = -j_ 4_-----T{-sinCE + cos_,_

}
_,,oC--J

in which
in the
in terms

Po = -j

curly

47rr
{'} and

brackets.

of Po and

The

kr

p,

Pe = -j
RCS

{.},

of the

and

{.} stands

for the

t (t = 0 or 0) component

corresponding
can

terms

be represented

Po to yield

'__ = 4ri'r 2 iHt]2

IH,I _

,2.2
_ __01p,l__
4_

A2-Z_ IPe

i_

(2.50)

t(I
whereA and Z.
respectively.
it,,.

= \/)+u,/_t,

In (2.,501.

In practice,

radiation

above.

The

imum

this,

field

case.

may

we represent

o"rcs to avoid

here

The

source

rather

therefore

the

far

a repetition

x',itlLt)ttt IL,.> ,._l ut'tlt'ral-

l{('._ in ,ll:_. ,.vh<,t_, ,.-r,i- usuall\

also })e represented

value.

Of interest

pll++ v,'a.- +('t re, unity

to expres.,,

in procedure

by an interior

tering

wave

v,av<,It, ll_t }i at_(l tl,c ittttit1-.+c iIIll,,'<lall_,'.

ta)tIt+ali/t'(l

first.

pattern

radiation

excited

meter

difference

free space'

Ill(' incident

it is customary

to &2 or to squared
The

are the

reason

the

of post

field

in terms

processing.

manner
with

in radiation

incident

relative

intensity

sanle

normalization

is that

than

is the

field

is the

in the

wave

intensity

the

to a nlax-

the

antentta

H + as in the

in the

above

Specifically,

respect

mode.

plane

of the

a_, nwlltk)m+(l

fat zone.

calculated

i>
scat-

To get
quantity

fornmla

FCS
o.rad

__

CTt
(O.fCS)max

is used

for radiation

2.4.2

Gain

Gain

and

(G) and

analysis.
Axial

Axial

antenna's

performance.

terize

far

the

zone

By definition,

(2.51)

Ratio

Ratio

It is also

features
the

(AR)

gain

of the

are two important

noted

that

these

parameters
two

which

quantities

indicate

typically

the

charac-

antenna.

G for a lossless

antenna

(with

100%

efficiency)

is given

by

2wUmax
G=

for a cavity-backed
denotes
noted

the
that

structure,

total
this

radiated

definition

where
power

Prad

(2.52)

T
bm_x
is the

from

of G is identical

the

maximum

antenna

to that

in the

of directivitv

power
upper

density
half

for lossless

and

space.

frad

(It

antennas.)

is

tl

_2.',:{

the

antenna

gain

becolne_
Zo(ere + ao)

G =

(2.7,.1

2P,_a
Thus.

the

previous
input
has

computation

of G is rather

subsection.
at the

In reality.

input

resistance

However,

where

this

on

an accurate

far

field

the

consistency

far

full

and

the

is directly

To avoid

this accuracy

by integrating

model

field

current

near

inconsistency,

such as circular

space.
about

offer

different

It is obvious
the

the

radiated.
the

in lilt'
that

all

In this case.

oxle

feed,

and

Ri,, is the

plane.
gain

(more

precisely

accuracy.
G, a far

gain

Specifically.

relies

known

This
zone

without
the

di_'ec'-

computation

It is well

field computation

pattern.

assumption

resistance

gain

calculate

as given

that

the

accuracy

in-

pattern

whose

averaging

effect.

or the directivity

by

P_d can be obtained

intensity

=
half

input

an

on

the

prediction.

one may

f / [
ddJ2

the

since

field

the far field radiation

radiation

and

reference

the

to determine

by the

P_a

over

work

while

computations

a is found
on

source

at the

for near

once

element(s)

always

behavior,

governed

from
the

not

if Rin is used

accuracy

known

done

be evaluated

measured

may

field

wave

near

arises

P_d

antenna

scheme

may

to antenna

I is the

of the

tivit!l ) reflects

evaluating

P_a

feed is transferred

P, ad = I2Ri_,

trivially

vertical

g dft
7r

Zo/ff2,(, e
4-7
that

if a certain

Z axis,

then

symmetry

g(O,o)

reduces

of the
to [:(0)

pattern
and

remains
the above

12
integration

can

be effecti,.elv

evaluated.

Olherwi_,e.

a nutll'ric.]

2 l) itlt_'_l'a_i_,IL

i-

required.
Axial
circular
AR also
with

ratio

(.4f{)

polarization
features

co.

('P)
the

a minimum

o0 and

ix another

of antenna's

far zone

effect

comt)utationa]

one is again

ilnportant

able

antenna

l_aralllOtcq '. ,N.,ciallv

performance
of the

load.

to determine

.4R-

is of theprimarvcon-erll.

antenna,

It is noted
.4R

ull,n

it is desirable

that

given

uniquely

Silw,

to determine

the above

AI{

pre-cahulat'd

by

lio._
.
short

(2..5t;)

with

4 +

9
2
_0.00.

2
COS ,3]

(2.57)

_ho_t=
where/3
field
(2.50).
readily

= 2(_Ho

--

Since

It
these

represented

the

_H,),

components.

,7_+ qo --

can
two

be

twice

of the phase

obtained

quantities

Im {.} being

from
are

difference
the

complex

quantities
numbers,

between

the

Po and
the

phase

two magnetic
P defined

in

difference

is

as

fl=-jim

with

% + -o'o%cosd]_

the

imaginary

part.

{In p_}

(2.58)

CHAPTER

Edge-Based

3.1

years

methods

in antenna

junction

with

However,

have

analysis

various

Green's

their

versatility.

(not

configuration

Furthermore,

in the

context

ing simplified

models

that

to the

measures

singularity
must

was

Technique

be taken

recently

of canonical
Based

on the

(IE)
with

specific

leads

differ

field

[26] for

are

scattering
success

when

the

to inaccuracies
antenna

distribution

method

a model

which

applied

rectangular
methods

43

are

actual

alleviates

patch

for antenna

the

[1 3].
at)pro-

this

limits

assumption

deviates

bandwidth

excitations

the

the

in coilrole

and

on

from

antennas.

represented

us-

configurations.

feed

In contrast,

was

a major

formulated

near

modeling.

method

be employed

the

for many

in which

for larger

or less from

[27, 28] and

of FE-BI

must

usually

technique

moment
played

substrate,

proper

(FE-BI)

the

researchers

representations

geometry

more

current

them,

and

formulations

of IE methods,

Integral

past

equation

and

engineers

Among

inhomogeneous)

demonstrated
shape

the

IE techniques

of the

Element-Boundary

design.

for the

Moreover,
layered

practical

and

serving

are associated

function

of an infinite

been

integral

IE methods

priate

due

FE-BI

Introduction

Numerical

the

III

these

junction(s),
the

to inhomogeneous

anah'sis,

special

hybrid

difficulties

antennas

Also,

Finite
and

this

objects

[9].
it is desirable

to extend

tim reel hod 1o antenna.-

hybrid

tinite

(']('nwrl_-boundarv

ization

of arbitrarily

configuration
plane enclosing
excited
practical
FEM,
rally

cavity

is firsl

discretized

into

to triangles

based

configurations,

the

Hybrid

readily
the

different

extend

complete

configuration

probe,

aperture.

of modeling

substrate

elements

a number

on the aperture

may t.,

line.

patch

arbitrarily

frill gen_'rator,

In the

contexl

elemenls

non-rectangular

the

t_f ..u,l_ a
ta,u_,_l

a magnelic

For

inhomogeneities,

_'a_lll,h'
in a n_'tallic

of tetrahedral

and

to any

.\ll

i_. rv(ess_,d

or a CP\V

non-uniform
applies

[29 i.

exact

As a result,

shaped

cavity-backed

anisotropies,

of the

t]lal

llalu-

patches

this

integral

for-

boundary

shape.

as well

the

hybrid
antenna

as various

schemes.

System

section,

variational

mesh

is capable

excitation

In this

this

slot

cavitv's

is. in general,

upon

technique

on the

a (axitv

as a simple
line.

gridding

practical

such

microstrip

triangular

3.2

schemes,

,_ll ,'_1,_',.ira-,.,]

i> t_r_'_.,'ILT_',If_r l iJ,' clmlacI,'z-

azl_'_l_a_.

The antenlla

cable,

reduce

FE-BI

in fig. 3.1. where

coaxial
the

mulation

cavilv-lmcke(t

the ]:'E.M volume.

by different

]tl I[1i- cllat,1_,i.

i_lTegra] f_rlllula_it,l,

shaped

is shown

of arbil rar_ ..lial_..

the

principle,
the

edge-based
where

formulae

functional
shown

Functional

hybrid
matrix

to the

pertinent
in fig. 3.1 may

FE-BI

algebra
general

to the

notation
anisotropic

scattering

be written

method

as

and

will be formulated
is employed
case.

radiation

As

using

so that

one can

presented

in [9].

by a cavity-backed

[5

z
&

Patch

Ground

plane

Aperture
D, Y

Cavity

Coax cable opening

(surface C)

x
Coax

Figure

F(E)

3.1:

Illustration

of a typical

the

J,

and

cavity

Mi

the

c_ and

function

3.2.1

with

FEM

In proceeding

r and

.E

electric

field,

aperture

tt_ denote,
wave

interior

incident

cavity

k0 is the free space

scattering

t)roblem.

dv

H i) _ dS

represent

V; H i is the

S encompasses
elements;

and

(VE)-I(vE)-ko2_E

+ 2jkoZo//(E

where

radiation

cable

r' denoting

if any,

i the
the

the

the
unit

magnetic

from

excluding

respectively,

number,

and

the

dyad,

observation

exterior

portion

relative
and
and

current

sources

region;

occupied

the

by the

permittivity

and

G0(r,

free space

r') the

integration

within
surface
antenna

permeability;
Green's

points.

Subsystem

with

the

discretization

of (3.1),

F = Fv + Fs

it is convenient

to decompose

it as

(3.2)

I('

wh(.re

surface

['+.. denote+,

integral

elements

1_

th(,

vc+,ltttne

integral

contributions.

(e=l.2

....

N).

and

c,.,nt

T].'

cavity

witliin

each

rilmti,.,tl-

vo]utllt+

atld

:.itttilarl\

l.

i:.....ul,(li\i(h.d

t('tral,,<hut_

a;

ac<.t,ttttt>

iiitu

.,,]iowti

itl

tig.

fur

tltc

tt'tr,tli<.llal

:1.2

ill,'

tit,I,t

1
I

nodes/vertices
Figure

is expanded

3.2:

A tetrahedron

using edge-based

and

its

elements

local

node/edge

numbering

scheme

as

E = [v]T{E}+

(3.3)

with

IV]+

Vu2
11 =

E2

{E}+

x,y,z

(:t.4)

tT

in whi(tl

1 _, i._ the

along

the

dron

edge.

ith

edge.

(ttere

Inserting

u I_ = .r. 9 or z_ ('omi_t_lwnt
The

unknown

we use square

(:/.3)into

(3.1).

and

vector
brackets

taking

{1:'}.

of lhe vo[unw
ha,

six enlrie_.<,ll_'

for matrices
the

first

\eclol t,a_i-

alld

variation

curl\

fux_c_i_._-

f_,zcach

t,racket-

of _\. wittl

l_'tla}_.

for x,'dor-I.

rcstwc_

Io {t.}

yields

where

I
Jiz

{h'}_

J,_

+ V x

d,,

!lli_

(3.V)

M,:

o v;}

[DVl y =

{v;}

o{_i}_
To carry

out

the

above

or shape

functions

V_.

shape

functions

matrix

entries

in Appendix

integrations,
For our

for tetrahedral
associated

with

A for reference.

(3.s)

- o{v,;}

o{
oy v;}

it remains

to introduce

implementation

we employed

elements

given

in [30,

a typical

tetrahedron

the
the

volume
linear

all. The explicit

(as shown

expansion
edge-based

finite

in fig. 3.2)

element
are

given

3.2.2

Boundary

To discretize
gular

elements

triang]e,

the

Integral

Subsystem

the surface
since

field

these

integrals

iu (3.1).

correspond

is represented

to th('

flu' al)vr_ur(,

i_, ,,_ll ,livi,l,,(t

i)_t_, lriai_
\\'illlill

fat('> t)t' llw tct_al,'_lral>.

ca<l)

as

E = [5"]_r{ E_},

1:3.9)

where

SU

u = x.y

(3.10)

Su3

Es3
in which

S,,

the

ith edge.

first

variation

is the

u(u

= x, Y) component

On substituting
of Fs with

(3.9)

respect

into

e
of the

the

to {E,},

surface

surface

vector

integrals

basis
of (3.1)

functions
and

along

taking

the

we obtain

where

Go(r,

r') dS dS'

(3.]2)

and

(3.13)

.Nole

that

vector

r.

in (3.12)
w}lerea._

A suitable

the
the

eh,ment_

of the

e]ementsof

set of linear

'_,.!z

edge-based

S,(r)

array
ar_" witll

surface

(referring

fui_ction_,

r(,_t_,<t

to

basi._ functions

2.4,
/, 5 >: (r

r,)_(r)

to fig. :3.3)./,

denotes

_,f lll_' _,l,,,t.vva_i_,l_

the

iz_t,tratit_i_

l_oill_

r'.

is

/:l.t.l

In this expression

i?"._ arc

i th

r_.,

ot herwise

the

length

of the ilh edge

and

r, i.-

edge

0
Figure

the position
triangles,
e(r)

vector
one

is given

3.3:

Pair

of the vertex

is defined

as the

of triangles

opposite
plus

to the ith

and

the

minus

triangle

yields

the

of boundary
equation

ith

edge

edge.

Since

as the

minus

each

edge

triangle.

shares

two

Therefore.

(3.15)
1
-1

S,

other

the

by

_(r)

where

sharing

= S + + S/.

The

depending

basis

functions

integral
subsystem

constant

A,

on whether
used

equations.
is given

by Rao,
The

rES
rES[

in (3.14)

the

area

of the

r E S + or r E S_-.

We

note

that

et al. [32] in their

moment

method

solution

for the

boundary

integral

explicit

in Appendix

+
denotes

expressions

]3 for reference.

plus
S,(r)

or

-_()
3.2.3

Combined FE-BI

System

Io construct the final systemfl,r the soluliott of t},_'_'l_'clricti,'l_l Ct_tlll_t_lwIll-XVt'

combine (:.{.5)and (3.11). and after assembl\ w{,ot,lain llwsxstclll

{[A]{C} + {.,,}} + {[B]{C,} + {t.}} = 0

In this.
and

{Ix'}

the

and

exterior

consists

coinciding

element(s)

with

surface

pins

fields

[A] and

whose

fully

The

entries
explicit

respect

[A] exhibits

high

(PEC)

walls.

the

are part

of those

in { E} with

sparsity

due

vector

{E,}

(see also
isotropic
FEM

sources

vector

PEC

except
amenna

represents

and

the

corresponding

vectors

[33]).

{El

edges

their

for the matrices

to the

field

element

Finally,

of the assumed

current

to the

cavity.

expressions

as a result

interior
electric

conducting

from (a.6), (a.7) and (3.12)

[B] are symmetric

to the

unknown

with

electrically
the

due

The

coefficients

inside

extracted

In addition,

vectors

respectively.

perfectly

on the aperture.

can be readily

excitation

expansion

or PEC

unknown

are the

excitation,

of all field

those

edges

{L}

(3.16)

in (3.1(;)

It is evident

medium

that

and reciprocity.

formulation

whereas

[B] is

populated.
Two

approaches

subsystems
(BiCG)

when

method

matrix-vector

products
[A] and

execution

of the

carrying

approach
matrix

an iterative
[34]. These

matrices

after

may' be followed

out

is more
and

storing

BiCG

adding

individual

only

is employed

such

in terms
the

differ

in the

for in the iteration

algorithm,

efficient

out

approaches

called

[B] by

the

solver

in carrying

up

the

manner

steps.

matrix-vector
of computation
elements.

the

solution

as the

One

corresponding

or instead

non-zero

the

resulting
products.

sum

This

is because,

prior

may

We observe
reordering

of

the coefficient

entries

vectors

after

gradient

for the evaluation

could

time

combined

biconjugate

used

matrix

of the

to the

be summed
that

the

first

the combined

in the

conlext

of

-, 1

this ._chenl<
iteration,
where

tlowever,
the

integral
The

tim conlbination

t"FT

the

thus

Bi('G-FFT

3.3

on
and

scattering
etry/mesh

Figure

input

ap[_roach

elin_inating

i.- COml)a_il_h'
to exploit

_o ('xpli(iIly

will be discussed

in chapter

above

presented

a computer

FE-B1
was

by cavity-backed

patch

antennas

is first

as shown

generated

A typical

file which,

o_1[\ ol_cv _,ut>i,{,. _fL_.

xxiTtl the

l_i('(;-Vl"l

tlt_' coilvolutional

a need

program

3.4:

it T,_.rforn_,d

s_ore

,clwllw.

l,r_,i_crt5

tb_' etltire

_f ll_'

Ill matr}x.

4.

hnplementation

the

plemented

Ixvt, mallicc>

is employed

technique

Numerical

Based

second

algorithm

operator,

of the

geometry/mesh

as a minimum,

(a)

the

nodes

and

(b)

the

tetrahedral

(c)

the

nodes

their

developed

the
for the

of arbitrary

in fig. 3.4 and

hvl)rid
analysis

shape.
supplied

for a cavity-backed

method

The
to this

circular

was

im-

of radiation
antenna
program

patch

and
geomin an

antenna.

contains

(x, y, z) coordinates;

elements

identifying

formulation,

the

and

the

cavity

corresponding

aperture;

nodes

forming

each

element,:

7,2

For arbitrary
mesh
each

antenna

generation
of these
the

routine

is used

usually

refer

of the

FEM

boundary

cavity

integral

be independently
svstems

and

method

but

also

two

and

and

accounts

even

for

complex

the
task.

subsvstems

can

in fig. :l..'_
a few data

the

data

output.
is tile

It is noted
space,

be dominant

non-metallic

hybrid

\Vc

implementation

can

radiating

FEM

shown

less storage

the

It,

an imerpretation

finally

subsystems.

when

t)reproce.,.,ed

generation,

technique

purpose

is a relatively
these

solution

antenna

of the

This

the mesh

but

I5 lficallv

to edge-elenmnts.

from

in size

in a general
that

them
is that

the

be readily

flow chart

requires

x,]ll_ll_'

comnmrciall\.

list of data.

The

separate

true

developed.

however

two

is particularly
over

_l St,ldli>th'al,_]

node-elements

hybrid

small

from

combining

in the

the

subsystem

independent

BiCG

is always

predominates

boundary

to the

in dimension

subsystem
This

from

preprocessing.

complications

demand.

aperture

kernel,

is large

the above

procedures

of combining

integral

is entirely

the

primary

matrix

of memory

the

FE-BI

treatment
sparse

the information

implementation

the

file'" tha_ can

list. Given

as data

t, 'nlploy

of these, are availal_le

a "'universal

input

procedure

major

it is necessary

a number

generates

to convert
this

preprocessors,

efficient

and

aforementioned

the

One

package
packages

extract

describes

geometries,

One

while

tile

in terms
on the

Furthermore.

FE-BI

two

the

portion

elements.

the

thai

implementation

basis

functions

arbitrary

numbering

major

be developed

can

advantage
and

of

validated

individually.
Once
complished
the

integral

both

of the

subsystems

by enforcing
representation

the

are

verified,

boundary
and

explicitly

conditions

the

coupling
implicitly

on tangential

of the

subsystems

on tangential

E fields

over

the

is ac-

H fields
interior

via
and

IMPLEMENTATION FLOW CHART

MESHER //

V
[

[-

Universal File

..........................

Pre-Processors/

I
FOR
FEMSystem

II

BI System

Combinations

FEM System
BI System

Core Program//
Feed Models
w

Figure 3.5: A flow chart describes the major implementation

mesh generation,
a few data preprocessors,
the
BiCG solution and finally the data output.

Combinations

procedures
from tile
FE-BI kernel, to the

.5 t

manner

so lhal

}_oth t[_e storage

Specifically.

the

to condense

the

the

sparse

.\_. is the

system

finite

number

for the

be carried

systems,

the

the repeated

ation

is avoided.

FEM

and

ent

when

3.4

a special
and

Selected

and

and
radiation

computed

before

alternative

this

below

demonstrating
by different
results

via

The

is performed

will be investigated

some

the

and

is to carry

separately.

treatment

execution

FE

and
was

If the

solulion

the

FFT).

wa._ lo
then

and

the

about

moderately

case the generation

BiCG

algorithm

reduces

of operations
within

matrix-vector
of the

tl_e

in differem

in a 1-D array

BI subsystems

advantage

denole.,

s_ored

In that

a number

out, the

.\.,

spirals,

of the

.\, .V,,,. wild,re

Bi('(;

resulting

scheme.

is because

of the

Numerical

We present
dating

The

BI n_atrix

cavity-backed

to use this

This

combinations

BI subsystems

consideration

matrix

volume

array

l_J thi_ i)oii_I.

of h'ngll_

as incorporating

FE

including

requirements.

with

to the

t., I_il_i_l_i:_'d.

a_c ci_t_,vc_'d , pr'_<,l._

array

products.
(such

ca_

compoilents.

cavity

Tl,e

treatments

preferable

FE-BI

the

entries.

is added

surface-

as a si_gh,

within

For slot antennas,

combined

metallic

matrix-vector

special

it was found

computational

row

lv_luir_q_'_ll-

nonzero)ti('ld

was stored

of the

matrix

the

only

of unknowns

without

3,'_.._,_ + Ny long.

of a single

matrix

evaluation

out

on

involves

of nonzero

N_ A'_ BI integral

sized

which

number

compulalional

conditi(ms

element

total

maximum
ways

boundary

and

associated

the

BiCG

products

scheme

on to the

numerical

at certain

depth

in chapter

numerical

results

for the

becomes

system

iter-

for the
appar-

for efficiency
5.

Results

representative
the robustness

of the tetrahedral

configurations

of cavity-backed

FE-BI

method

are

compared

purpose

formulation
antennas.
with

of vali-

for scattering
In each

reference

case the

measured

or

55
calculated data.
Scattering and radiation by a circular patch:
Vig.

3.6 il[ustrales

substrate

having

2.6 cm and
and

the

plane
and

substrate

patch

frequency

a relative

the

comparison

were

surements

the

is very

and

in this

was

measurements
by

are

of the

illustrated

follow
denote

the
the

has

whose

For this

placed

FE-BI

throughout

calculations

modeling

method.

the

radiator

and

and

spiral

was

plane

radiation

base.

is given

cross

of 9.1.78 cm.

situated

This

section

pattern
in fig. 3.9.

taken

spiral

has

in the

It is seen

measurements
impedance

and

mea-

The

it is again

a+ are
arm

probe

seen

that

this

and

strip

equal

cm

.X = 30 cm
deep.

pattern

The

using

the
(f

is in good

spiral

(p, o, z)
0.02,57k.
(9.24

cross

cm

section

= 1 GHz)

computed

a probe

and
cone

top

mesh

the

where

on an inverted

ver-

surface

forming

to 0.0832_

of 1.68 cm and

_ = 90-plane.
that

geometrical

radiator

of the

resides

calculations
10.01

the

z = a exp(0.2210),

a diameter

cavity

spiral

edges

2.66)],

For our

in a circular

of the incident

in fig. a.7.

center

of the

coordinates,

0 < _ < 2rr.

bottom

a diameter

cylindrical

of

Input

to demonstrate

bottom

lines p = 0.0503)_exp[0.221(gS+
standard

as a funclioJ_

agreement.

Two projections
top

band.

<avilx
:\

between

are displayed

patch's

]l_is

i_-

ils ]{('S.

tile direction

GHz

diallwtcr

cn_ wi&,.

aae_ ]{('S

agreemenl

4-9

patcl_:

for m_'asuring

computation

patch

l[w

lllick

spiral:

of this

The

body

the

t,f a (I. 10t; ctll

6.292

backscatler

are in good

conical

>urfacc

cavity

section

the

same

tlw

of _r = '2.9.

as seen

0.8 cm from

a one-arm
the

and

for the

in fig. 3.8.

respectively,
tall)

in fig. a.6.

good

and

We considered
satility

calculated

calculations

case

Radiation

and

normal,

on

in a circular

in a low cross

measured

60 from

calculations

residing
constallt

is enclosed

is also shown
was

l,atch

dielectric

recessed

of the

wave

feed

a circular

and

the

E, principal

feed at the
agreemen_

cavity

with

the

U.UtJO
f

i .............

-tO.O
u,

FE- BI Me_m:l

-20.0

ee
t_

-30.0

.r-

-40.0

-50.0
Ii

.........

-60.0

2_

314bern

I .......

4.00

I .......

5.00

3.6:

Comparison

of the

computed

function
of frequency
for the
was 30 off the ground
plane.

600

frequency

Figure

7.00

80(2,

(GHz)

and

measured

shown

circular

eree backscatter
patch.

The

R('S

incidence

as a
anglo

1.0
0.5 _2.0

0.5 _/2.0
1.0

Figure

3.7:

Comparison
circular
center

patch
of the

of the
shown
patch

computed
in fig.
and

the

and
3.6.

measured
The

frequency

feed
was

input
was

placed

swept

from

impedance
0.S cm

for

the

from

the

3 to 3.8 GHz.

.)i

dala

gixen

the

nwasured

cavity
not

in [35].
data

housing

part

a large

circular

Annular

slot

cular

3.10

24.7

cm

and
[14].

agree

For these
constant

of the

circular

a qualitative
stacked

of the

and

stacked

annular

fi'_,lll

ti_,il' circular
]]m

spiral

lal _,'i wi,_.

anTct_im

Because

the

slot situated

annular

slm

in the

algorithm.

small

BiCG
aperture

Input

oi,

calculated

calculations,

the

to account

via

frequency

filling

method

is

without

a need

for

as a function

of

the

swept

slot,

are

shown

from

in

integral

700-1000

MHz.

was set to e_ = 1.35 as in [36]

presence
the

as a result

a modal-boundary

was

the cavity

for the

for holding

across

_hc

FE-BI

calculations

placed

in a ci>

is narrow.
and

The

configurations

impedance

by a probe
values

model

wide)

for this application

the

value

circular

bandwidth
two

consisled

is verb' small

of the material

the

with

FFT

with

patch

study

(0.75

3 cm deep.

excited

measurement

To demonstrate

to the

nmdel.

cm

in modeling

well

this is an effective

nificant

in the analytical

circular

the

radiator,

and

configuration

[ltJIIi lilt

which

considerations.

dielectric

backed,

of interfereI_cc

configuration

BI subsystem

effective

for this

Stacked

wa.- included

and

to invoke

The

as part

wide

computational

fig. 3.10,
method

a narrow

of the

quite

frequency

which

because

in_,1 _tL_,Wl_b diff,'l,',t

impedance:

is no need

special

horizon

lh_' t'L tm_lvrll

plate.

implementation

basically

the

measurement

shows

cavity

there

near

the spiral

of the

Fig.

.-\s cazl I,t. expected,

of a dielectric

slot cover

used

plate.

antenna:
capability

of the

visualization
patch

rectangular
increase.
patches.

of the

antenna
patch
This
The

developed
near

as shown
shape

has

is because
circular

hybrid
field

distribution

in fig. 3.11.
been

of the

patches

technique,

are

Note

investigated
dual
more

frequency
attractive

we now present
inside
that
and

a cavitythe

similar

found

a sig-

resonance
than

due

slacked

5",

Figure 3.8: Illustration of the configuration and meshof

used

for the

computation

," ........

I .........

the one-arm

conical

spiral

of fig. 3.9.

1.........

I .........

I .........

I .........

I .........

I .........

O.

._

-10.

E
_

-20.

-30.
_e
-40.

-50.

........I......... I.........I .........I......... I.........I.........|........

-90.

Figure

3.9:

Comparison
90-plane,
in fig. 3.8

of the
with data

-60.

_0.

calculated
in reference

O.

radiation

_0.

60.

pattern

90,

(E_),

[35] for the one-arm

taken

conical

in the
spiral

o =

shown

a = 12.35 cm

"i

b = 0.75 cm
Po"

7.7 cm

0.7 <f < 1 GHz

d=3cm

i.0

0.5
1.0

Figure

3.10:

Comparison
backed
slot.

of input

impedance

calculations

for the

illustrated

cavity-

rectangular
quencv

patche_

[3?].

lnfortunatelv,

in the literature
It turns
this

fed with
base
the

an offset

lower

PDE

patches

electric

from

Figure

3.11:

from

(The
and

One

respect

excitation

Visualization
circular

the

the

laboratory

near

patch

the

ensures

near

antenna.

patch.

antenna.
the

has

upper

[38].)

linear

may

feed,

and

The

the

interesting

the

energy

the

other

the

polarization

can

complete

two regions

Although

field distribution

This

the

be clearly
only

via the

image

of the
is that

is concentrated
is near

at

the opposite

act as out-of-phase

patches

lower

and

on

point

are

in radiated

at the

cavity

uplmr

completely

provide

Another

the

for

alllenna

to link the

to rely

and

_,uiled

patch

between

patch.

probe,

is well

patch

contact

is available

offset

the probe
of the

I,,,,11 i_,l,_,II_,_l

circular

lower

measurement

a single

excite

of the

to the

a microstrip

center

the

transfer

which

technique

stacked

electric

power

lower

is around

to the

to effectively

offset

thus

FE._I

underneath

No direct

was fed with

regions.

with

the

plane).

hybrid

a cavity-backed,

post

lla-

tool.

field visualization,

above

antenna

pole

we chose

and

techniques.

the

re_,valch oli I11i> g_'_mlelrv

presented

vertical

exists

the near

related

shape,

this.

coupling

two distinct
location

the above

single

field distribution
though

no sufticient

as a ground

electromagnetic
verified

that

To show

(viewed

a ,111all area whelj _,t_cra1_.d at I tL_.>aill_' fl_'

due to a lack of ailalwis

out

study.

becal.l>e thin, occupy

laver

circular

fields.

of a stacked

in

CHAPTER

Efficient

4.1

Boundary

IV

Integral

Subsystem

Introduction

As is known,

the

capable

of handling

sociated

with

this

it less attractive.
tenna

systems

much
hybrid

technique
This

with

useful

approach.

element-boundary

of conformal
and

any

is especially

the

small

global
if one

FE-BI

aperture

isotropy/anisotropy,
the

One

solution

However.

truncation

method

and
is the

is accurate

and

drawback

as-

the

approaches

possibly"

layers
reduce
CG-FFT

CPU

cavity

etc.),

an-

for the
design

it would

requirement

technique

make

large

suited

complex

of metals,
the

can

in modeling

is particularly

size and

speed

method

is interested

other

to accelerate
possible

integral

antennas.

other
true

Although

relatively

feedlines,

more

finite

a variety

(arrays).

configurations
(including

hybrid

be

for" the

discussed

in this

chapter.
The
whose
this

boundary

integral

size is determined
analysis

ments,

and

By resorting
a discrete

becomes

convolutional

equation

subsystem

leads

to a full)'

by the number

of aperture

mesh

edges.

impractical

to overcome
to the

(BI)

in terms

this inefficiency,

structured
form,

mesh,
thus

of storage

a uniform
the

boundary

permitting

61

the

and
zoning

populated

For large

computation

computation

matrix

apertures.

time

of the aperture

integral

matrix

can

of the

require-

is required.
be cast
matrix-vector

into

('2'

l)roducls

via

full BI matrix.
involving

discrete

the

Ttlis

menlorv

rectangular

for triangular

surface

we first

that

show

triangular

ferred

to as the
are

4.2

Application

been

presented

Conjugate

cially

problems

numerical

4.2.1

BiCG

systems,
the

CG

symmetric

may
the

without

With

(CG)

of the

primary

and

to costly

oI1 uniform

triangular

m('sh('s

treatn)enl

in section

4.3.

rt,A few

validity.

Algorithms

of linear

systems

references
not

lend

of equations

are

collected

themselves

of handling

for direct

system

one seeks

the

computing

has

in [41].

as a robusl

large-scale
solvers.

solutions

com-

It is espeof large-scale

resources.

Preconditioning

have

applications

advantage

Also.

discussed

capable

been

that

of different

preconditioning

developed

nowadays

It is noteworthy

taking

sparsity.

do

when

algorithms

as aforementioned.
algorithms,

algorithms

resorting

a sl)ecia]

representative

be impossible

implenmnted

geometries,

solution

are indeed

In thi_. ('llal)It'r.

and

method's

algorithms

wa_. alst)v('t)ollt'(t

rectangular

and

I}_(,

t,, IIi-_,l_i,,_.-

approxinlations.

Gradient

the

CG

which

gradient
one

the

iterative

and

Algorithm

Conjugate

is proposed

[42], they

to employ

systems

[43, 44] and

(CG)

state-of-the-art

desirable

antenna

demonstrate

I,('('1_ al)l)li('d

be preci..;ely
the

of Conjugate

"black-box"

putational

between

scheme

which

can

a l_,.(.tl I_, -I,,_.

iTllt,h'llmIIlatioll

inherent

solver

differences

investigated

the

input/output

BiCG-FFT

Gradient

extensively

Although

[40] involving

) ;lt_tl a_t,i(]ill_

ha> alr('a,l_

a similar

For non-rectangular

results

The

grids

overlaying

( l)l"-I

sch('nl('

sax'ilkc

[:)._).3-11. and

The

described.

t ral_sfornl

grids

the

meshes.

are also

Fourier

is to solve
there

properties

is often

for over

used

exist

large
various

of the
to speed

forty

years

scale

linear

versions

matrix

such

up convergence.

of
as

.-ks su,,oe_ted.,._
.
ixl [45.4(; i. the

algorithm

used

il, tills- wt,rk

i> a- f_,ltoxvs:

Given

Pl =rl

For

/,'=

= b-A.xl

1.'2.3 ....
_.

Ok

r k

_-Z_- A p j,.
rk+l

= rk -

ol,.A p_..

G+I

= rk -

o_,.A "T " P_.

flk

--

_k+l

" Fk+l

--m

r k rk

xk+l
where

* denotes

iterative

the

algorithm

is usually

referred

systems.

If the

r_, the
per

algorithm

iteration,

complex

conjugate

is quite

general

to as the
matrix

since

and

in terms

Biconjugate

can then

= Xk + akpk

is symmetric
be shortened

in each

step

_: and

T is the
of the

gradient
and

system
(BiCG)

the

to require
Pk

transpose.

are

initial
only
complex

This

matrix

of the

to be solved

method

and

for unsymmetric

value
one

version

is chosen

as rl

matrix-vector

conjugate

product

of rk and

Pk,

respectively.
The
the

ordinary

BiCG

be shortened
amenable

when

conjugate

gradient

A is Hermitian

to have

about

to a straightforward

(i.e.
50_

algorithm

can

A = A'T).

Again

less computational
interpretation

be considered

as a special

in this case,

effort.

The

of its convergence

the algorithm

CO algorithm
principle.

case

of
can

is also
Basically.

(,1
the algorithm nlinimizes the funclion
1
f(x)=

Hence

x obtained

solution

from

the

-x.A.x-b-x
.)

('G

algorithm

The

CG

type

introduced

convergence
matrix.

of algorithms

to improve
rate.

4.2.2

One

with

In our

to alleviate
memory

and

integral

sparse.

The

CPU

equation

of moment

sit,l)>

Iw'ozlms

lhc

may

where

is the

counts

will of course

plished

by' recasting
fast

BiCG

solver.

Fourier

condition
is the

since

manner

boundary

the

dominate
leads

significantly
of the

quite

CPU

requires

reduce

original

the

diagonal

successful

and

in size.

partially

O(N

(FFT)

onto

type

matrix

demand.

This

2) order

solution

out

the

can

requires
due

is used

Reduction
time

and

submatrices
matrix-vector

be used

boundary
the

Solving

of operations

full

excessive

to the

is because

by its nature.

a few Toeplitz

to carry

of algorithms

dense

dimension.
the

large

LU decomposition

system

system
decrease

is usually
(CG)

the

to a dense

BI system

transform

inverse

preconditioning

System

partially

the

integral

significantly

Linear

gradient

However,

always

until

and

has been

of equations

conjugate

still

the

For

requirement

in a traditional

svstem

competilive

algorithm.

system

time.

(MoM)

of the

BiCG

linear

memory

become

this preconditioning

the

the

not

preconditioner

Algorithm

work,

partially

did

simple

the

BiCG-FFT

system

/, iteralioli

A-x-b=O

the original

In our applications

in conjunction

and

the

of the equation

...Xf(x)=

was

after

method

the

dense

per

iteration,

of the

operation

this

can be accomand

making

products

use
in the

.-ksdescribedin the
a convoluTional
prising

since

using

the

To this

end.

data

In contrast

order

algorithm

is employed.

nique

the

fast

has

lowest

multipole

4.2.8

the

and

the

next

relation

section.

integral

We recognize

as shown

in fig. 4.1 and

3).

include

These

the

uniformly

spaced.

numbered

in accordance

carry

the

numbering

along

the

?,, direction.

that

thus

FFT
with

p-directed

(rn, n) if the
The

indices

of

_he product

of

yields

the

operation

result.

producl

counts

significant

if the
and

solvers,

in
FFT

the

tech-

including

the

preferred.

the

structured

structured

mesh

triangular
is described

grid.
in the

consists

of equal

right

triangles

different

classes

of edges

(class

1.2

the

diagonal

edges,

each

class

and

geometric
edge

lral>fonn

grid

implementation
their

Fourier

prodtlc!

equation

using

and

three

ilcralhm.

eat])

lntegral

triangular

involves

z-directed,

For the

integral

iIl_t,

t_,I >ur-

for a malrix-\ector
2 ,\')

is discretized

the

of the

is alwavs

unstructured

a!

t_ecomes

is indeed

of Boundary

the

tile

convolution

reduction
among

equation

between

the

lt,i-i.

convolut}ol_

by taking

O(.log

[47], thus

Form

the

transform

needs

demand

(FMM)

out

},_' Oh-1

iOlI. to >o[\_' I ll_' C(lllal it_II

illl_'gl'al

requirement

operation

CPU

method

boundary

scheme

The

Convolutional

The

An inverse

of O(.T 2) CPU

fashion,

ill the

in which

Call

for discreli:_a_i_ll.

convolution

(arrays)

_'(_llaliOl|

ilJl_'_la]

is applied

Io carry

the

sequences.

to the

a traditional

calculale

sequences

I_oul,dar\

i> involved

i! remains

may

two "frequency"

lhc
_rid

function

algorithm,
one

seclk)n,

if a uniform

the Green's

('G

two spatial
the

form

next

location.

is the

rnth

(m, n) take

the

along
values

rn

0,1,2

....

,M i

0,1.2

.....

:yi

of edges

Specifically,
the

all of which

and
are

is independently
the

a" direction

ith class

will

and

nth

the

{,t,

///////
/////
/
////////
///////
///////

;a
m: 0
Figure

with

4.1"

i = 1 for the

x-directed

edges.

and

Consequently,

denote

Structured

y-directed

M'=

where

mesh

edges,

.........

consists

of equal

i = 2 for the

right

diagonal

triangles

edges

and

i = 3 for the

we find that

M-1

i=2

M-1

i=3

the

,_"'_=

numbers

of elements

N-1

i=2

N-2

i=3

along

the

(4.1)

and

y directions.

respectively.
To

perform

elements,
new

indices

the

it is now
(re, n).

integrations

for the

convenient

to rewrite

We readily

find

that

evaluation

of the

the

basis

the

edge-based

boundary

functions
basis

(3.14)

integral
in terms

functions

matrix
of the

associated

t;7
with each of t[w aforenwnliolwd cla,>of vde,'>vaill,_.
r,,wril_t'i_
a-

t.r

q l ._

_,'"

ill

"-

%',,,(._.:/_-

(y - (I__ llA!/Li'+ ((m --21.._N,v

- .ri!) (.r

.-._J"

I-t.21

oi ]wrwise

(,_Xy - V).i' + (.r - (._ + 1)_X.r)_

",''-

(y-(,_

3',-(1.:_)

-,,/(Z._'): + (Ay) 2

_'v_,,(x.y) =

_Xa'Ay

+ 1)_xy)._. + (,,,A.,.-.,.)k

((n + 2).Xy

ot herwise

- y).i" + (a'-

(,,, + 1)_X.r)_)

(.r.y)

E +

(.r.y)

S(

I
S_,(x,y)

Ay

(y-

nay)/+

(m_Xx-

a')_

where

the

superscripts

processes,
of the

one

refer

obtains

boundary

otherwise

to the

edge

a discretized

matrix-vector

class

version

product

After

of the

can

now

{Blsubsystem}-[Bl{E,}=_-'_

(m, n) are

whereas

(m',n')

ements.

Thus,

entry

ki =naI

matrix-vector

the

are
the

the

same

of the

indices

the

class

of the
column

resulting

It is readily

found

S_

(
u)8
,AxAo,

indices

iL

and
which

asseml)lv
each

entrv

as

EJrn',n'

(4.,5)

n_=O

for the
edges

ith

the

class

belonging

i, rn and
after

observation
to integration

n completely
execution

edgos

of the

defines

eltile

boundary

that

S_,.,

from

Bmn,m'm'
o

ml=O

jth

discretization

be calculated

location
for

specification

_+ M
product.

geometric

the

BI system,

_
j=l

in which

(-1.1)

iis

Go(r,

r') dx dy dx' dy'

ei(r)ej(r)liljGo(r,r')dxdydx'dtj

4.6)

with

=i
_

")

l.d

= :_

.More importantly,
lutiona]

it can

property

be shown

B_,_.,_, n, :

that

BI___,.,__,_,

tile BI subsvstenl

(-l.(i) exhibit_

) and

rewrhe

thus

we can

tilt'

(-t.5)

c<)lJxo-

a.,,

[B]{E,} = Z B',,

(4.sl

./=t

where

the

section
that

* denotes

to ensure
the

BI

the

smooth

computation

employing
the

convolution.

the
matrix

property

discussion

of the

2-D

boundary

discrete

other

Fourier

than

of Bi__m,,__,v)

The

those

proof

will

of the

remaining

matrix-vector

transform
entries

is also

be presented

which

invoked,

procedure.

product

(DFT),

thus

are

in the

can

be performed
a need

When

the

that

the

total

symmetry

implying

h'; = _

should

be compared

be required
thy

that

B(m__,,__,v
)i;
and

zero

Specifically,

if the
._

is much

_- B_;(ff_, _)
padding
the

may

was

smaller

in the

Ni(M'

+ M j-

not

cast

are

1)

(4.10)

To

in a 2-D

also

be required

matrix-vector

product

whose

storage

in convolutional

in number.

be cast

BI matrix

j=l

(2ia__l M i5") 2 entries

to the

BI system

entries

i=1

This

I .9/

non-redundant
3

by

to store

,,_.,,=
it is concluded

of this

It is now seen

avoiding

unique.

end

array

to make
(4.5)

avoid

aliasing,

which
use

form

has

is executed

by

and

normally

it is notewor-

it is necessary

the

of the

would

usual

standard
using

periodic
FFT
the

that
form.

routines.

MFTNFT

(;D

arra\

B'_(-

fi_.-Tt).

B'J(-F_.

-_t.

B'J(ff_._

B'a(fft

0
with

the

MFT0<

M'+

fi < .\J
0 < ff_ < M'

1 - NFT).

- 1 - MFT,

1 < ff_ < MI'T

(-1.11)

_\-' + 1 < i_ < NFT

NFT-

fi - 1 - NFT).

MFT-

M' + 1 < ff_ < .MFT

NFT-

.\o + 1 < i_ < Nt'T

otherwise

corresponding

field vector

given

by

t
0<7_

o<

,= J

and

MFT

and

In the

NFT

must

BiCG-FFT

< :y2

< M,,

(4.12)

otherwise

be powers

algorithm

the

of 2 if a radix

2 FFT

algorithm

is used.

BI subsystem

vector

is symbolically

computed

as
3

{BI subsystem}

= E

{DFT-'

{DFT{B_J}

(4.1,3)

DFT{Esa}}}

i=1

The

presence

which

results

indexing

the
(4.6).

first

the

integrals

is necessary

conclude

after

operator

for addition

to [40] the

As

of the

inverse
to the

(4.6)

to preserve

promised,
this

integral
In addition,

FFT

FEM

the

(4.8),

with

The

the

same

of the

or the

proof

no loss of generality

a single

relation
we refer

can

2-D

arrav

with

the

be remarked

that

in contrast

proper

any approximation.

global

combined

B_,_,_,,v

to the

proof,

the

This

system.
BI__,_,.___,

to fig. 4.2 and

be appied
for the

of the

column

introducing

feature

proof,

reordering

It should

without

symmetry,
show

necessary
into

subsystem.

To simplify

in (4.6).

the

operation

are evaluated

we now
section.

06 indicates

consider

second
i =

t to
only

integral
1 class

in

edges

7(J

/
(m,n)
%,

- /
%.

(m',n')
Figure4.2:

Illustration
prove

(y-directed)
for the

function

the

?/"
=

trial

first

function

this

C J JsH+ J JsH'_
-[(n/ky

[n-_y,

Note

Therefore,

(4.14)

boundary

and

the

in (4.6)

indices

Io help

Io

integral.

i = '2 class

edges

point , substitutng

(diagonal)

in 5"7

1
- + and
_c, m,_(x,
y) in 5'_

yields

-y)(n'/ky-

coefficient

that

(n + 1)A9]

corresponding

?/"

C is a constant
proof.

the
of the

To this

term

Go [(x -

where

with

property

will be used.

y) in 5;[ into

Intmn,m'n'

triangles

convolutional

in 5;_+ for the

testing

S_,n,(x,

of two

the

the

and

unprimed

will be simplified
x = max

+ (x-

m _2._x)(rn2Xx

-Jr-2.._x-

x')5: + (y - y')_)] dxdydx'dy'

integration

for the

y')

its

detailed

form

limits

should

be set

coordinates
if the

and

following
x

of our

as [m_x,

transforms

= m-Xx

(-1.14)

is not

similarly

,r')]

concern

for

(m + 1).sxJ

and

for the
are

primed

introduced,

ones.
viz.

(4.].5)
y = nay
Indeed,

on substituting

Int_,_.,,,,_,

= C

the

transforms,

[AxAy
d

dO

[[&xAy
d

y' = nAy

+ 7?
one

+ 7?'

obtains

Jr/r/' + _(2Zx

- {')] Go {.i'[(m

rn')Za'+

dO

(_-

_')] + 0[(n -

n')_y

+ (r/-

r/')]}

d&l,ld,_'dr/'

(4.16)

71

is howeveras._uredlhal
7/)] no matter

theresultiIl_ext>ressio_lnmsl

what

form the GreelSs

function

Intm,.m,,_'

This

is the

in (4.8)

desired

relation.

Mesh

As

Overlay

described

so that

the

achieved

during

mesh
which

material

4.3(b)

shows

Field

we can

conclu<h'lhal

the

in block

circulant

form.

whenever

the patches

at. some
latter

distance

case,

edge/corner

especially

example

lhc

<on\olulio_l

when

of this

might

of the

small)

need

cavity

the

This

aperture

below

the

size

be always

in shape

to add

near

gridding

can

are rectangular

(usually

one

aperture

the aperture

an

appropriale

aperture

is not

or in

to avoid

large

enough.

implementation.

Transformations

natural

mesh

unstructured

free

surface

BiCG-FFT

algorithm,
another

subsystem

triangular,

to construct

aperture

grid

be put

the

effects,

the

integral

proof,

uniform

In the

for circular,

it is not

aperture

the

requires

can

around

edge/corner

However,

ory

i-l.
IT_

solver

are placed

absorbing

ically,

i_ [_,'a1_-

= lnt,,__m,.,__,_,

BiCG-FFT

generation

in fig. 4.3(a).

possible

the

BI subsystem

as shown

ture,

Go will _ak_. .klalt_,lna_icall.v.

Scheme

above,

case of radiators

4.3.1

t,-_,'l.lt_-

holds.

4.3

Fig.

From

I,eatuiLctit_ltt,f

grid.

non-rectangular

a uniform

is necessary
In this

case,

using
to the

to make

is proposed

structured

constructed

mesh

to conform

an approach

coincident

is then

or other

grid

by using

use

patches
the

patch
of the

to overlay

as shown
the overlaid

mesh

on the

generator.

shape,

leading

efficient,
on the

in fig. 4.4.
uniform

aperTypto an

low mem-

unstructured
The

grid

boundary
whose

edge

uniformgrid

recessedpatch

cavity
(+,)

Circular
.30.

Patch

........

Recessed

I .........

10. L

1.........

Underneath

I .........

I .........

the

I.........

I .........

Ground
I .........

Plane

I.........

""_
..

er_

O.
20.
-10.

,m

-20._J
e,,,

permittivity

= 4

permittivity

= I

z_

permittivity

= 4 (with FFT)

,,

permittivity

= 1 (with FF'q')

"

-30.

rj

........

,+,..+
.g

:I

-40.

;.

c_
-50.

-60.

'....... t.........
0.

10.

,......... i.........
20.

30.

,.........
40.

i......... l.........
50.

60.

J.........
70.

l........ i
80.

90.

(b)
Figure

4.3:

Printed

circular

incorporate
tion;
FE-BI

the

patch

BiCG-FFT

(b) Comparisons
technique

antenna

is modeled
algorithm.

(a)

of the BiCG-FFT

presented

in chapter

using

recessed

Illustration

result
3.

the
with

of the
that

of the

scheme
configuraordinary

to

7:1

2>
m

Figure4.4:

Overlay

can

shown

be related

matrices.

That

of a structured

mesh,

fields

here

to those

triangular

to conform

on the

is, it is necessary

aperture

to a circular

unstructured

to append

grid

to the

mesh

over

an

unstructured

patch.

via

system

two sparse
(3,11)

transformation

the

relations

(4.18)

where

the

subscripts

non-uniform
and

aperture

backward

numbers

these

of the

Given

grids,

respectively.

Also,

matrices,

respectively,

uniform

the

points

three

nu

transformation

To derive
at three

u and

elements
on each

points
the

and

fields

at the

refer

to the

non-uniform

belonging

center

at these

and

points,

with

to the
ends

of the

coefficients

[TF] and

mesh

of [TF], we begin
edge

field

with

[TB] refer
N,, and

edges

on the

the

expansion

uniform
edge

we can interpolate

of the

grid.

cavity

uniform
to the

N,_

and

forward

denoting

the

aperture.

(3.14)

and

enforce

We conveniently

it

place

(see fig. 4.5).

the field

along

the

(7_. 7_) edge

,l

e u

overlaid

_"

|'.

_ _ _-,

r...2

mesh

triangles

a__-

(m,n)

0 _

"

_ __-I.

....

unstructured

uniform

grid edge

Figure4.5:

Illustration
transformation

of the parameters
matrix
elements

and geometry
used in constructing
the
between
the structured
and unstructured

mesh.

of the

uniform

grid

using

the

(E,,)(m,n)

weighted

average

1.
_-e_,.

k
E._(r_.d,)

Ne
k=ln d

2 _'rendl

]Vmid

--

1 _

+ Aria

Enu(rmid)

k=l

-+ 2Aend2
1

/_'re n d _

Enu (rend_)
k

(4.19)
}

k=l

in which

of edge

being

grid

denotes

triangles
a point

denote

the

rends,

considered.
with

specify

the

shared

number

respectively,

After

the

assembling

unit

vector

The

superscript
by more

into

E_,, represent

k being
than

will typically
(4.19)

x, y or the diagonal,

quantities

of non-uniform
and

along

one
grid

a sum
triangle.

triangles

be equal
(4.18)

depending

the

variable

fields

sharing

in the

in case

Obviously,

on the

non-uniform

rend1, rend2 or rmid

J_endl, Armid

the

node

class

at rends,

and

:V,,,d2

rmid and

to unity.

we find

that

the

elements

of the

forward

tran_fornlalio1_

n_atrix

are

giveiL ],\
1
I
--_endl

k=l

,:l

\'m,d

]
+-\'rni----_

('JtS_(r'nid)

k=l

_=1

l
+-

Z',,,S;(r_,,d:

,"_'en d

_2"_"end2

k=l

(-t.2(li

(=1

in which

(
j
_idt

and

the global

indices

grid

edge.

The

uniform

grid

edges,

whereas

in the

definition

storage

efficiency
that

because

the

arrays

subscript
the

basis

it avoids

storage

to only provide
element

Following

the

backward

transformation

grid

edge

traverses

each

row of [TEl will be 9 or less.

midpoint

and

non-zero

entries

endpoints
in each

elements

assembly

data

we can

matrix.

used

edge

However,

on an edge

during

matrix

flags the

user-oriented

grid
they
of the

row of [TB] will be 1.5. but

index

used

computation
increase

iteration

uniform

step

that

the

assuming
the

patch

edges

entries
each

number

lying

of the
uniform

entries

a maximum

typical

user

formulation.

non-zero

grid.

in
and

The

grid

of the
for

non-uniform
the

non-

is avoided.

feature

reach

the

non-rectangular

triangles,
can

explicit

each

expression

be noted

edge

in a substantial

BI system

the

local

the

of large

obtain

It should

results

and the jt h non-

hi numbering

analysis

file which

or less non-uniform

reside

grid

that

process

the

is an important

procedure,

index

We remark

populated

on a PEC

three

global

St.

allows

an additional

ith uniform

( (-- 1, :2 or 3) is the

matrix

scheme

this

to the

functions

of fully

and

otherwise

subscript

the usual

overlay

same

3_ is the

transformation

proposed
because

needs

of the

of the

i and j correspond

uniform

and

I j = j,

in

of 18 if the
The

maximum

is much

less.

.i,
4.4

Results

Figure

4.6 shows a cavilv-back_,d

angled

triangle.

Since

angled

triangles,

it is used

with

the

is first

BiCG-FFT

over

the

using

space

the

structure
Figure

with

regular

array.

the

array,

about

23 dB/A 2 lower.

To

varify

the

bistatic

RCS

tenna.

In this

The
version

used,

respectively,
with

proposed

FE-BI
FE

of the

agrees

nwsll

with

cross
very

I'i_tll

rigtJl

i]lcorporated

with

FE-BI

radar

i_" _t

[_}tltll

technique

BI code

hybrid

monostatic

o = 0 plane

t'_t(tl

to a uniforlll

developed

and

scattered

to find
RCS

of the

overlaying

the

the

the

as shown
dielectric
the

those

It is observed

FE-BI

methods.
reaches

scattering

scheme

results

computed
that

by the

the

l{i('G-

section

FI:T

descril,ed

lec]lnique

([{('S)

well with

that

for

fillings

paltern
compuled

using
the

using
the

agreement

cavity-backed

array

to scattering.

with
both

the

the

be seen,

aperture

at the

a cavity-backed

the

level

of the

the

the presence
incidence

is

we evaluated

circular

patch

(_ = l0 inside

the cavity

regular

FE-BI

BiCG-FFT
is quite

with

BiCG

the overlaying

satisfactory

of

BiCG

same

geometry,

absence

regular

zero in dB/A 2 with

of e_ = 4 and

obtained

of the

using

nonrectangular

in fig. 4.9 by

same

As can

above

by the

by the

aperture

were obtained

incidence
the

fields

contribution

patterns

the computations

whereas

scattering
case,

array

monostatic

versions

patch

analysis.

patch

field at the normal

formations.

solver.

wllt,l_.,

solver.

Again.

BiCG-FFT

compared

our

to compare

the

of the

are

to verify

original

informative

4.8 shows

scattered

is adaptal)le

in fig. 4.7. the

BiCG

array,

geometry

0 _< 0 _< 90 at the

without

the patch

the

3. As shown

It is also

and

system

compared

in chapter

this

2 x 2 palch

anwere

method
trans-

in scattering

77

Patch

Figure

For
the

radiation

near-zone

significantly

felds

integral.

couplings

coulings
(see

analysis

e.g.

control

are

the

(e.g.

may

input

be required,

the

accuracy

the

trial-testing

it is suggested

from

the

far

are treated

using

the

normal

the

fast

algorithm.

and

accuracy

once
of the

combined
FE-BI

with
technique

zone

the

t)atch

where

an accurate

of the

overlaying

element's

to separate

elements

using

triangular

impedance)

by considering

computed

[47]),

of tile cavity-backed

Specifically,

closed-region

region

Illustration

enhanced

boundary
the

4.6:

Array

weak
method

the

couplings.

approach

overlaying

scheme,

in an adaptive

prediction
scheme

has

been

it can

manner.

between

strong

whereas

be

in tile

interactions
The

of

can

interactions

of moments,

This

array.

close-

the

weak

reported
be used

to

10.

.........

I .........

I .........

| .........

I .........

I ....

| ....

[ ....

I -

"

"

O.
-I0.
-20.

_.

-30.
4o.

._

-SO.

5tlpm_/'l_ _/_

40.
_I

-7o.

_n

.......

-80.

I .........

O.

Figure

4.7:

Comparisons

of the

triangular

patch

the regular
BiCG-FFT

i .........

I0.

I .........

20.

30.

! .........

monostatic

array

I ........

40.

50.

radar

shown

I .........

60.

cross

in fig. 4.6.

section

The

BiCG FE-BI
technique
described
proposed
in this chapter.

-10.0

."

....

I .....

I .....

....

I .....

....

t .........

70.

reults

I .......

80.

90.

scattering

were computed

in chapter

3 .....

[ .....

by a 2 x 2

3 and

using

using

the

I .....

-20.0

-300
cxl
-40.0
o_

........

-50.0
v

-600

_rJ'ef_c

(H-.pol)

_'

_.Juencc('E-pol)

-700

1 ....
-80 0 .....
0 (.w)1000

Figure

4.8:

Comparisons
aperture
structure
the

regular

BiCG-FFT

l .....

20.00

....

1"

30.00

of the monostatic
with

the

shown
BiCG

same
FE-BI

proposed

size
Again,

technique

in this

"L

chapter.

....

5000

radar

cavity

in fig. 4.6.

' ""

4000

I .....

60.1)0

[ .....

70(X)

cross section
and
the

dielectric
results

described

I'"

801111 t,uIg_

scattering
filling
were

in chapter

by an empty
(_=1)

as the

calculated

using

3 and

using

the

RCSComparisonof TransformWith No Transform

O.

........

! .........

t .........

I .........

I .........

I.........

I .........

I .........

t .........

-8
-_

-16.

e,,.,,

-24.

"_'_'_r'"_'"_'_'_"Cf'_"_'_'_e"Cr--+.._. .....

e,-

"-

-32.
_e ,_ -_-. . .. .
-40.

r,..)
._

-48.

With

No

Transform

(permtttivity=10_

With

No

Transform

(permtttivlty-.._,}

........

-56.
-64.

t_

x,

With Transform(permittivity=l

_r

With Transform (permittlvity--4)

0)

-72.
......

-80.
O.

Figure

4.9:

I .........

10.

I .........

20.

Bistatic

RCS

scattering

regular

BiCG

FE-BI

transform.

I .........

30.

I .........

40.

I .........

50.

by' a crcular
and

the

I .........

60.

patch

BiCG-FFT

I .........

70.

I ........

80.

antenna
algorithm

90.

modeled
with

using

the

overlaying

CHAPTER

Efficient

5.1

Finite

Element

Subsystem

II

Introduction

As demonstrated
hybrid

finite

acterizing

in the

previous

element-boundary

conformal

integral

antennas

cable

is because

of the

plementation.
sampling
variety

rates

where

due

to the

or inter-distance

over

50, 100 or even

involve

only

severe

for 3-D

tetrahedrals.
a large

system

presence
(spirals,

slot width

eter

10-20

The

of slots).
higher

slot

of fine

where

to the

spirals,

antennas
this

details.

Among

slots,

dimensions

cases,

the

mesh

is extremely

the

assembled
degraded

8O

geometrical
from
mesh

this
quality.

typical

sampling
details
type

for tile

imhigh

them

are

slots.

(cavity

diam-

dense

(with

discretizations
rate

is especially

usually

of mesh

Also.

This

log-periodic

other

dense

probe.

extremely

the

This

with

used

require

whereas

for char-

formulation.

elements

cross

planar/non-planar.

than

wavelength),

meshes,

due

with

geometrical

smaller

wavelength.

system

slot

configurations

slot

per

numerical

or spiral

in [13.29.48]).

be employed

Indeed.

of tetrahedral

certain

per

can

[29].

be simulated

In these

samples

elements

condition

can

rings,

is much

tetrahedral

ring

reported

[48.13]

shape

adaptability

in practice,

antennas

the

feeds

geometrical

However,

of slot

etc.),

line

(also

technique

designs,

or microstrip

chapters

of arbitrary

rectangular/non-rectangular
coax

two

mesh

distort

often

leads

generation

the
to
is

",1

Ground

Plane

Thin

Slot

V
Sf

Figure

tedious

and

In this

the

gular

slots.

prism

for planar
Among

is the

simplicity

required

for

slot

CPU

antenna

for prisms

of mesh

generation.

is then

the

applications

and

scattering

5.2

Consider
recessed

presented

are

FE-BI

the

cavity-backed

in a ground

plane.

It can

prismatic

Also,

much

modeling

to generate
hybrid

given

that

containing

of the

physically

integral

be shown

the

to conclude

the

most

(FE-BI)

choice
and

method

trian-

is

Below.
formulation

we
for

functions

of equations.

to various

is

important

set of edge-based
system

u._ing

of unknowns

geometries.

integral

the

element
circular

number

of complex

discrete

FE-BI

this

elements,

meaningful,

fox'mulation

spirals,

smaller

element-boundary

proposed

rip ant ennas

element-boundary

efficient

A new,

problems

Hybrid

and

the finite

of the

large.

configurations

advantages

modeling.

is unacceptably

elements.

many

by first outlining

microsl

a finite

antenna

an accurate

of cavit v-backed

time

we propose

triangular

suited

begin

solution

chapter,

edge-based
ideally

5.1 : Geometry

antenna

Finally,
radiation

chapter.

Formulation

slot

antenna

To solve

for the

shown
E-field

in fig. 5.1
inside

and

where

the

on the aperture

cavilv

is

of the

cavilv,

a .'.tandard

axJl scatl,.'rillg

al.,l_roach

l,roblenl.-.,

F(E)

where

_r and

medium.
tively,

_r

Z0 and

So and

///, (.

jkoZo

in (5.1)

denote

outer

is required

replaced

in terms

space

aperture

(or

slots)

the

surface

solution

of G.

So and

S:

Specifically,
integral

(BI)

on the

feed models,

such as aperture

coupled

coax

boundary

integral

implementation
context

of the

method
indeed

FE-BI.

meets

the

accuracy

H is represented

JJS

satisfied

G is the electric
on the

(planar.

dyadic

Green's

spherical

by the

f/-

of the

allows

the

Go(r,r

without

portions

and

I _ is the

volume

explicit

field on

knowledge

of H

truncation

field H over

.-q0may

boundary

given

structure.

inclusion

of various

6 for details).

efficiency,

therefore

3. It will be seen
extra

CPU

be

condition

feeding

(see chapter

FEM

Y,':

to as mesh

an easy

etc.

as in chapter
need

the

cavil\
respec-

magnetic

or absorbing

cable,

on improving

will be employed

H = H " + 2jko}o

where

slot,

Also.

magnetic

basis

to (3.1)

metallic

referred

the

of the
constant,

corresponding

(also

as compared

we concentrate

the

by ft. As before,

H on S.f is determined

since

propagation

structures.

H is the

of the functional

chapter

parameters

excluding
feeding

or M i) and
is given

and

version

In this

d/

constilutive

impedance

to the guided

normal

. M'

x fi)dS;

tensor

of E via a boundary

whereas

+ X-- i_

E-(H

free

(J'

over

E)-I,.t_E._.E}dl

o+$1

relative

opening

for a unique

(ABC),

the

x',l,i_lL, i,,I ra,tiali,_,t_

a>

:-,)

koZoJ'

[[
rids

the

the

surfaces)

This

E-

source(s)

SI whose

q3.1,

l/j'/- .{(VxE).jTr-'.(V,

1% are

by the

be _,'neralized

the junction

occupied

may

_c,'
0 represents

denotes

i> loe.xtretllizetllefutlclh,l_al

burden.

the

that

this

In the

integral

' ). (_ x E(r'))

ds'

(5.2)

function

or cylindrical)

of the first kind

metallic

platform

such that
(refer

h x G = 0 is
to chapter

1 ).

',3
l"or

tho antonna

plane.

pvol,lem

becomes

the

shown

half

space

G =

with

r and

r' being

.i'.i' + gg + .5_ is the

recessed
fields

unit

in a ground

for scattering

To discretize
prismatic
can

the

iri rio_. 7).1 wll('rc

dvadic

i+

VV

observation

and

dvad.

p]ane.

elements

functional

(5.1),

as shown

be approximated

using

in fig. 5.2 and

the

linear

our
sum

of the

edge-based

The

incidenl

expansion

] =

of a (a\i_v

and

retle('_od

evaluations.

the volume
field

and

i.e. that

parameter

to subdivide

fig. 5.3,

respeclive]y,

problem,

for antenna

we choose

t.5.3)

points,

with
to the

or zero

,'t_,utl_t

l"

integration

H a is equal

i>- ,_ i)).tiar

fullctioll

4=[r-r'

In connection

computations,
the

(;leell's

tt)(' l)l.tf_)rlll

region

in each

of the

using
prisms

[49-51]

Z gv; =
j=l

where[V],

= [{14},{t';},

{l_';}],and

x, Y, z, are

of dimension

ra = 9 and

with

edge

V_ associated
based
jth

functions,
edge

of the

the jth

the
eth

unknown

{E *} = {E_,E_
they

of the

simply'

eth

element.

E;} T. The

represent

element.

coefficients

.....

the

Since

E._ represent

A corresponding

representation

{I_},_,

x, y, z components

V_ are
the

vectors

chosen

average
for the

=
of

to be edge-

field

along

aperture

the
fields

is

E(r) =

S (r) =
i=l

where

IS],

= [_5':_,Sy], and

V(r)

reduces

to S*(r)

when

the

position

vector

is on the

slot.
To generate
and

subsequently

the

discrete
F(E)

system

is differentiated

for E_, (5.4)

with

and

respect

(5.5)

are substituted

to each

unknown

into
E_.

\Vith

(5.1)
the

Figure 5.2: Illustration of tessellationusing prisms

0
3
9
7

--Q

.....

Z-Z c
i=1,2,3

6
j--4,5,6

Figure

k=7,8,9

5.3:

Right

angled

prism

unlorslalllingtha_ the surfac(' field

coettici('ll_,

f.? av" a ,_lt,-_'_ _,f t.".

+ li,"
_=l

where

the

matrix

sums

,=l

are over

elements

the total

are given

A,}

jloSo/il

---/L,/L,

where

the

subscript

is removed

in case

scattering

5.3

problem

are parallel

iL

2jkoZo

[j

iL

_'
q_ " (Hi

of radiation

triangular
is any

position

based

field

xl_ ,

_--1

.V

x M'

"

,,t"

(:)._)

" S_(r')G(r'r')d'_d'_'

to take

problems

Prismatic

angled

(right-angled

edge

li) t}li,,, th<'

(,_.n)

S,_(r')]=Go(r.r')dsd,,'

(5.1o)

the

and

z component.

that

the

same

that

It is noted
holds

for

L_

h'7 when

the

is considered.

the right

ri denotes

']cll,'nts.

x _)ds

Elements

prism

prism).

shown

the
opposite
vector

representation

location

in fig. 5.3 whose

We now design

hi = _,- ..: x (r-

where

+V

[V S:(r)]:[V'

z in Bi_ denotes

Edge-Based

Consider

-Y" x V a-

2kaS_(r)

+2/L
L_

,_

of volt, hi<' or surfa(('

yr x V,-p_

B'"

number

_.5.t) i

I..'}=()

_=l

by

]-\.ie

1-

wc _,l,_,_il_

of the

to the
terminated
for the

ith

ri)

ith
node,

vertical

two geometric

(z-directed)
quantities

sides
as

q:_ = /-'h
_,
9
'l

node,

gi is the

li denotes

inside

the

triangle.

prism

is to utilize

the
One
the

(.5.11)

unit
length
wav
nodal

vector

along

of this
to obtain
basis

the

edge

ith

and

an edge-

functions

[52]

,,,{_

and

t l,en app]y

more

_],_. proc_.dure

physically

edge

meaningful

elements,

t{eferring

S,_e in (.5.11)
joining

the

vector

gives

the

nodes

:2 -

di-cus_ed
approach

3 and

it is evideEll

of another

triangle

2' - 3' are

equal.

ll

where

_,.

is equal

S, = _7"
to the

(5.12)

is the

where

integrals
the

if r i- ill ltl,'

12'3'

such
this

that

the

x v t,lan,,,
lengths

definition

_,t'_Iw
t],,'ll

of e<tge.,

of r. we define

integrals

numerically',
by Wilton

expansion

12'3'
for the

in (5.5).

The

corresponding

1._,') 3

= (z_+Az--Z)si

j=4

Vk

= _.k

k = 7,8,9

coordinate

in fig. 5.3, z_ and

in closed

from
the

When

the

self-cells

associated

We observe

elements

[32] and

volumetric

5.6

with

h = Az represent

(5.13)
form

substitution
which

which

basis

viz.

Vs

respectively.

of 123.

triangular

i=

simplex

t', has a magnitude

to that

(:-'YZ)Si
:hz

resulting

[55].

triangle

by inspection,

be evaluated

except

of the

along

As illustrated

can

(5.12)

V,

triangle

height,

areas

r,)

component

to be used

be obtained

(r-

vector

the edge-based

expansion

_k is the

prism

is. the

of the

is simply,

can

(Xk, yk).

That

ratio

appropriate

functions

the

for ill, _ Ct,lIMI'llCli_II

lhal

\Vilh

all ;t]t,.rllali\_.al.]

a vector

Si = _z
2S _

that

]]o_vvvcr.

ca_l I,e elnl,h,yed

to fig..5.2,
area

in [-19.53.51.

are

substituted

as given
of (5.12)

can

in the
into

be performed

(5.13)

the

kth

the offset
into

must

analytically

vertex

coordinate

(5.7),

Appendix
(5.9)

prism

at
and

the

resulting

C.

However,

be carried

out

as discussed

5T

5.4

Applications

Thin

slot antenna

technique

and

strate

validity

the

Radiation

certain

wide)

are

shown

in diameter

ometry

because

shifted

on

whereas

cavity

were

slot is very

narrow

the

finite

the

element

out

using

other.

the

more

Moreover,

tetrahedrals

than

only

analysis

investment

sectioll

of the

system.

[:I(

I_l

to delmm-

prisms

distortion.

narrow

for this

as a criterion

in

As seen.

for modeling

homogeneously

the
filled

structure

for mesh

for modeling

generated

given

for generating

ge-

shown

[29].

be needed

is required

2-1.7

requirements

calculation

needed

slot

for this

elements

were

afore-

cavity

computational
The

the
annular

circular

If a multi-layered

was used

is trivially

and

attractive

tetrahedral

elements

would

of the

is quite

of the

and

mesh

by a metallic

most

1024

prisms

mesh

ill thi_

prismatic

method

prismatic

condition

prismatic

the

was

generation.
such

a struc-

slot outline.

and

In

post-processing

mesh.
Selective

Frequency

and

element

system

time

FE-BI

of the tetrahedral

for acceptable

substantial

Frequency

the

the

slot is backed

portion

However,

number

the

tetrahedral

consider

the

or a similar

much

contrast,

we first

The

2898

considered,

of the

3 cm deep.

each

cavity,

efl:iciencv

and

they

overlay

Slot:

The

carried

ture.

and

formulated

approach.

Annular

in fig. 5.4.

fig. 5.5 were

then

accuracy

an

u_iI_g the al,ovc

will be presented

of the

by

implementation,

(0.75cm
cm

the

results

capability

scattering

To evaluate

[lave been treated

modeling

and

and

mentioned

structures

Surfaces:

selective

periodic

elements

periodic

elements

surfaces

which
may

are

(FSS)
typically

be of printed

structures
sandwiched
form

[56,57]

are

between

or slot configurations

arrays

of tightly

dielectric
designed

layers.

packed
The

to resonate

a=l

2.35

cm

b=0.75
po=

cm
7.7

cm

0.7<f<lGHz

.3cm_L
[
FigureS.4:

Geometry

of the

diameter

at specific
and

and

frequencies.
completely

specifications,

stacked

layer

we shall

FE-BI

surface,
FSS

antenna

backed

by

a cavity

23.7

cm

in

3 cm deep

they

reflecting

are

penetrable

at other

element

the

finite

structures,

arrays

the

Because
element

but

interest

as a function
single

consider

method.

particular

around

frequencies.

may

method

use

be

used

the

element

To meet

resonances

bandwidth

in conjunction

in FSS design

FSS.

impinging

at normal

incidence.

yet

since

with

the
the

array

Assuming

FSS screen

will retain

be used

to find the

scattered

that

its TEM

oT2
E$

1 -oR

near

character,

field

for the
this

design
dielectric

easier

it suffices
T, the

is excited

resonance
the

the

via

the

FSS

characterization

transmission

coefficient

elements)
with

a much

of the

structure

slot

associated

is periodic,

transmission
the

(with

detail

makes

determination

in fig. 5.6 and

the

structures

to be applied

elements

For computing
as shown

through

has

is the

and

in a cavity

of FSS

fine geometrical

of prismatic

of frequency,

cell of the

analysis
of the

is placed

can

slot

loading.
Here

the

annular

As such,

become

3s

task.

transmission

Of

coefficient
to consider
periodic

by a plane
wave

of

a
cell

wave

transmitted
line concept

,,I I

-20

Prism

Elements

--

Tetrahedral

do

Elements

"_ -50

-60

-70

'

-80

10

'

40

5
theta

10

'

60

'o

'

80

90

IO0

(degree)

-10

_" -20

-3o
o.

g -40
"o
o
n- -50

-6O

-7O

-80
-loo -8'0 -60 -,o -2
i

theta

Figure

5.5:

Scattering:
dral

Bistatic

FE-BI

plane

code

wave

(co-pol)
and

the

is polarized
to that

patterns

in the

fig. 5.4.

The

solid

whereas

the

dotted

The

excitation

0 plane

lines

probe

lines

patterns

prismatic
the

plane.
are

is placed

8'0 ,oo

computed

FE-BI

code.

= 0 plane

Radiation:
from

computed

are

8;

(degree)

RCS

along

is perpendicular

2'0 ;o

computed
at the

the

The
and

X-pol
annular

using
using
point

using

the

and

incident

observation
Co-pol

antenna

tetrahedral

tile prismatic
(y=0)

tetrahe-

normally
the

slot

the

marked

cut

radiation
shown
FE-BI

FE-BI
in fig.

in
code

code.
5.4.

cover
radome
(on e=4.5 substrate)

ES

0.0762cm
0.0762cm

1.2cm
metal

backwall

_I

absorber

Figure 5.6: Illustration of the setup for computing

the FSS transmission
coefficient
Upper figure: periodic element (top view); Lower figure: periodic element
in cavity (cross-sectional
view)

where

7 is Ill(' Iransn_i-_.ion

tion

coef[icient

within

the

reducing

associaled

cavity,
the

wilh

of o to less than

0.1.

considering

the

next

the

FSS

direct

and

layer

integral

over

FSS

multi-layer

configuration.
and

e_ = 4.5.
our

calculations

the

more
The

are

traditional
geometry

the

witt_ sonw

cavit\

is also small

I,_ullil_lc

iI_T_'I.Lcli_,t,-

al,>,,vl,,,1,

m'av resmall<v,

tl_a g,t,d

thickness

the

same

geometry)

order

However,

lower

surface

we have

-- T Im )].

of Tds would

[58].

of the

slot. array

was

this

involve

requires

of the

single
on

using

slot,

the

placement

enforcement

leading

of

of the

to a much

of moments

layer

with

more

is placed

the

periodic
layer

element

element

is shown

0.0762

elements
the

periodic

cm thick

is given

measurements

of single
was

in fig. 5.6
and

in fig. 5.7.
and

data

a slot

having
Clearly,

based

on

[59, 60].

radome

considered

6.3072

within

cases,

prismatic

method

sandwiched

for a characterization

a dielectric

agreement

FSS was

applied

In both

in good

absorber

interactions,

[1 -- a(1

approach

calculation

of the

cavity

implementation.

of the multilayer

total

thick

entire

geometry

FE-BI

The

a 1.54cm

lt_'

+lOlg

slot

modeling

of a planar

The

-_

FSS structures.

The

consists

the

intensive

above

and

azl_t ,_ i> 1}.. r,'lh,,-

E*
--

computation

in a thick

computationally
The

traditional

element

boundary'

To reduce'

Since/1'

lOlog

higher

Tds re.as
rio)

A more

base.

H = 1 -

for T is

* dB

upon

}:S_.

to terminale

r)

and

of tlw

lh(' cavilv

it is appropriate

value

approximation

cocfficienl

cm and
the

below

in our study
is comprised

dielectric
the

FSS

is given

of two slot

layers.

For modeling

as shown

in fig 5.8.

in fig. 5.8.
arrays

(of

purpose,
From

the

_l_NmSu_r
I

FE-BI

i
=

.......I

-_,o

-15

L
, .......

....

-25

.................
0

'
2

10

Frequency

Figure

5.7:

calculated
good

Calculations
shown

in fig. 5.6

results,

it is seen

agreement

Radiation

with

is built

on

differs

the

from

fabricated.
a bandwidth
fabrication
used

other

The

complex

results

16

18

2C

through

generated

by the

Slot

PCB

with

and/3

Spiral

antenna
its two

the

FSS structure

FE-BI

method

are

in

design
for it relies

30%,

and

that

geometric
feed network.

shown

= 2.8595cm.

in that

the

on the
the

One

following

One

central

facts

and

in fig. 5.9.

arm

It is noted

the

portion
still

of our

that

goal

the

can

usually
the

is to study

structure

spiral

is designed
requires

central

an-

expression:

this

of the

antenna

This

be determined

that

portion

that

central

details,

Antenna:

arms

180 counterclockwisely.

conventional

of the

of transmission

slot-spiral

o = 0.1333cm

reasoning

(GHz)

of Conformal

a double-sided

because

the

Archemidean

less than

for possibly

that

I
14

measurements.

by rotating

the

comparisons

study

a typical

r = aO + 'fl, where
from

the

Property

Consider
tenna

and

'

12

is not
with

a careful

space
the effect

may

be

of this

slot

array

60mils

placed

belov,

top

surface

of 90rruls

layer

sloz array a_30mils

_OW

top

mils

of 90mils

laver

Er =

O,

-5

-10

;_-15
I,/

-20

--

measured

calculated

-25

-300

Figure

5.8:

kipper

figure:

0.2

'

0.4

06

geometry

(FSS) used for modeling;

mission coefficient
through

08

of the

'

1.4

multilayer

lower figure:
the

'

12

16

frequency

measured

FSS structure

'

1.8

selective

and calculated

surface

trans-

!)t
spiral shal)con it- performance.
A benchmark t('s) model is d('<ignatedto Ol)(,ral(,fron) l Is ._llll I(, I.')7 .kill,,.
to replace tile conventional protruding blade an/('nua. Th(' siz(' how(,v('r i_.lllll('}l
compact

with

operate

its conformalitv

at 944MHz

o and

3 above

of turns

to 1256.MHz

were

(4.5).

property.

determined

The

cavity

to approximately

The

directivity

higher

frequencies

Figure
MHz,

- 5.12

respectively.

is understood
slot

spiral.

fact,

the

the

both

E-plane
cases

really
center

pattern
the

are

plays

radiation

the

principle
clearly

an important
frequencies,

the EM fields

turns

inside.

entire

designated
case).

is most
The

moves

exhibit
affected

AR deterioration

It is seen,

nevertheless,

bandwidth
In practice,

and

with

we notice

a good

quality
has

that

a CP

a wide
that

944,

azimuthal
absorbing

and

and

1256

1100

the

strong
why

materials

along

the

axial
the

spiral

shape
At

When

the

profile.

The

closer
radiated

AR increases
a couple

(as wide
may

fox.

pattern.

becomes

the

(In

ratio

and

be achieved

angle

It

achieved.

by adding
can

plotted.

E-plane.

radiation

been

explains

mode

center

travels

that

to the center

can be avoided

zlunil)(,r

frequency.

at lower,

optimum

it shows

this

the

center

with

The

a comparatively
and

of

at the

region

and

inwards

also

0 = 90 are

active

3 dB AR

value_

Th('

of 0.3 cm del)th.

be coincident

5.1,

t_,

5.1.

plane

case.)

I)v 1.',

= 2.2)

for frequency

the

in this

and

pattern

in Table

not

less than

region

likely

radiated

varies,

to insure

(_

wavelength

principle

in Table
role

where

therefore

the

band

slab

patterns

may

defined
also

the active

feeds

at

plane

tabulated

lower

the

i.- .-cal'd

1100.MHz.

frequency

tabulated

frequency

increases,

high frequency.

optimum

the

model

frequency

a dielectric

from

show

Eo and

center

free space

are

is not

and

frequency
to the

the

0.011

results

when

Thus

three

design

that

with

the

The

simulation

on this

is analyzed

and

5.10

the

based

is filled

corresponding
antenna's

with

Our

at

of spiral

within

the

as 60 in the
be needed

lo

regulate the magnelic current_

when

the

number

of _urns

al

,-\xial

5.5

('omparisons

Concluding

A hybrid

finite

for modeling

narrow

in connection

with

elements,

these

advantages

better

system

The

explicit

tabulated

and

were

presented

elJd-

_f

-tfiral.

the'-It_t

_'-I_'_ i,_lt_

(dB)

of gain

and

[ 1.100
i 6.66

2.7
axial

! 1.23{i :
= "" '

l.(I

ratio

::l

at different

operating

frequencie,-

Remarks

element-boundary
slots
the

meshes

Other

(dB)

Ratio

FE-BI

conditions

mesh

prismatic
and

faster

results

for
the

formulation

cavities.

Prismatic

and

Among

over

the

pre/post

data

processing.

implementation

validity

and

capability

were

tetrahedral

frequency
of the

used

tetrahedral

rates

are needed
simplified.

elements

of prismatic
and

presell_ed

is substantially

elements

antennas

to the

low sampling

process

slot

was

elements

in contrast

them,

generation

for FE-BI

to demonstrate

(FE-BI)

implementation,

the

expressions
numerical

backed

advantages.

and

of the

integral

in metal

offer several

for generating

or

0.9-t4
-"')
I_._,

((',|lz)

(lain

5.1

[,_,oillililt_

is minin_ized.

]"requellcy

Table

llle

elements
selective

technique.

include

were
surfaces

!i(,

/
II

,",.' ,_./',/'/'___.'_\_"_

' "

/" i:l;":/'I:' /'

Figure 5.9: Illustration

' ":

of a typical
frequency=l.

/
/

(
\

-/

',

2-arm

k\

slot-spiral

design

1GHz

-t0

-20
-30

)_
/
i"

solid line: E_phi, dashed

line: E_theta

Figure 5.10: Radiation

Pattern at f=l.lGHz
(center
ratio is achieved up to 60 degree.

frequency

design).

A good axial

freQuenc'y=O

944G_z

[
r

'

-20

'

i I

'

solid

FigureS.1l:

Radiation

Pattern

can be seen
to that

at the
range.

spiral

contour

line:

E_phi,

dashed

hne:

E_theta

at f=0.944GHz

that

angle

-30

the axial

center
This

ratio

(lower
of the

frequency,
indicates

design

but

that

is most

of frequency

pattern

becomes

still remains

the

likely

frequency=1.256

end

number

range).

larger

within

of the

It

compared

3dB for a wide

outer

turns

in the

sufficient.

GHz

i
\

Figure

5.12:

Radiation

Pattern

solid

line:

that

to those

the

center

the

number

shows

that

insure

a good

dashed

line:

at f=l.256GHz

can be seen
at

E_phi.

the axial

quality

ratio

E_theta

(higher

end

of the pattern

frequency
of inner
pattern.

and
loops

lower
still

of frequency

range).

is deteriorated
frequency.
needs

It

compared
This

to be

certainly

increased

to

CHAPTER

Antenna

For scattering
the

'source',

(5.10)

problems

the right-hand-side

proposed

practical

feed

6.1

and

thin

filament
inside

Probe

model.

cavity',

the

has

incidence

been

However,

several

is usually

explicitly

schemes
Some

considered

as

in (3.7)

and

expressed

for antenna

feeding

antennas.

the

first
the

hi

where

r is the

edges

and

jm
with

coaxial

l carrying

Specifically',

associated

wave

impedance

evaluations.

[61] associated

of these

are

with

discussed

various
below.

Feed

substrates

of length
the

plane

further.

for microstrip

Modeling

Feed

Simple

For

the

excitation

reported

designs

Probe

6.1.1

Feed

where

and will not be discussed

we have

VI

location
is the

of the

(global)

= jkoZoI

of the
global

m element

feed

an electric

term
ith

cable

edges,

current

integral
entry

Since

in (3.7)

needs

of the

this

as a thin
filament

is located

to be considered

excitation

vector

current

for this

Ki becomes

i = j, ,j2, ...,jm

rn is the

numbering
and

be simplified

I[.

1. V;(r),

filament,

edge

may

thus

98

number

index.
the

index

of (non-metallic)

In general,
i goes

from

m such
jl

element
entries

up to j,,.

are
This

expre._sion

call

b_. further

coincident

with

the current

6.1.2

Voltage

This

Gap

excitation

reduced

lo E,

I. l_r_,vid,'d

l}lal

I}."

Illl

_'*tt,'

i.

to .-t_ecifyiilg

filamelll.

Feed

is also referred

electric

= jlq,Z.l

priori

the

voltage

Since

I' = E el. where

to as a gap 9_ncvalor

1 across

the

(.] is a vector

opening

whose

and

of the

amounts

coax

magnitude

cable

is the

gap

or any

olher

width,

and

gap.
E lhe

I
electric

field across

ith edge
setting

is parallel
the

to zero.

the

edge
entries

6.2

we have

term

the

associated

gap

underneath

treatment

of the

is because

the

compared

to the

the

3-D

entire

feed

edges

when

not

the

ground

structure

microstrip

gap

voltage

model

can

and
only

and

cavity's

equal

gap

are

.4,

corresponding
to the

value

(i j)

to the

ith

E, whereas

all

set to zero.

antenna

(cavity's

must

be considered

base)

designed
Hence,

type

terms

by tirs_

Model

plane

a single

entry

Io 1 if the

be realized

off-diagonal

set

microstrip

geometries.
using

the
the

in the

line is usually

domain

cosO, is equal

Microstrip

6.1,
the

where

to unity

is specified

Aperture-coupled

network

dcosO,"

vector,

with

in fig.

Ei -

this

equal

Aii

right-hand-side

across

As shown

that

to d. Numerically.

diagonal

For

(global)
other

the gap.

the

is fed with

a microstrip

via a coupling
in the

to have

FEM

is not

special

formulation.

different

conventional

of elements

aperture,

line

size

and

simulation
efficient

This
shape

as

of treating

or appropriate

for this feed.

Referring
because
One
the

of the

difficulty
coupling

to fig. 6.1,
small

element

encountered
through

it is appropriate
size

when
the

required

this

aperture.

to separate
in modeling

decomposition
As

the

an

example

computational

the

guided

is implemented
let

us consider

domains

feed
is how

structure.
to model

a rectangular

ltJtJ

aw'rlure

which

(li._cretized
gular
and

using

bricks
the

ha> I..<,n extensively

are

t etrahe(lral
the

substrate

be_t

elnl,luvecl

eh'nl<,l_t>,
candidate,

is of constant

itl l,ractic<

wh_.rea,

since

1 ll_' cavitx

it_ the, l_licro_lrit,

tlk_. fc_'d >trttcttn_.

thicktless.

:\Ithottgh

l,otlt

t_'hl-

lit.'

r_'_i_,l_ t,'_t,tlL

i+,, t+_'ctatl_nlar
tyl..>

rll,_\ I.,

if, >llal,'

of ('h'tll_'tlt..

_,ttlldoy

Antenna Elments

("

St

(II)

Truncation Plane

"\\

I
Coupling Aperture

Figure6.1"

Cross-section
region
tation

of an aperture

I and the
domains.

coupled

microstrip

patch

line region

antenna,

II for two

showing

different

the

FEM

cavity
compu-

J
(a)

I I

(b)

Figure

6.2:

slot and

its discretization

region;

edge-based
are

aperture.
mav
again

(c) uniform

field expansions,

different,

and

this

However,

be assumed
applied

(c)

at

mesh

the

causes

since

the

from

meshes

difficulty,

the

any' given

to relate

(a) slot aperture;

aperture
frequency.

fields

below

microstrip

across

the

in enforcing
is very

above

typical

mesh

from

cavity

line region.

common
field

narrow,

Therefore.
and

(b)

area

continuity'
a 'static'

the
the

(coupling

potential
aperture.

aperture)

across
field

the

slot

distribution

concept

may

Specifically.

be
the

llll
"eqtti potential" continuitv condition i>.etiforc<'d,at_tltt, t,t+t,c<'cd
tt, tit,>t,. I,'t tl>.lit-t
classifv

the slot edgo:

Tetrahedral

as follows

Mesh

(Cavity

Region

I):

E_ 1

j = 1.2.3

....

verticaledges

E_ 2

j = 1.2.3

....

diagonal

Brick

Mesh

E_

Then

(Feed

Region

j = 1,2.3

the

II):

....

vertical

'equi-potential'

edges

edges

continuity

Eb 2

condition

,jE

requires

that

(6.1)
c

(6.2)

in which

_:j

whereas
That

t and

d are

is, t is simply

is equal
and

to +1

below
The

the

the

the

the

implementation

would
the

structure.

number

generalizing

be significantly

narrow

and

rectangular

sign conventions

for

this

entirely

diagonal

edges,

aperture.

associated

different

concept.

It

straightforward
inefficient

In addition,

of distorted

vertical

The

with

the

respectively.
coefficient
meshes

above

aperture.
scheme

by

+I
--1

of the

of the

on the

coupling

extended
FEM

width

depending

connectivity

lengths

elements

the

is apparent

for different

if only

one type

technique

ensures

in the

computational

mesh

are

that

minimized.

this

were

system

max" be

approach

geometry/size

of elements
a good

domains

makes

domains
used

that

for modeling

condition

since

the

l(J2

6.3

Coax

6.3.1

Cable

Motivation

The
backed

coax

cable

patch

abundant
cable

literature

feeds

only

integral

pertinent

the

for different

proposed

a hybrid

a constant
element

for thin

substrates

To model

an

modeling

scheme

the

element

and

electrically

The

mode

excitation.

Model

and

proposed

in this

junction

The

in the

model

is then

does

not

the

application

of

must

be

to Green's

function,

we recently

[29] which

is described

the

grounded

base

to the

is only

valid

probe

feed

Method
a more

on the

for the case

basis
when

feed
(FEM)

entire

necessary

model

results.

method

of the

of the

presented

(MM)

sophisticated

element

formulation

hold.

is

probe

finite

are also discussed

funclion

(;teen's

a simple

the

section

presence

in

that.

Moment

of the

elements.

feed

the

tec]mique,_

formulation

Green's

But

with

context

described

the

linking

efficient.

of coax

the

approach

conductor

investigation

corresponding

it is observed

substrate,

improvements

cavity-cable

integral

is consistent

tetrahedral

Also,

of the

lnlecl.

limits

configurations

radiation,
inner

this

or ca\i_x-

radiation,

equation

However,
and

complexity'

in the

integral

designs.

- boundary

the

thick

will be first

for feedline.

at the

this

is proposed

edge-based
system

along

low spuriou,-

functions.

antenna

h_l nlicrt_:tril,

experimental

of geometries,

is straightforward

term

assumption

avoid

and

t)resent

geometry

4. For antenna
current

antenna

numerical

To
finite

3 and

linear

class

recoded

variations.

struclure

and

papers

Green's

to those

function

using

a certain

a h'ecting

theoretical

of these

techniques

and

as

of its simpliciu

on the

with

modified

in chapter

exists
Most

for

used

because

[62-64].

available

with

is widely

anlennas

conjunction

the

Feed

hybrid

functional
of a TEM
the

TEM

103
6.3.2

Hybrid FE-BI

System

The functional pertinen! to t}w radiatiozl [,v a caxitx-back,.d

cable

feed

(as shown

in fig.

6.3)

F(E)

is given

E)-k_E.E}

(E x _:)-

[f(E

-jkoZo

;_ c_,_x

by

E)-I(V

--/%

i,7_t_.tlz_i, wilh

(1)

,(E

dc

i + .=vv

d .'4

r. r')d.q"}

x H) ._dS',

((i.3)

JJc
where

V refers

excluding

to the cavity

the

portion

respectively,
number,
G0(r,
and

the
Z0

r')

is the

of the

by the

space

space

points;

antenna

C is the

elements:

impedance.

with

r and

cross

the cavity
_ and

t_

k0 is the

free

space

I is the

unit

r' denoting

section

aperl

of the

the
coax

ure

denote.
wave

dyad.

and

observation
cable

at

the

procedure

[29], we obtain

a system

of equa-

form
Us_
{[A'5]{E-7}

} + Z

e=l

expressions

surface

Proposed

To proceed

Nc_ OFc(E,
{[BiS]{E;}}

+ Z

e_.S

the explicit
Fc is the

6.3.3

function

S encompasses

permeability;

wave

discretization

N_

term

and

surface

the standard

where

surface

metallic

intrinsic

Green's
the

the

junction.

Following
tions

and

permittivity

free

free

integration

cavity-cable

occupied

relative

is the

volume

with

-0,

(6.4)

eEC

for Aij and

integral

H)

OEi

Bij

may

be found

in [29] and

the functional

on C in (6.3).

Coax

Feed

the

evaluation

Model

Fc = -jhoZo

of

/fc(E

x H) 5. dS,

(6.5)

a boundary
n,odeoll

con_,train_
(' and

rela_in_

consequently

E Io H i.. J,_','ch'd.
lhe

field>

wiTllill

"]o t],i-

cl,_t,

tt,,' ci, vi_v lira\

w_,,,..uIll,,,_

]llXl

I,,' cxl,rc>-,'d

a> ,-,','

fi_. 6.4 )

E-

loZo

1+F)1-?.

2rr _7_c

where

(_

is the

coefficient
location.
center

relative

measured
Also.

permlttivitv

are

at r = 0. To simpli_"

the

I0 is the

the

polar

the

analysis,

coax

given

cable:

input

coordinales

g dela)l('s

curren!

of a point

we introduce

IoZo
e0-

(ii.t;i

27

inside

at z = 0 and

(r.o.z)

H = I(1-I'_-o,
r

the

thv

source
in the

relh'clion

al the

cable

sanlv

wilh

lhc

qnanlities

10

2_-_-/_

(1 + F),

ho = :Z_(1-

F).

(6.7)

Hence,
eO ^

E=--r,

and

from

(6.7)

is the

ho and
fields

coefficients.
of the

desired

Co. Note
IS and

(6.8)

it follows
,e/g7
" -Co+--,

ho-

which

h0

H=--o,

H,

constraint
e0 and

and

it is therefore

field

cable

junction

in terms

h0 are field coefficients

To do so, we substitute

axisvmmetric

(6.9)

Z0

at the

that

I0

property

appropriate
(6.7)

as new

to rewrite

and

(6.9)

into

of the

new

unknowns

in place

Fc in terms
(6.._5) and

quantities

upon

of the

of these

new

making

use

we obtain

vc = -2,,jkoZo oh;W,,(

),

(6.1o)

(/

where

a and

src stands
functional.

b are the

to indicate

radii
that

of the

inner

h0 is treated

and

outer

as a source

cable
term

conductors.
in the

The

superscript

extremization

of the

I(l'l

XVe choose
and

the

Ill(' corresponding

fornmlation,
mesh

the

edges

inside

1/r

this

and

continuity
these

the

bv

the

fields

of the

it then

follows

cable.

This

field and
the

denotes

excitation

mesh

inside

Fc in terms

into
the

mesh

simply'

cable

modal

the

hybrid

cable

(6.9)
edges

and

field.
finite

on the

cable

element

(6.10).

junction,

-aJk0Z0(b-o){ Iore

the

field,

we made

rather
use of the

than

representing

average

field

the

(').

"I"o overcome

inust

be the

Specifically.

the

cable,

and

coax

upon

fi'om

is

6.11)

outer

surface

constant

to extend

cable

taking

into

Ei.

edge

it introduces

It remains
the

of the

cavity

Fc,

a need

probe.

Then

same

region.

functional

bordering

that

Nc).

the

edges

tield

by recognizing

without

current

as

tangential

condition

inner

into the

the

to rewrite
and

account

to do so
all

Nc

we obtain

vYgTb-aEi
Zo
In b_
a

In this expression,

bohave

across

1,2 .....

system

of the

fiel<ts t(;.(i)

cable

between

used

a fictitious

into

Np(p=

ca\ilv
CXl)al>ion

conductors

equi-potential

I1_ l}li-

edge-l,ased

junction

is also

,,_vil\

nulnt,erof

aperture

in the

a relation

value

cable

between

When

is lhc

to apply
the

tl,c

1_ Jig. i;.t_},_.

modal

outer

and

i=

difference

(6.11)

the

appropriate

provides

over

or those

eoln b,
a

field

TE.M

and

_ti_ctcli:_'

linear

it difficult

borders

the

Vc (.\c

by the

( i.e.

cavity

or to employ
the

......

across

(' i, sl,own

cable

inner

region

potential

of Ei, i.e.

we substitute
cavity

the

coax

the

Ei(b-a)=

condition

the

the

the fields

that

p=l.2

makes

of the

cavity

s('<tioll

junction

between

elcilwn_-

as dictated

cable

we can relate

5_th edge

AV

t/_ edge.

However.

at the

AV=

where

the

inconsistency

difference

(6.6)-(6.8)

tlw cross

constant

cavity.

condition

as computed

tmrahedral

on

to a

modeling

potential

mesh

is set

difficulties,

if the

edge-based

field across

on (').

function

the

linear

the functional
across

the

cable

src

Nc
i=Np

Fc in terms
as computed

(6.12)

of a single
by the

edge

totality

of tile

equal

ele.wnt

properly,

all

the curly

brackels

field_

elenwnt,

extremization

oil

fields

the

cabh.'._

at_ert_lr_ , ,I,_'ca_l>,.

at the

cabh"_

aperture'

of i6.12),

process.

with

Hence.

OE,

the

superscript

3"zjkoZo(b-

(,E,-

a)

li.

at,' _'qual !.
.-q'c. functioll.-

the extremization

_,f tl,c

of (6.12!

I,
=

Zu

i=.\'v(p=

aXi_vlllltlt'tri,

Ill,'

tact,t

it_,,i,l,,

a_ a _,ourct' ilk 1l,'

viel(l._

I,_

E,

1.2 ..... \c).

(6.13)

where

(b - a) 2

(6.14

fl

1
1;

We observe
is just

tion

the

by the

system

entries

where

except

is solved

with
element

Also,
for the

[29], the

cavity

equi-potential

finite

cable.

jskoZo(b-

the
Nc

input

a)Io.

field'

field representation

together

of the

coax

the 'constant

a fictitious

is governed
FEM

that

along

and

(6.11).

(6.13).

Specifically,

matrix

which

entries
admittance

}'+_

are

each/7,

of the
set

at z=0

to

where

Z_ is the

In the
mode

at

above
the

characteristic
feed

model

cavity-cable

we assumed
junction,

an

proceed,

hybrid

we assemble
to the

the

the

Nc

Arc. edges

system

Once

interpretation

diagonal
bordering

is nullified

hybrid

the

FE-BI

everysystem

from

H . rdo
7T

eoln_

impedance

at the cable junc-

physical

with

to t'i.

210
-

edge

is added

is calculated

If

To

is associated

column

which

each mesh

its meaningful

constraint

excitation

(6.15

Zc"

of the
the

coax

presence

assumption

(6.16)
cable.
of only
which

may

the
not

dominant(TEM)
be

suitable

for

107

certairl

alq)licatiolls.

rnesh

(say.

]o

a distance

applied

at z=-d.

suitable

expansion

OVel'COl]]e

d) into

where

equi-potential

feed model.

far below

distribution
mode.
coax

near

With
cable

the

this
(using

in most

of the

first

understanding,

cases

where

q=r,

12 edges

0 or z, i=1.2,3

(3 directionsx

N i

with

q_,qb

q_, q_band
along

and

_'_ represent

the

coordinate,

and

each

correspondence

between

or z) is given

in Table

When

an axisymmetric

(6.17)

reduces

independent
sion

is the

accuracy

parameters

6.1 along
field

property

0 variable.

introduction

of (6.17)

of the

is demonstrated

brick
Note
1/r

of_lw

lit a frequency
tlw field

fundamental

I'I_XI

by the

caleb',

for tile

field

in the

is

'

(6.17)

-- g)(q_
z in

and

cyclic

factor,

given

for each

of tile

by

(6.18)

rotation

and

correspondingly

7.

Also,

i denotes

the

of the

edge

along

0_ direction.

the node

is assumed,

the

the

for each

tilded

in fig. 6..5. where

the

we show

that

The

and

in (6.18).
in

z components,

cable
only

expansion

property
coaxial

number

coordinate(r,

of the

radial

particular

edge

parameters

numerator

for the

simulating

the

pairs

of the

format

also that

are

function

-- g)gl_

the definition

element

shape

They

width

numbers
with

lhe ellicicncx

expansion

0, z) is the

_-, 0 and

Aq= is the

to the standard
of the

N;(r,

r,_b and

the edge

a lllt)l,'

the con_l,licalion

of tile coax

tetrahedrals)

per direction).

q_ representing

will t l_,.ll t.,

is operated

mode

E;Nv(r''Z)r

gi
Aqb,__qc(qb

qa

retain

_llt'

or 4 and

4 edges

t'xl_,'lltt

Z
q

to avoid

antenna

suitable

lt,

Thi.- .,.ClWlll,' r,'(tlliIo-

be dominated

than

i',

cotMitit,ii

thus.

order

a possible

E=

and.
the

higher

rather

it])l)lt)it(tl

< -- < 0 seclion

(7 will still

shell elements

vanish.

into the cable

Since

junction

-d

t)II('

,,qui-l)olcntia]

nlodc_

in the

mesh

the cut-off

The'

order

for the fields

the tetrahedral

ii|]li[_tTit)II,

tile cable.

all higher

of extending

range

lhi>

of this expanmode.

The

2-3 elements

]{r',

TABLE1
Ill,dr

_.Jr,llH,_l,'-

'

p,rlT d[

pint-

_1-2,

il-3,

,:,
o:

.:

Ac,

ol
i

flt_l t'T-

:_ -

A:

-_ -

-_:

21

Ol

Z_
".

Table

6.1:

The correspondence
coordinate(r,
(6.18).

are

needed

field

along

the

efficiency

to model
6.3.4

of this

the

and

our

used

of a circular

0.41

cm

input

input

potential

this

was

model

are

curate

results

Figure

near

6.7 shows

definition

for

the

accurate

to the

(i.e..

and

the node

of the

tilded

linear

many

more

......

prediction

conventional

is apparent

feed

simulation,
One

patch,

feed

over

with
the

agreement

data

two circular

patch
cm)

the

measured

Clearly,

in excellent

the

(radius=2.1

impedance

feed model.

with

02

-_

pairs

for each

parameters

of the

dominant

tetrahedral
tetrahedrals

in

elements,
are

needed

region).

proposed

For

numl)ers

..'"

"-

Conclusion

cavity

impedance

measured

compared

for calculation.

atop

deep.

cable

the edge

direction

expansion

same

To validate
were

radial

When

Results

tions

o or z) along

the

distribution.

between

antenna
filled

was

the

band

from

whereas

the

0.8 cm

on

the

measurements
probe

model

antenna

of radius

a dielectric

2 - 5 GHz.

computed

results

was

with

placed

patch

from

configura-

1.3 cm
(e,=2.9)

the

center

printed
material
and

the

In fig. 6.6 we compare

basis

of the
and

yields

proposed

the
equi-

the equi-potential
substantially

inac-

resonance.
the

comparison

between

measurements

and

calculations

for an-

1()!_

other

palch

anlenna

"l-his patch

had

a radius

a loss langent
our

FE-BI

As shown

who_,(' iIl])ul im[)(,dailc('

Ian_=0.0012.

calculation

measurements,

the

accurate

in the context

to the

presented

case

was

[ocaI(,d

coax

also

0.7 cn_ frt)nl

by the

formulation

is very

demonstrated

how

feed

has

Moreover.

the

a_ld t_)_

agrc('lll('tlt

wit Ii

}>eezl s]_owrl

Io },('

in [65].

mode]

simple

,_l_t

of i_. t I ('lll ill radiu_,.

model

structures

Ila_t _.=2.:_:1

in excclh'Ht

probe
feed

aI_,! Ik,/,_I 1;5.

IIic c(,Iil(,r,

ca\'i_v

is agai_l

feed structures.

of asymmetric

.-,ll,_,Ital,'

in a circular

model

results

t,\ .\t,_'_h'

<hi tllick

equi-potential

element

It was

to the

feed

0.215

was placed

in modeling

feed.

the

equi-potential

of a finite

probe

generalized

the

pa_ch

as opposed

In conclusion,

as the

The

the

in fig. 6.7,

extremely

of :2.0 cm and

wa_, ill('a_l,r_'d

and

its implenl('))I;)I
as easy

proposed
where

feed

i_,))

to imph'm('nt
model

evanescent

can

modes

b(,
may

be present.

6.4

Conclusion

In developing
lenging

problems

is primarily

on one

results

is usually
around

The

techniques

to solve

in consideration

because

tainties

rate

numerical

the

side.

antenna

On

the

extremely

the

feed

proposed

point,

numerical

for antennas,

feed

to the

in this

as possible,

and

with

a thorough

tations,

we realize

that

they

can

to the

which

with

coincides

group
domain

has

and

certain
the

model,

is one
simplicity.

instrumental
accuracy

the

of chal-

feed

This
uncer-

of numerical

location,

sampling

so on.

closely

As an addition

feed

feed network

efiq.ciency

as aforementioned,

sensitive

feeds

of accuracy,
in fabrication

other,

and

the

be used

of feed

chapter

the

consideration

of their

for mostly

encountered

models,

truncations.

resemble

we also developed

Since

this model

practical
numerical
antenna
a circuit

has to do with

systems

as

implemenproblems.
modal

feed

microwave

ll()

Z
A

Patch

Ground

Aperture

plane

Cavity

Coax cable opening

(surface C)

Coax cable

Figure

6.3:

Illustration

of a cavity-backed

cavity

patch

antenna

with

a coax

cable

feed.

patch
T

2b
A

2a
cavity-cable junction

(a)

Figure

6.4:

(a)

Side

view

Illustration
to zero

(b)

of a cavity-backed

of the

at the

FEM

center

mesh

conductor

antenna

at the

with

cavity-cable

surface).

a coax

cable

junction

(the

feed:

(b)

field is set

Ill

Co_I:larlso-

oq E-F_elO

A,_or_i,I -Wavelen_l!_

Coax

Cable

150

100

50

=
"o
ft.
u_
-50

-100

-150
2i

3i

4i

5i

6o

segment

7t

8i

9i

110

11

number

(a)
Companson

O! E-Field

O_stnbution

AJong R

6OO0

55OO

-_5ooo
4500
el
z: 4000

35OO

,;,3O00
o
o
2500

g
2000
1500

100_; 02

i
0.04

i
0.06

O.OB

distance in crn from the center

(b)

Figure

6.5:

Field

distribution

ment

method

(a) Field
location
a distance

in a shorted
using

coefficient
of the short);
_/4

from

coax

the expansion
eo along

the

(b) Field
the

shorted

cable

(6.18).
length
along

as computed
--:

of the

analytical;
cable

the radial

termination.

by the
xxx:

(leftmost

coordinate

finite

ele-

numerical.
point

calculated

is the
at

1]:?

-I

I _Lp
E

.......

140

i Z72,
100

=-

""

6O0

20O

.'N

...........

-20 0

I ...........

1.00

I ............

200

I ...........

300

frequency

',

400

500

(GHz)

(a)
180

"w
............

mca.su

rcrncnl

-_

"O

'

Ibis

100

pmhc

method

model

C-

60.0
200
C

-200

-60.0

...........

_............

1.00

_ ...........

2.00

_...........

3.00

frequency

4.0O

5.00

(GHz)

(b)

Figure

6.6:

Measured

and

calculated

patch

antenna

having

cavity

radius

R=21.1mm;

location
probe
vertical
field

x/=0.8
model
wire

input
substrate

cm distance
are

also

connection

for excitation.

impedance

the following

(a)

shown
to the
Real

from

for

thickness
center.

part;

and

patch
t=4.1mm;

Results

for comparison.
patch

a cavity-backed

specifications:

Our

uses the

(b) Imaginary

radius
_=2.4;

based
modeling
incoming
part.

circular
r= 13ram

on

and
the

simple

retains
coaxial

feed
the
mode

120

I00
o
E
=:

80
o

} 6o

"6

-_

20

$
j

2.55

285

27

frequency

2.75

28

285

29

(GHz)

(a)

10(]

8C

6C

_E 2o

=o a
-2C

_ .4Q
_E

o
o
o

2.55

2 6

2.65

2,7

2.75

frequency

2 8

2,9

(GHz)

(b)

Figure6.7:

Measured
tenna

and

having

thickness

following

d=0.21844cm;

tan6=O.O012.

model

calculated
the

[65].

--:

[65] (a) Real part;

input

impedance

specifications:
feed

location

measurement;

(b) Imaginary

for
patch

from

center

xxx:

this

part.

circular

radius

patch

r=2cm:

xj:0.Tcm;
method;

an-

substrate
_=2.33_

o o o:

probe

subjecls.

CHAPTER

Circuit

Many
netic

designs

signals

to these
After

from

wave

an overview

topic

7.1

cation

element

problems.

This

mesh

certain

for the

for circuit

feedlines

methods

suited

is devoted

techniques,

finite

to carry

are also

chapter

termination

appropriate

truncations

most

of the

truncation

date,

a variety

employed

are not

and

reflected
must

element

electx'omag-

and

applicable

to circuit

we discuss
analysis,

modeling.
a numerical

and

then

turn

to

simulation.

reported.
applied

the

surface,
The

An

simulate

a surface

are typically

mesh

termination

11,5

is the

trun-

scheme

ensure

that

mesh

termination

which

actually

boundary
volume

applications

implementations

truncation

at the

computational
and

element

ideal

or absorbing

ABCs

at the

of finite

backwards

of non-reflecting

for truncating

are

aspects
volume.

scheme

or scattering
been

important

computational

waves

mesh

tions

require

Finite

of recent

of mesh

of the

outgoing

also

antennas

source.

process

Modeling

Introduction

One

ating

the

propagation

de-embedding
the

of microstrip

VII

conditions
at some

to microwave
second
surface

must

surface,
does

(ABCs)

distance
circuits

or higher

order

to truncate

not

from
and

the

exist.

To

have

been

the

radi-

devices

boundary
the

i.e.

have
condi-

computational

llt,

the oIle

way

Wilcox
tion

wave

Epansion

and

traditional

meshes

An

them

control,

when

Basically,

instead

of an ABC,

t,o truncate

the

and

performance

considered

[7'2_,7.3].

not)

s_ill exhibit

cently_

_hough,

absorber

that

sions_

a non-zero
Berenger

his approach

tivity.

In this

_o simulate
is lossy,
the

la_er

found

property

an Mditional

degree

have

ma_ched

Mready

for _runca_ing
highly

medium

is maintained

_s a perfectly

dimensions
sorber

assigning

successful.

been

finite

_o each

l_yer(PML)

difference-time

Nevertheless.

and

from

Re-

In two dimeninvolving

normal

a different

layer.

or

an artificial

conduc-

that

Provided

is chosen

the

Berenger

domain(FDTD)

solutions

medium
refers

of his idea

implementations

that

been

normal.

angles.

is introduced

be noted

is used

(homogeneous

[7,5, 7G]. Also.

it should

for mesh

have

for modeling

generMiza_ion

<_t"

packages.

material

away

angles.

th__

knowledge'

absorbers

component

thickness

Also.

absorber

components

of freedom

all incidence

.-\B(_'._.

o prior;

for all incidence

for a finite

considered

order

of such

angles

wi_h

eas_, of p_ralleliz_-

absorbers

feld

p_rli_ul_,rlv

for high density

approach

of the

and

a reflectionless

this

_he spli_ting

derivatives

manner

a new

a_ i_s interface

requires

(_o _he boundary)

incidence

It_,.

ditticul_i_,._

of absorbing

lossy-artificial
at

u._'d,

an artificiM

a _hin laver

[74] introduced

is reflectionless

not available

_i',ll

iti_,.TtIit_,rl_lul,,-

several

requires

for a variety

these

reflection

are

wil h higher

is to employ

truncation.

lligdon_

conformali_v,

modeling

are typically

Nevertheless,

There

dealing

circuit

ABCs

u_i1_

hav_' }>cell succ_'_sfu]lv

is accuracy

which

the

.-\l_('_

[71].

to traditional

mesh.

_,zl,ll_,r i._ d_.r]x_,_l sl_r_ir,u

structures

in microwave

constants

order

AB('s

difficulties

of AB("s

alternative

l_igher

in guided

Among

propagation

[(i(;.(;7] aml

numerical

implementation

applications

Also.

specific

AB('s.

tion and

nwth_,(I

[(;$.:_1].

problenl

for truncating

the

equatiolj

_o _hree
of the

has

Berenger's

to

ab-

so far been
PML

does

117
nol salisfv Maxw(,ll equationsand
( t: E.M

anisoiropic(uniaxial)artificial

truncating
angles.

FEM

wave

ficient

meshes.

Basically.
the

and

inll,h'_llcntc<t

ill ti_i_*' ,'l,'ll,c11_

solution.

.-\new

sors.

}}c ca*itv

canIlot

by making

medium

artificial

angle.

loss in the

finite

can

choices

be made

A PML

material

absorber

appropriate

impedance

incidence

for truncating

This

absorber

layer

properties.

element

imroduccd

rcccntl\

for

is also r('O('ct ionless

al all il_cidcncc

for t he constit

t>arame!er

independent

can then

The

meshes

[771 was

ulive

of frequency,

be constructed

implelnentation
and.

polarization.

by introducing

of this

is straightforward

t_'l_-

artificial

moreover,

suf-

absorber

the

absorber

is Maxwellian.

7.2

Numerical
De-embedding

quantities.

presented

Specifically,

line terminated
from

with

line-to-line

is assumed

any loads

near

shielding
analysis

along

the

line.

with

respect

is a numerical

we are interested
denoting

One

to the

line

scheme,
provides

the
the

is therefore
locations

process

the possible
The

of certain

length

able

circuit

transmission

which

transmission

may

arise

line

mode

discussion.
as shown

in the

distribution

to represent

certain

for a uniform

dominant

5'_j" in this

line is included

to extract

discontinuities,

plane

E field

used

in S-parameters

couplings.

a reference

a transmission

appropriate
wave

here

or line-to-antenna

at and

Consider

full

De-embedding

in fig.

7.1.

computational

anywhere
E field

along

an

domain.

including
the

With

the

The
region

transmission

line

to get

(7.])
where
the

V is proportional

reflected

wave

to the

amplitude,

magnitude
z is measured

of E with
from

the

I;

being

reference

the

incoming

plane

and

_;

,q'_j.. _,. is the

11"

Microstrip

Shielded

Line

FEM Region

Substrate

Probes
Figure

propagation
or

7.1:

constant

Illustration

of a shielded

to be determined

and

microstrip

R = _/Ii

line.

is tile

reflection

coefficient.

S11-

in (7.1)

Since

wave

propagation

values

for l,"(z)

"t, ti and
and
at three

I/_ are three

reflection,

to determine

points

z_, z0 and

t'(__)

center
FEM

the

line.

point

To simplify

such

computations,

that

the

--

Z0

z0 = 0 and

one

z+ of equal

2,0 --

we choose

z+ = -z_

that

needs

characterize

to specie"

the

the
field

inter-distances

v(=+)

problem,

quantities

them

v(_0)

Z+

along

independent

(7.2)

Z_

the

= d. Given

reference
the

three

plane
field

right
values

at the
from

it follows

V(d)

l'ie -'_d + i_e "_d

(7.3)

t,'(o)

t'i + t.;

(7.4)

_';e _d + l"_e -"d

(7.5)

V(-d)

To soh, e for _, we first

add

(7.3)

to (7.5)

to get

lherJ

olin_inating

Ii-4-

I; from

17.4_ and

cosh(':d,

from

which

dielectric

-,. can
constant

6_fJ may

1l-d!

i7.7

21 (0_

Tile

then

we (,blaill

I(d)-r

be determined.

(7.(;i.

effective

guided

be calculated

waveh,nglh

A:: and

ct[cclivc

by
"2r,

with
and

,'3 = lm {')}
I;- are

and

expressed

Ao being

the

Ag

free

space

V(0)e

the

reflection

de-embedding

technique

assumption

may

coefficient

As mentioned
Low quality
able.
next

be readily

this

(7.-1),

_,i

before,

high
issue.

is suited
extended

where

performance

(7.s)
(7.9)

_
t'i

(7.10)

for one

port

to two-port
or match

evaluations

in prediction
termination

network

networks.

at port

1/o is the outgoing

S-parameter
result

_d -- V(d)

becomes

termination

by' _o/Vi,

terminations

Therefore,
discuss

process

of a perfect

can be obtained

and

v(0) -

$11

This

From(7.3)

2 sinh('yd)

t,; =
the

wavelength.

as

t,

Therefore,

2, once

wave
depend

errors

and

methods

at port

analysis.
For instance,

on the

l.'} is determined.
2 predicted

on termination
make

However.

the

are always

analysis
desirable

<c,'21

by FEM.
methods.
less reliand

we

7.3

Truncation

As already
transmission
only

Using

indicated.
line

may

a dominant

output
given

port

For

(similar

a possil,h,

at a distain

shielded

to that

ctisccmlilmilv

referenccldalw,

microstrip

lines

in fig. 7.1).

the

at

wlwrc

rite

modes

r,'git,xl

input

llwrc

port

underneath

atoI,_
cxist..

(#1)

the

aim

lines

are

by

where

Eo(x)

denotes

(port

1) and

R is the

mission

coefficient

propagation

= {

FI, field

assuming

E = -V.

Eo(.r)(e-"'-" + Re"':)
T Eo(.r )o _:
-

field

at the

FEM
across

model

Sove

mesh
the

port

port.

Vo

this standard

at

the

incident

plane.

T represents

2). and

51. "),2 are

it is necessary

structure.

in fig. 7.2, where

(7.1])
plane

the
the

trans-

effective

2, respectively.

at a specific

V20

wave

same

So_,t (port

shielded

shown

found

at the

plane

1 and

- E .':,',,,
- E 2"o_,t

of incident

coefficient

at port

the

it is finally

distribution

reflection

measured

pattern

a static

derivation,

the

constants

For truncating

where

front

be extracted

E_(z)

the

S-parameters

mode.

(#2).

DMT

This
the

static

on metallic

line

PDE

model,

and

with

can

to first
be

determine

accomplished

potential

by

satisfies

(7.12)

a tedious

mathematical

that

'/27/"

sinh
En=I

,odd

A"sinh(

( 7.13 )

( _ d)

"_/b-7,_ d))COS(_ax)sinh(n--_-_(b-y))

where
( Yl Tf tP _

.*.i n

= I'b

sin \ '_-_a / 1
.2A

z<d

121

x
v

0 -_2

Figure

7.2:

Illustration

a/2

of the

cross

section

of a shielded

microstrip

lii_e.

with

-1

G
fn

{r2

cosh

7271"

--a--(b-

d))

7"/71"

-t- _rlCOSh

A complete
at

FEM

fii,_ to truncate

troduces

before.

7.4

Truncation

Below,
followed
structures

ent

the

the

volume

absorber's

loss factors.

performance

This
and
at the

by introducing
truncation
the

the

simultaneously

S-parameters

input

and

EM fields

may

output

inthen

ports

be

as men-

PML

a brief

meshes

system

distributions

Using

with

domain.

numerical

field

an examination

and

nov,, be constructed

computational

the

we begin
by

may

to the

bv measuring

tioned

show

system

an excitation

extracted

(-_-d)

presentation

of the

absorber's

in scattering
as a function

of the

artificial

performance
problems.

absorber,

and

in terminating

Results

of thickness/frequency

are

presented
and

this

is

guided
which
for differ-

122
7.4.1

Theory

('onsider the wavegui(h,,shiel(I,.dnli('roslri t, lin(' ai_(1>(allcrcr _t_,wl_ill

Of interest

is to mode]

the

wave propagation

in t}u,-,(..-,lrucl_lr(,-

ll.,,ill_

ti,_.

7.:1.

I}_, fl]lil('

Electric
Probe
-1

d+t=40cm t=5cm
cross-section: 4.755x2.215 cm

i TM

(a).

waveguide

Absorbing
t,=

layer

_r

h"

d+t=12.0cm

]
p,I--H

L = 2.38

h = 0.21
Microstrip__\ line
,

_?_

H = 1.06

-- - _"
(b).

7.3:

A rectangular
the

element

perfectly

method.

waveguide
matched

_f

cm

(a)

uniaxial

VxE

"-

and

a microstrip

absorbing

medium,

VE)

(_:1

e = 3.2

w = 0.548 cm

Microstrip Line

uniaxial

For a general

._

cm

Figure

cm

line

the

functional

- ko_
E.
2=

E x (_-1.

(b)

truncated

using

layer.

to be minimized

is

EdV

V x E)-

dS,

(7.14)

,IS ,. + So,,t

in which
total

and

electric

evaluated
for this
evaluate

_ denote

field

in the

by introducing
purpose
the

but

the

permeability

medium.
an

independent

alternatively

performance

The

of an

and
surface

integrals

boundary

an absorbing
absorbing

permittivity

layer

laver

tensors
over

condition
may

whereas

S,_ and

E is the

S'o_, must

and

the

ABC

be used.

An

approach

for terminating

the

FE

mesh

be

serves
to
is to

12:t
extract the reflec[ion coef[icientcomp_zled
to t(,rminate
of a thin
and

the

comtmtational

uniaxial

a microstrip

considered

laver
line.

the

plane

(l(,lllain.

for

ltl lhi_ slml\

termillating

Such
wave

ii_ [lie pr_'_enc_'

reflection

laver
from

Region
Reflected

xv,, (_,l_i(1,'l

_lw FI2 nwsll

a uniaxial

was

_,1 _h,' al,-_,_ I,ii_

an anisotropic

})v Sackinterfac,'

_2-,',1

l t,_, t,_'t f_,rl_ata,'

ill a r_.ctang_llar

prol)o._,(l

Regton

I,_'_

wav_,gui,h'

_t.al.
(se,,

|ig.

[77i wl,,
7..1 1. If

_a_e

TrznsrllJtled

_:_e

[,001
a.

Incldenl

b,O

wave

0 _ C_

Figure

7.4:

Plane

wave

incidence

on an interface

between

two diagonally

anisotropic

half-spaces.

ff_ and

_ are

the

relative

constitutive

parameter

tensors

of the

form

: /a00/
_=_=

the

TE

and

background

TM

reflection

material)

coefficients

be

c_

at

the

interface

(assuming

(7.15)

free

space

as the

become

cosOiR TE

V/-_cosOt

_._

cosOi + V/_cosO_
cosO_ R

TM

cosOi

___

cosOi + _cosO_

(7.16)

arl(I by <h(,o4no.,

= t,, and

c, =

i_ follows

tl,al

l,Z_

/;l xt

angles, irlIplying
a perfectlymalcl,_.dmalerial iI1_evfac'e.
11 xv_._.T ..,= _,-/
reflected

field

for a metal-backed

llniaxial

IR(0,)I

where

t is the

parameter

ok

metal

backed

55dB

if 3tco_O,

The

reflection

ABC

rather

eliminates

thickness

of the

is simi)ly

the

uniaxial
=

than

the

the

finite

and

i)latw

in the

absorber,

a reflectivitv

where

A is the
can

integrals

of -30

the
over

thickness

the

layer

this

the

t)r()l)Osc(l
or

material.
laver

although

is also

Ih('

0.275A

attractive

Clearly.

and

the

background

is more

surfaces.

angh'.

t3asicallv,

by backing

backing

is not

incidelwe

of the

further

PEC

wave

(IB if .:ttco.,O,

wavelength

be reduced

However.

(,.1,

0, is the

wavenumber
has

is

= e -2._t:''_'

laver

(7.17)

a PEC.

altogether

with

an

because

it

the interface

true

for Barenger's

absorber.

Below
uniaxial

we present

for

microstrip
and

a2

line
----- #rb(O

constitutive
7.4.2

a number

absorbing

frequency

layer

the

of results

as a function

guided

structures

it is necessary
-- j,'3)

for the

parameters

which
of the

shown

to let

the performance

parameter

3, the

in Figure

7.3.

a2 = _b(c_ -j_3)

permeability

of the

show

background

tensor,

where

material

(i.e.

of the proposed

laver

thickness

We remark

that

for the

permittivity

_b and

/_b are

the

t and
for the
tensor

the

relative

guide's

cross-

substrate).

Results

Rectangular
Let

0.SA.

coefficient

is reflectionless,
PML

laver

laver

_'.II_'

us first

section
mode.

Waveguide
consider

has dimensions
It is excited

the

rectangular
4.755cm

by an electric

waveguide

x2.215cm
probe

and
at the

shown
is chosen
left.

and

in fig. 7.3.

The

to propagate
fig. 7.6 shows

only
the

the
mode

TElo
field

strength

inside

uniaxial

laver..-\s

for

._ values

reflections
about

the

wax'e_uich'
expected,

less

than

from

the

t is the
here

1.0 and
wave

metal

travel

decav

is seen

the

decay

distance

factor

plot

mode

reflection

TElo

to normalize
absorber

with

respect

performance

and

an optimum

value

suggest

B must

that

decay

without

reflection

may

amplitude

value

of B changes

still

maintained

/3 values.

to 2/dt/Ag
many
absorber

be chosen

before

since

which

absorber

thickness

when

the

entire

the

backing.

broadband

case of f = 4.5GHz
of-45dB

coefficient

be noted

2era or 1/3

whereas

though

free space

of -37
that

the

the

That

line)

value

wavelengths.

of

the results
the

slowest
lowest

to reduce
this

of the

the

of the

the

optimum

absorber

are

for unoptimized
optimum

value

of

of _3 = 3 (corresponding

dB which
setting

we chose

is, the

is used

existence

to provide

be achieved

(dashed

rapid
to look

Basically,

properties

and

7.7 provides

As expected,

can still

the

where

and

width

where

7.7 is typical

backing.

absorber

absorber's

but

a reflection

It should
is about

the

absorber

low reflections

coefficient

= 2.3) gives

applications.

for a given

acceptable

a reflection

nature

coefficient.

frequency

in the

Figure

its broadband

the

fig.

of 231/Ag.

A,.

\'._\\'l{

prompled

and

reflection

it reaches

with

wavelength

from

values,

is therefore

the

reflections

For example,

/3 = 1 gives

guided

of

[_ = 2.]//Aj

to larger

thickness

lhe

= t'JE;_"_'l',

interface.

as a function

demonstrates

be achieved

wave

absorber

a \'S\\[_

1o unilv,

by (-_t.t_o,_,

One

allI

<],cax I_ ._lZl_l_I'>_

('onsequenll.v.

3 is increased

zl_a_cllcd

,or i_ cxl)t,llclllial

sufli(ieI_/

absorber

VS\R's.

of D for minimizing

causing

the

coefficient

to the

al)_of

laver.

given

from

for a given

}_\ a t,'dccllv

as 3 is increased

is precisely

when

the
haw'

5cm

However.

unacceptable

decay

nol

of this

that

Icrmillal'd

inskIe

does

measured

It is noted

to cause

decay

wave

backing

for an optimum
of the

field

for 3 = 0.5.

the wave

0i = 44.5 .

lhe

unilv

1.1 is observed

is nearly

whiclL }kas },ectl

is still

acceptable

3 = 3 allows
Also.

as can

use

for
of an

be realized

the di_,cretizationrate pla.v.-a rob, in [inding lh_'ot_lil_lll_ll \illm't_f

the

presented

curve:

refer

to a s_mpling

role

of aroultd

example,

the

1> ,\.

4t ,\. _l_!

t}ll>

f_,r _]m _v_x_,_li,t,,

example.
Not

surprisingly

important

setting
7.7.

always

Our

performance.

microstrip

constant.

show

that

performance

other

it is expected
it is therefore

of the

choices

that

will

as the

play

not

is demonstraled

the

a role

to choose

play

all

ill [ig. 7.>.

case of _ = 1 stlowll

of o give

recommended

and

contact

exhibits

coefficient

at the

a thicker

absorbing

example,

the

is illustrated
coefficient

the

the

the

optimum/3

similar

in lhe

al>orl)cr
])reseIic_'

o = .3 to ensure

value

of o plays

in fig. 7.10.

the

absorption

exists

However,

it was

behavior

_,f
I llal

role

is maximized

the

verified

is the

waveguide

for approximately

and

effective

dielectric

a 1.87
the

cm

absorber

thick..5
to avoid

waveguide,

we again

that

absorber

in the
The

performance
case

of the
absorber

behavior

of the

microstrip
same

reflection
is required.

of the

the

shielded
is plolled

in fig. 7.6.

as in the

performance

of importance

of 2/3t/A 9. For

to the

if better

Again

in the

inside

the

coefficient

is the
with

as shown
and

be required.
little

e_:l

Similarly
and

in absorbing

reflection

up to 4 layers

= 1 is now -42dB
may

the

is terminated

wall.

attenuation

laver

A0/ex/g777_
H and
line

metallic

/3 value

same

laver

Ag =

microstrip

the

uniaxial

in fig. 7.9 where

line is extended

with

as a function
that

where

an optimum

wave

matched

is illustrated

case.

absorber

that

perfectly

of 2/3t/kg,

In this

electric

observe

and

line mode

as a function

observe

also

the same

and this

of _ does

line

performance

layered

of the absorber

value

are absorbed.

Mierostrip

the

tests

modes

all modes

an

for this

o = '3 gives

However.

attenuating

The

(6.6)).

role in the performance

As seen.
in fig.

(see

waveguide
and

reflection

examples,
value

this

we

of 2::1/A::

1:77

il should be noted thal the discrclizalioli rate t_la\.-an ,qu_ll\ iIlll_wl.tlt rL_h'aI_,l
this needsfurther investigation.
"l-heaccuracyand validity of the PNIL applications for circuit parameter (oultmrations
of the
input

can

optimized
impedance

measuring
VSWR
the

also

the
which

shielded

be seen

from

the

4.5 cm

PML

values.

The

vertical

field

is often

difficult

microstrip

resuh

layer,

illustrated

with

shown

microstrip

at the

probe's

with

in fig. 7.11,
1 and
line

location

unstructured

line dimensions

,t = 1. yields

impedances
without

finite

for the

data

lI is seen

element

are given

very

were
a need

that

usc

accurale

conlputcd

_v

to extract

tlw

meshes.

Note

that

in fig. 7.11.

Meanderline
Another

example

the structure
The
along

cavity
the

of thickness
agreement

is the

was placed
was
y-axis.

meander

domain

t = 0.12ram.
with

the

shown

in a rectangular

tessellated
The

line

measured

using

cavity

$11 results

data

[78].

For

of size 5.8mm

29 150 5 edges

was terminated
The

in fig. 7,12.

with
are

and

only

a 10 layer

shown

the

FEM

18.0mm
150 edges
PML.

in fig 7.13

each
and

simulation.
3.175ram.
were
laver
are

used
being

in good

E_ecl,,c
.....

Rill

PIII_

....

Imlglmlty

P_obe

,/

Pmrl

Mllgnitudl

o
o

L,
vll

13

'

,
\

\
\

/
'

"

_=c%=

,
\

'

t..t,=lay=
d+t=4Ocm
io

_c

ac

?o

I.e-

-1
Cz=
1-jl_
-1
_LL= 1-j[3
t,=lcm

ic

SamplesAlongWaveguide(14umplt_.)

Figure

7.5:

Typical
nated

field values

of TE]o

by a perfectly

mode

matched

inside

uniaxial

40

a rectangular

waveguide

termi-

laver.

35

--

beta=0.5
1.

30

--

3.

--10.

\
o

-2,

20

e_

"E

\
\

6'2

64'

)
66

Segments

Figure

7.6:

Field

values

fectly matched

of the

,
70

'
68

72

number along waveguide

TE]o

uniaxial

mode

layer.

element
was 0.5 cm which
at 4.5 GHz.

_
74

(alpha=l.0,

inside

*_

_-_
78

...
80

f=45GHz)

a waveguide

The absorber

translates

-_
76

to about

terminated

is 10 elements
13 samples

by a per-

thick and each

per wavelength

12!_

-5

--- f=4 0GHz

- - - f=4.5GHz

-10

--

f=5,0GHz

-15

-20

-25
-- -30
tr

I
j

1//"
/

-35

-4O

-45

-So

_o

_2

,.

213t in kg (_=1.0)

Figure

7.7:

Reflection

coefficient

layer

to terminate

used

-5

vs 2'3t/kg
the

(o = 1) for the

waveguide

shown

perfectly

matched

uniaxial

in fig. 7.6.

--- f=4.0GHz

-10
A

"l_ -15
-20

i=
g-25

-- -30

g
-35

-4O

-45

-50
0

10

12

14

2_t in kg (c=_)
Figure

7.8:

Reflection
uniaxial

coefficient
laver

used

vs 2_t/,_g,
to terminate

with
the

o = ;3, for the

waveguide

shown

perfectly

matched

in fig. 7.6.

l:i(_

oj
t---

f=40GHz

i---

f=45GHz

--

t=5.0GHz

....

/I
J

-10
A

-15
o -20
E
D -25
"D

c: -3o
E:
-35

-4O

-45

-500

0.5

1.5

Figure

7.9:

Reflection

coefficient

terminated

by

-5

the

I=4.0GHz

---

f=4.5GHz

--

f=5.0GHz

-10

---

'

2 5

3 5

in kg ((z=1.0)

vs 2j3t/Ag
perfectly

2
2_t

with

o=1,

matched

for the

shielded

uniaxial

laver.

3.5

microstrip

_'_ -15

-20

o
E
m

_
--

-25
-30

-35

-4O

--45

-500

0 5

15

2 5

213Iin kg (a=13)
Figure

7.10:

Reflection
line

coefficient

terminated

by

vs 23t/Ag
the

perfectly

with

o=

matched

3,

for

uniaxial

the

shielded
laver.

microstrip

line

1:51

70
65

FEM

60

55

\,,.

r..,_w

_= _

_h;-

J.,._zo,,,.

50

_,

%,,

64s

_
i

mLII

"

H,IB_

40

_32

""_?"

35

25
20
0.2

Figure

7.11:

Input

'

0.4

impedance

compared

to the

0 6

'

0 8
1
width of microstrip (cm)

calculations
theoretical

for
reference

the

'

1.2

PML
data.

1.4

terminated

microstrip

as

.305

.305

1.611__1_1.s2s

i-

J--r

! 1.61

_i-_i
--

in

q
O'J

(unit: ram)
0

Figure

7.12:

Illustration
surement.

of a meander

line geometry

used

for comparison

with

mea-

meander

line

I
_+
0.9

08
f_
0.7
+
0.6

0.5

1
!

0.4
--

Measured
-

0.3

- Calculated

0.2

0.1

1'o

0_

1hS

20J

frequency

Figure

7.13:

Comparison
shown

of calculated

in fig.7.12.

and

25J

30

(GHz)

measured

results

for

the

CHAPTER

AWE:

8.1

Brief

Overview

Although
typically

full

only

of these

is therefore

needed

wave

for

electromagnetic

the

Waveform

Evaluation(AWE)

ing model

of the

relies

analysis

at each
and

in conjunction

impedance

frequency

the

finite

are large

bv the

designer

impedance,

or analyst.

S parameters,

of the

is one approach

or other

useful

of the given
value.

cumbersome

in minimizing

response

method

in this paper

with

and

consideration

frequency

on a Pad;_ approximation

of the system
cuit

input

systems

(input

important

generating

Evaluation

are needed

parameters

an

Waveform

of AWE

a few parameters

der modeling
etc)

Asymptotic

VIII

It has already

The

to construct

a reduced

its application

element

to simulate

pattern.

Asymptotic
order-

parameters.

to avoid
been

or-

requirements

parameter.

we demonstrate
method

CPU

electromagnetic

parameters

A reduced
far field

the

solve.

to

the

applied

repeated

AWE
solution

to problems

and

validity

full wave

in cir-

when

used

electromagnetic

problems.
The
eling
cuit

method

of Asymptotic

of a linear
analysis

ports/variables

system

and

to approximate
in circuit

Waveform
has

already

the

transfer

networks

Evaluation
been

successfully

function

[79-$2].

133

The

(AWE)

associated
basic

idea

is a reduced-order
used

in VLSI

with
of the

a given

method

modand
sel

cirof

is to de-

131

w'loI_ an apt_roximale
SlWclral

solutions.

whose

Typically.

coefficients

available

are

spectral

In this
imating

the

the

knowledge

of the

method
a priori

tern.

Given

ments

first

proceed
efficiency

Theory

8.2.1

FEM

in full

antenna

recasting
the

for the

AWE
the

fields

FEM

method
input

system

system

entire

bandwidth

frequency
with

parameter

(state

variable)

of the

grid.
AWE.

its application,

of a shielded

Also.

of that

of CPU

computational

for application

from

involve

reduction

for

to frequency

samples

systems

or

A\VE

points.

respect

a few data

demonstrate

impedance

of radiation
is to use

an

a dramatic

in the entire

and

_lll_'

for" apt)rox-

interest

a single)

with

nwthod

simulation

equation(PDE)

have

for a given

i- l,_,.lul,,l,'d

r_'l_r_'-'lltalioI_

AWE

pattern

system

indeed

of the

wave

over

a backscattering

differential

can

of the

at a few (even

partial

t l,_' t'adi'

Of particular

of the simulation

system

System

application

amounts

to fill-in

a response

for computing

8.2

tional

the

applicability

of the

fui_clit,ll

svs_en_.

parameter

solution

AWE

the

to describe

The

wave

practical

in generating

describe

tions

full

knowledge

to resolve

the

impedance

unknowns,

a need

complete

".X>1_'lll fr_I11 a lirl_il,'_l _._q _,f

of lh_' trarl,.fl'r

I_v ll_atclli_lg

in electromagnetics.

input

that

of the

of a given

can be used

from

of a _ivct_ tim'al

deternlined

we investigate

problems

thousand

lhell

response

evaluating

fultctiorl

a Pa_lb ext)ansioi_

solutions

chapter

scattering

the

Iraxl.'.fer

microstrip

pat-

several
requirewithout
Below

we

We then

accuracy

and

stub.

Recast

of the

to generating

finite

element

a linear

method

system

to full wave

of equations

electromagnetic

by extremizing

soluthe

func-

[83]

_'=<VxE,_.VxE>-k2<E._.E>+kb.t.

(8.1)

135
wher*' <.> denole_all illllei-producl and b.t. i: a l>t,-_il,h' I>tmn,iar\

_,'liI_ x',},_,,,'

specific

7 ar,' ilialt.-

forlli

rim related
operaling

is not required
coefficienls.

where

A,

describing

the

putationally
response.

of (8.2)

is not

AWE
below

mentation

of the

(sparse)

matrices

direct

or iterative

using

though
and

must

be further

analyses

and

an efficient

approach

wavenumber

in our

{fl}

being

subsequent

(t>l'rl'>l/t>llttill_

A discr<'tized

[c)rni

<if tS.l)

= {./}

(S.2)

and

{f}

is a column

methods

for a given

to these

in connection

it turns

out

and

therefore

independent
presentation.

repeated

designs

in connection

can

solution

that

with
the

the

antenna
excitation

be stated

system

matrix

value

(8.2)

k to obtain
both

temporal

burdens

and

a repeated

is com-

and

An application

is an attractive

alternative

and

system
microwave

column

{.f}

(8.2),

whose

circuit
is a linear

This

of
and
imple-

problem.
function

as

= k {.f,}

of frequency.

fl'e-

solution

responses.

FEM

of

a frequency

require

these

responses
with

of the

for each

may

in generating

an approximation
AWE

the

computational

{f}

with

{.\'}

A, is sparse,

additional

problems

_' ib l lie

is [29]

square

is considered

For these

conditions

usual

certain

we formulate

ali(l

of lighi.

+/,'2A:)

placing

to achieve

speed

boundary

be solved

intensive

responses

the

+/,'A,

Even

quency

is the wa\etlllllliil'r

7-7aiid

excitation.

can

Also,

:\1_<,. lilt" dxadic_

(A0

specific

wavenumber.

discussion.

c being

appropriate

denote

(8.2)

,k

with

the

the

Clearly
the

A"

frequelicy

incorporating

for thi,

(8.3)

observation

will be specifically

used

8.2.2

Asymptotic

%Vaveform Evaluation

To describethe basic idea of \\VE ixl conjuIjctk_ll

first

expanding

Ill(, solution

{.\'}

in a "Ia\-l_)r :('ri('-

will,

al)olLt

IIw l:t_._l,

v,_. t,_',2ili t,_

/,_, a>

{.\} = 1-\0} + (_-- t0){-\, } + (L.- _-0_:{.\:} +..

+(_-- _.o)_{.\,} + o {(L.- _.o)'+'
where

{-\'0}

ducing
(8.3).

is the

solution

this expansion
after

some

of (8.2)

into

(8.2)

corresponding

and

manipulations

equating

we find

to the
equal

wavenuml_er/,'u.

powers

of/,'

By intro-

in conjunction

with

that

{Xo}

koA, o'{f,}

{X,}

Ao I [{/,}

{x_}

-Ao'

[A, {X,}

+ A2({Xo}

{x,}

--&-o'

[A, {X,_,

} + A2({X,_2}

(_..I j

A,

{Xo}

2koA2 {Xo}]

(s..5)

+ 2ko {X,})]

+ 2ko {.\',__ })]

with

-&-o= Ao +

Expressions
system
may
be

at the
be needed

stored

impedance
of the
(the

(8.5)

computations

.\'f(/,').

to as the

wavenumber

as indicated

out-of-core

entry)

referred

prescribed

computational
pth

are

in (8.5),

for the

The

(k0).
this

inversion

an

only a single

entry
can

in the
of {X_(k)}
then

whereas

explicit

is used

of AWE.

interested

moments

moments

Although

typically

above

(s.G)

system

implementation

we are
domain,

_2

4- koA2

]goAl

inversion

repeatedly

Also,

given

field value
needs

be reduced

(8.6)

and
that
at one

is the
of Ao _

can

for input
location

be considered,
to scalar

thus

form

say
and

l:ff
the expansion:so]ution

(_.5i

at k0.

moments

h_+come e_scalar

"Io \ie[d

a Illore

to a Pad/_ expansion,

special

case

of the

qlh order

where

a, and

by partial

1 -4--b,(k

analysis,

fraction

cxl)r(,ssiolL,

an expansiotl

],'o) + a2(k

- k0) + b2(k
q) are

it is observed

raliutlal

is gi\etL

t'o) _ + ...

to as the

that

[82.84]

rcvctt

I[_,

itl fotnt.

:\

hv
t'_t "_

+ b_(]," - k,)_

Padb

the Padb

ilt>tt,at]
t'utlcliotl

+ a,_(t -

- k0) 2 + ...

referred

decomposition

wc carl

is a conx('nliotLal

of such

b+ (i = 0.1 .....

For transient

convergciit

which

ao + at(k
.;'(k)

r,_'pre_c'nt at i_;tt of .\';+ k + at,,.,tzt tits. _,.,rr_-..t,,,_,iit_,..:

(_.T)

coefficients.

expansion

can t>c rcfortnltlalcd

as
q

= x+ 0+

t+- t-o- t-,

(s.s)

i=l

where

Xq0 is the

tation

suitable

(r, and
and

important

a better

residues

and

k0 from

the

origin,
accurate

merical

svstem,

of Pad6

expansion

mav

hybrid

to instead

beauty

element
because

with

accuracy

a more

generate

plane

number
can

be found

involved

be associated

attractive

is the

can
finite

the

expansion

which

the

be much
of AWE

method.

for instance
-

boundary
the

smaller

relies

to the

point

that

and

on the

usually

dominant

on the

real

needed
of the

(Detailed

In gen-

analysis

axis

to obtain
original
and

nu-

theory

in [85].)
integral

full}- populated

complex

of AWE

residues)

poles

poles
system

approximation.
and

than

aim

physical

residues

(and

represen-

residues

original

of the

closest

of poles

this is the

The

of the

accuracv
system

in a complex

in practice

to those

more

Since

Clearh.

transformation.

the

contains

approximation.
located

to infinity.

correspond

in determining

expansion

poles

a sufficiently

is more

k tends
domain

or (8.8)

roles

order

provides

For

when

for time/frequency

higher

AWE

value

ko + hi) in (8.7)

play

eral,

limiting

submatrix

dependence

the full submatrix

system,

the

implementation

of the

on frequency.

by introducing

overall
In this

a spectral

of
system

case

it is

expatlsiotl

of the exponenlia] boundary inte_ral k'rlwlt<,facililat,' *h,' _'x_1a,_i,,l,<,1I_1,'-x-t,.l_

nloments. lhi> approach does increaselhv conlt,licalioI,> f<,t in_t,h'll,,'I:i1,'.:.\\VE
It howeverremainsfar
to the

conventional

rnore elCfici'nl in lernl>

approach

of ('l'l

to continuous]v

requirvlnenl.-

repealing

the

_vlmn collltmTc<

solulion

of t]u'

elixirs'

system.

8.3

Numerical

hnplementation

As an application
the

evaluation

rectangular
a strong

of A\VE

of the
cavity

input

of AWE's

The

cavity

shielded

resides

on a 0.3.5cm

0.79crn

wide

at the

perfectly

and

absorber

was

alreadv

demonstrated

The
finite

element

reference

in conjunction
to approximate

(PEC)

up

and

and

from

1 to 3 GHz

the

the

stub's

in a metallic

input

example

impedance

is therefore

4th

reference

chose
order

wall

is

a good

and

response.

the

stub

single

was first

8th

intervals
input

order
As

seen

the

cavity

In this
problem

AWE

is

having

the

artificial

than

FEM

to es-

system

analysis

was

[86].

using

a full wave

to serve

solution

representation
the

stub

is terminated

rather

(50 points)

in fig. 8.3.

The

study

computed

impedance

stub

absorber

numerical
circuit

microstrip

of 3.2.

by' an artificial

forced

at 40MHz

the

that

for microwave

shielded

the

constant

#_ = (1.0. -1.0).

accurate

of the

Vv'e then

back

Nevertheless

response

with

ion. we consider

shielded

in size and

We note

an appropriate

interface.

valid

solution.

this

a dielectric

1.8 GHz.

(3.2, -3.2)

for setting

code

and

the

1.06crn

having

conductor

matched

frequency

GHz

x 6.00cr,_

substrate

of e_ =

a perfectly

stub

As expected,

1-3

A/2 long at about

tablish

microstrip

simulat

capability.

thick

used

electromagnetic

for

8.1.

from

is 2.38em

electric

constants

in fig.

of frequency

demonstration

relative

impedance

as shown

function

to a full wave

at

1.78GHz

given
4th

as the

order

in (8.8)
A\VE

C_'])Ie'_'IIt atioll

i._ iT]

/-ton!,_'enwtll ',_,il h t }if" r_'al al](] rt'a(1 i',,_' t_a_l - t_l ltnt, l_'[t'I,'[_( _' iTlt_llt

iml,edarwesolutiol]
shows

that

accuracy
AWE
both

the

impedance
order

AWE

original

to the

real

and

computations
products.

are near]y

order

Thus,

magnetic
svstem
numerical

over

that

t_]e

etlt

the ('])I

the same except

of these product

q and therefore

that

to demonstrate
point.

to so]re the system

the

simulation
is required.
systems

be considered

Surprisiligly.

loll

solut

li,i>

ch._,rl\

ill th,' c't,tl_l_l_' 1, l,l_ttk,' h'_,_l _t, al_

reactiw'com]_olwnts.

\",'e also observed

once at one frequency

band.

poles

r_'_.l,_'_ti\_'l_,

ire

tlw _ltl ordor

baIld

I-:{(;]1/

requircnlent,,,

for

a low

operati(ms

mnch

smaller

A\VE

efficiency

for

for-lt]_

n_ozo times

of

is ill the order

of

thaw the

size of the

system.

It is also apparent

compared

3:9_; t,al,duidtl,,

system

The number

approximation

when

and

the reference

components.

numerical

system

5(;';
of llw

represent at ion recovers

matrix-vector

will

about

contributions

difference

and 8th

the

over

AWE

The save of CPU

conventionally

representation

codes and packages

The

development

and multiple
in the future.

the

time

and utility

parameter

useful

a wideband
of the

simulation

solved

the

can be easily estimated

for each frequency

is an extreme])"
when

we only

addition

frequency
method

over the entire

for

can be readily

to electro-

response
more

of the

complex

extended

and

l ltl

1.06 cm
,--Jr

2.38 cm

Figure

S.l"

Illustration

of the

shielded

microstrip

stub

excited

with

a current

pro],('.

i
50
t/

45
1 /
/
4O
/

/"

_35

/t

l//

25

20

15

10'

,:2

,:,

1:_

1:8

frequency

Figure

8.2:

Impedance

calculations

shielded

microstrip

and

dashed

the

computations

using

stub
line

are used

traditional

shown

denotes

2:2

2:,

2:_

2:B

in GHz

in figure

the

as reference

imaginary

FEM
8.1.

frequency
Solid

part

for comparisons.

line

of the

analysis
is the
solutions.

real

for a
part
These

111

45

_25_

, ,"--__._________
-"

-_h /
/ /

I-_-o
L--'w_-'''_r

,/,'

15k

,oh, ........
1

1.2

1,4

1.6

"-.

i
--1

1.8
2
2.2
trequency in GHz

24

2,6

2.8

(a)
50

i-:o

45

40

gas
830
g
E 25

2O

15
IIIIII

10

1.2

1.4

24
frequency

26

2.8

in GHz

(b)
Figure

8.3:

4th order and 8th order AWE implementations

sion at 1.78 GHz are shown to compare
with
the 4th

order

achieved
tations,

for the

Imaginary

with

solutions,

real

respectively.

excellently,
(b)

AWE

the
Part

(a)

and

It is also
reference
computations

56% and

data

using one
reference

33% bandwidth

imaginary
shown

the

(b)
that

over

parts
the

the

8th

entire

point expandata.
With

agreement

can be

of impedance
order
band.

compu-

solutions
(a)

Real

agree
Part

CHAPTER

IX

Conclusions

9.1

Discussion

During
pected

the

and

period

tational
made

the

issues

of physical

of results,

lack

demands,
during

were

systems,

We can

course

Work

the

hybrid

frequently

finite

data

Among

of mathematical

state

Some

methods,

for comparison,

comfortably

of this work.

element

encountered.

development

of measurement

etc.

the

Research

of developing

unexpected

understanding
tation

on

that

ex-

are

tile

them

models,
and

many

interpre-

increased

significant

progress

of our accomplishments

colnpuhas

been

are

summarized

were

mathemati-

below.

GENERAL
Once
cally

PURPOSE

the

FE

and

formulated,

HYBRID
BI

The

(SDRC-IDEAS)

mesh

geometry

and

geometrical
trary

be used

meshing

and

It is this

to simulate

was

was
The

an 3 planar

then

developed
task

of the

conformal

142

hybrid

FE-BI

of printed

version

DEVELOPMENT
method

devoted

the

latter

meshing

general

the

between

generator
data.

METHOD
and

effort

interface

modeling

shape.

subsystems

a major

two subsystems.

FE-BI

to the
program

with
was

antenna.

and

minimum

important

antenna
FE-BI

integration

a commercial
but

sufficient

in permitting

configurations
code

of the

that

can

the

of arbi(in

theory)

1t3
I"rI-:RA'rI\'ESYSTEMSOI.\'ER
A nmn,orv saving algorithm I-I-PA('I'_was inte;twin,'d witiz t],," ltvt,_i,I tli_l
subsvslen_to regisler on]\ the non-zero FE.M entries. The l{i('(;

itcrativ,.

solver was independently developedfor partially sparseand Imrtialt\ full n_atrices in conjunction with the ITPA('K algorithm.
UNIFORMGRIDBI SUBSYSTEM
-- BICG-FFT
To facilitate the efficient storageand evaluation of the BI sub-system,a uniform right triangular zoning schemefor discretization of the boundary integral
equation wasintroduced by re-numberingthe triangle edgesasdictated by t heir
geometricallocations. This approachleads to a BI sub-systemwhich could be
cast as a 2-D discreteconvolution, thus allowing useof FFT for fast execution
of the iterative solver. This truncation/termination the "exact" evaluation of
rectangular and right-triangular patches:.
NON-UNIFORMBI SUBSYSTEM
-- OVERLAY-BICQ-FFT
For non-rectangularpatches,an interpolation schemewasproposedto makeuse
of the efficient BiCG-FFT techniqueby overlayinga fictitious uniform grid with
the original arbitrary mesh. The forward/backward transformation matrices
to account for field interpolations using localized basisfunctions were derived
and they wereindeedhighly sparse.
FEED MODELING
Feedmodelingis oneof the most important and challengingtasksin the context
of the general purpose FEM. To this end, a seriesof commonly used feed
structures weremodeledusing the hybrid technique,especiallyin consideration
of efficiency

and

accuracy.

These

include

probes/generators,

aperture

coupled

1t-t
slotline, microstrip line. coax cal_lc,etc.
PRISMATI("FE.M EI.EMENIS INCORPOltATI()\
A major problem in any hybrid FE._I analysis i> tlm re(tit,us i_l,.-l)I_,(v,>il_.,.:
for mesh generation. Thin laver substrates in the presenceof _hi(k
are

often

found

configuration
used.

leads

To

and

certain

to large

alleviate

developed

these

MESH

using

ability

of the

similar

FEM

ORDER
been

elemenls

does

are

elements

formulation
not.

It can

as a subsystem

technique
the

studies

were
exhil)ils

therefore

module.

be readily

accom-

due to the geometrical

adapt-

PML

were

circuit

may

was

carried

simulations.

truncation

truncation

APPROXIMATION--Ate,

reported

varying

the

promise
its

This

simulation

Hence

mode
mesh

letrahedral

typical

AND PML

to microwave

dominant

this

(DMT),

first

introduced

out

to optimize

In the

FEM

domain

and

VLSI

applications.

this

technique

the

meantime,

was proposed

of the

into

an

and

im-

for microstrip

structures.

highly

we consider

hybrid

PML

FEM

However.

edge-based

FEM

medium

performance

as an alternative

Given

tetrahedral

Various

plemented

has

tetrahedral

elements.

approach,

and

system.

tetrahedral

analytical

AWE

hybrid

anisotropic

of the

REDUCED

when

_3,rlWH DMT

application

and

systems

in the

the proposed

the 3-D FEM.

lines

numerical

prismatic

the

or other

plished

designs.

that

to compensate

uniaxial

antenna

the

incorporated

TRUNCATIONS

conformal

difficulties,

features/advantages

be used

The

in practical

spa('('l(sl

useful

frequency
of the

application

in RLC
responses,

method

rE

for broadband

to electromagnetic

is particularly

simulations
system.

For wideband

of VLSI
In

particular.

efficient.
circuits,
AWE

l -t7)

was

incorporated

the

air rac!ive

into

lilt" finile

feat ures

elemelll

of AWE

are

mmhod.

11 wa> i_d,,'d

mainlained

wh(,xl used

,,I,-,.r\,,,l

in (,h,ct

tt_al
i("

l'Olll_tll('|

problems.

9.2

Suggestions

The

following

element

for

is a list

ORDER

ADAPTIVE

MIXED

tasks

EDGE-BASED

ELEMENTS

for further

dexelot)mcnt

of the

tinile

MODULAR

finite

magnetics)

either

technique
loses

TRUNCATIONS

AND INTEGRATION

capacity

for the

are still on the

(such

its efficiency

It is anticipated

scale

INVESTIGATIONS/APPLICATIONS

ROBUST

methods

in practice

purpose

will be desired,

FEM

OF MORE

element

any general

limited

DEVELOPMENT

(WITH

USER INTERFACE)

Development

lems encountered

problems.

LOSS)

DEVELOPMENT

Modular

Hybrid

FEM

AND INTERFACE

(WITH

INCORPORATION

in large

of suggested

ELEMENTS

ANISOTROPY

the

Tasks

methods

HIGHER

9.3

Future

that

particularly
computations

and

way to reach

or becomes

efficiency

in engineering

stage
more
and

available
when

of the
and

speed

design.

electromagnetic

its maturity.

incapable

current

resources,

when

of various

as the commercially

at the

of computing

analysis

FEM

more
become

prob-

As well known,

software

in electro-

simulating

intricate

development

specialized
a key

with

techniques
consideration

1t(;

With

a whole

then

consider

this

FEM

tions.
robust

._'I of ._peciMly

to creale

modular

in the

an imegrat

environment

A well designed

developed

and

ion enviro,mwm.
for

modular

l_'dlI,iqm'>

finite

fulure

A_ .-hown

coml)utalional

element

nwt la,&,l_,_i_'>.

met hods

_,***'>l,_,,lld

in tig. _. t. wc pi,_l,_,._.

_'l('c'1 romagm'1

will be the

inosl

ic al_l_lica-

cal)al,h'

future!

FEM Multi-Module

Environment

User Interface

_.

Mesh

User's Modules

bricks
prisms
FEM Modules
tetras

/ Truncation
I
Modules

Modules
FeedLine )

[
_'_ost

Figure

9.1:

Processor_'_

Multi-modular

FEM

environment

alld

APPENDICES

147

ll"

APPENDIX

Evaluation

Referring

of Matrix

to Fig.

A.1

and

the

Elements

associated

table,

for

the

Tetrahedrals

fields

in the

_th

letral_edron

nodes/vertices

(a)
Table
Edge
Numbering

Vertex

Numbering

il

i2

1
1
1
2
4
3

2
3
4
3
2
4

(b)

Figure

A.I:

(a) A tetrahedron.

(b) its local

node/edge

numbering

scheme

are expanded

as

Cw;

E = _
where

the

basis

functions

V_*I are given

+gr-,

>:r

by

rCl_

W_-_,(r)
I

fT-

outside

element

bT-i

r, 1. r, 2 position

61_ r,_ r, 2

vectors

of vertices

il and

i, (s<'c "lal,h,)

b,br_,
g7_2

---

--

ei

(r,_ -

ri, )

b,
]r, 2 - ri_] = length
I/_

We note

element's

of the

edge

(see Table)

volume

that
V.W_

indicating

ith

that

W_

=0

V" x W_

are divergenceless.

= 2gi

Furthermore,
(
)

w_(1J) _, = _/

where
that
the

r j has
the

its tip on the

coefficients

jth

edge

of the

E/_ = E _i represent

i=j

ij

tetrahedron.
the

average

This
field

last

value

property
at the

ensures
ith

edge

tetrahedron.
Using

elements

the
Ai_.

above

basis

functions,

we now proceed

with the

derivation

We have

/f/

Z(v

x W_)

(V x W_)=

4
--g,

g iI_

of the

matrix

of

.-\ ]so.

w:-w;

"p

a,.

r_-tg
=

(_(I_

r!}

di

+ 12 + 1::)

where
D=(f,

gj)+(fj

x g,)

and

Since

f is a constant

Ii

ffj

f,.f,d,'

12

j j/

r. Ddc

/3

j//

(g,

vector,

11 reduces

r)-(gj

to

11 = f,-fj

To evaluate

where

xi,

vertices

I,';

12 we first, set,

9i, zi (i =

and

Li are

That

is, Li is the

other

than

standard

r)dt'

the
formula

i=1

i=1

i=1

1,...

the

and

denote

simplex

normalized

ith,

,4)

the

for volume

the

(z,y,z)

coordinates
volume

point

integration

of the

functions

for the

or shape

of the

(z,y,z)

coordinates

tetrahedron

located
within

within

formed
the

a tetrahedral

Dx

xi + D v
i=1

by its three

element

y, + D:
i=1

z,
i=1

same

tetrahedron.

we have

12 = T

tetrahedron's

and

element.
corners
Using

the

simplifying,

w}lr,re /].,

is l}w 11_Ih (ompolwlil

use of basic

13

vector

g, ' g_ f

of D.

identities.

]rlZ dc - j

\%

"lh_" m alu_,lh,z_ _,f/,

ca1_ I., >ilIIt,lili,',t

1,_ it_,,

t_ave

(g, ' rt(gj

" r)ch '

_:,,,.
'<
where
can

gim represents
be easih

. ,

the 771th component

evaluated

analytically

of the vector

and

the

restllt

g,.
can

.
Each

of l}le al>o\e

be expressed

inl>gial>

in lhe

general

form

ala,_ dv = 20
"e

for l,m
variables

1,...,3.

x, y, z.

The

al, a_i +
i=1

parameters

at or a._ can

Oh
I=l

ami
/=1

represent

any

of the

rectilinear

15'_'

APPENDIX

Evaluation

The

explicit

by (3.12)

of the

representation

and

can

Bpqi'=2/fr
where

G0(r,r')

triangle

pair

it should
over

/fr

Integral

boundary

integral

System

subsystem

matrix

is given

as

(-k_Si.S,+VxS,.VSj)Go(r.r')dF,'dS

is tile free
5'p as shown

space

Green's

in fig. 3.3.

be recognized

the

Boundary
Matrix

of the

be rewritten

that

the

function,

Similar

definition

(B.1)

and

to the finite

T,p is the
element

of (B.1)

virtually

the

region

pth

triangle

assembly
involves

of the

procedure.

an assembling

triangles.

To proceed,

(3.14)

is used

to discritize

field

and

thus

its curl

is given

by

x Si(r)
where
located
Given

e(r)

is defined

inside
the

by' (3.15).

the pth

Green's

triangle

function,

'2_r' p

.4 i .4j

that

in a planar

when

surface

deriving

JA,

(B.2),

is considered

it is straightforward

_:gUj //
bTrAp.4q

Note

(B.2)

= e(r)A/--_'_p5

to express

//(r-r,').(_-r;)_,(r)_:(

and therefore
the

matrix

r) _

_i(r)%(r)

q'

fact

that

r is

V.r

= 2.

entries

as

_-jkoR

the

_'

dS' dS
(B.3)

17,3

in which
terms
Tf

B' =

ir -

r'i.

bv numerical

integrations.

. the integrands

the singularity
subtracting

/_T,

Tl,_,se integral>

become

should

/_T

]I i> also ot,,er\ed

singular

For the second

an additional

- ) ko R
; --_,(r)%(r)

one

first

integral

term.

dS' dS'

in (B.4)

is carried

out

That

If.

ff:

f:

[55].

-elf

ct,ll
witIi

Iii thi-

ca_c.

lhi.- is accoi_lpli>[,,d

lw

is

e-jk_n-l_'(r)_J(r)dS''d>',,
/IT _
H
)

is evaluated

analytically

R,v ta,Ii

t]_at t,i_c_' "I': ct_ilwid_'-

inlegral,

The

_'valtlat_'_l

because of the Green'.,, fulwtioil.

be removed.

and adding

tax1 I,e readilv

-_,(r)_(r)dS"dS'

using

Similarly,

numerical
the first

(B.-t)

integrations
integral

and

in (B.3)

the

second

is rearranged

as

e-jkoR

(r-

r'i).

(r -

rj)G(r)o(r)_

dS'd_

/fT_fLq

in which
singularity
form

[55].

the

first

removed

(r -- r'i).

integral
and

dS' dS;

(r-r'i)'(r-r'J)ei(r)ej(r)e-jkR-lR

on
the

the

second

(r - rj)G(r)ej(r)_

right

hand

one again

side
may

dS' d_q

is numerically
be expressed

(B.5)

integratable
in a simple

with

analytical

15 1

APPENDIX

Formulation

For

FEM

for

implementation,

P_

where

the

curls

are given

Right

Angle

the

following

quantities

_,,VV_.VV_dI"

Prisms

are

required

by

li

v v,

2_'_: [(* - *+)_+ (y - >)9 - z(: - :c)]

vv,

-2s_

v x vk

= 2S--g[(xk_ - zk_)2 + (yk2 - yk_)9]

i = 1,_.a

li

[(.-xj)_+(y_yj)9+_(:_+A:_:)]

j=4.5.6

(c.3)

To

this

represent

end,

we follow

the

k, k'=7,8,9
be analytically

top

stand

the

triangle
for the

evaluated

notation
edges,

vertical
and

defined

in (4.13)

j,j'=4,5,6
three

denote

edges.

we tabulate

k = 7, s, 9

the

Pii'

Cii,

Dii,2__z

P#,

Cjj,

[ Djj,A:+

and
the

It is found
results

(4.14),

bottom
that

where
triangle

(C.2)

and

i.i'=1.2.3
edges

and

(('.3)

can

as follows

4-_(_:)_ 1

q- 3 _

a4"_(A:)3]
_

(('.4)
(C5)

17"17)

..__2

tL._:, -

? . t_'

45'

t;:

Pzk

P:, =-C,,

l) ....

Pkz--

Pkj--

l;

[_ i*(s'-v - ._,_)+ b. ?(."}

_11

('._"

(-_. (_x:_ :_

z, [._-.?(_.v
.r,:V_
? >'_
'_"
4(_g"):
)+._" (
-'"
)]

'

- u;>_ )]

('.9

(('.10
(C.11

(___:)3

Qii,

QJJ'

--

C,i,Dii,

(C.1_')

('j:,Djj,

(c.la)

(A:) 3
3

(c.]4)

AzS_Tkk,

Q,j

QJi -- (_)3

Qik

Qk,=Qjk=Qkj=O

Qkk'

(C.15)
Ci.i Dij

(C.16)
(C.17)

where

The

Tkk,

Cii

D_j

remaining

1/6

fork=k';

1/12

for

kT/:k'

lilj

(c.]s)

4(S_Az) 2
_q.X

quantities

(x, + xj)SX
in the

+ x,xj,_
above

S_

SX

+ S}"}"

list of the

(yi + yj)5}

expressions

fs_

dxdy

x dxdy

are

+ yiyj5
defined

as

l')t,

.,4)

?".\

These integrals
('\",

a triangle

are

_,,

.5'.\')

_,.rgd.rd!l

in terms

_ )- Specifically.

in counterclockwise

of the global
assuming

rotation,

dxdy

= y

(X_ + Xj

a',

y,

:ra

Ya

.r,_

y_

, z dxdv

v &@ = T (); + U + _;_)

s . ,_d_dy= _
"5'_{(x,

SYY

so,_xdv= _
""q_{(_

jfs

xydzdY=_2{(X,

the

three

of the three
llOd('s

],j

+ .\'., )

+ x, + xm )2 + (.v_+ _v,
_+ .,:.,)}
.2
+ __+ _:,)2+ (_?+ V- + _,,,)
-2 }
+ xj + xm)(X

+ (x,}; + x,).; + x=_L)}

+ _; + Y_)

llodcs

all(l in of

have.

coordinates

thai

we then

= 1

SXX

SXY"

,r 2 d.rd!/

Js- !t" drdg

SY

d,r d.q

S_=

SX

{,..q

.5'})

can be expressed

}; )" ('\'a" }J )" (-\'-,')

.\"

") 7

APPENDIX

System

Referring

to fig. 2.2. we begin

5r(H)
to derive
sition

the

1
= 2

d+a1+a,

system

in terms

H = H _cat

5r(HSCat'HinC)

where
the

the fact
integral

assumed,

Derivation

that

of the
it then

in free

H inc,

with

the

of the

the

(HSC_t'H_t)

(H_t,H_nc)

Hinc does
same

form

invoking

the

dft

field.

On inserting

ad+aj+n_--'--4-tN_cat'
a, +(H'n_'H_at)

not

the

(D.1)

field decompo-

becomes

exist

in f_

as in (D.1).

has

H,,,c)

Hscat)

f_a

a,
been

Once

nd+( Hinc.

(D.2)

considered,

and

a self-adjoint

(,)

system

represents
operator

is

that

HS_t)

a, = (H'_t'

Hin_) nd

(D.3)

Hi'_c)lnl

(D.4)

Q f,

(Hi'_c, H *c_t) nj=

Upon

A Functional

functional

scattered

functional

follows

space

From

VxH.G-VxH-k2H'_,-H

(Hi'_'

Also,

divergence

theory,

(H_at,

we have

H '_td

--

H
l

scat"

( :-,
5_ s

"VH

52

" V

( y

i'_

Hinc

dS

dfi'

(D.5)

I2vid('ntlv.
via

for a _(,If-aljoinT

(;alerkiE)'s

n,etl,od.

operator.

II shoul<l

c(,)iditions,

the

In the

of a non-se]f-adjoint

case

system

given

terms

of the

?(H)

self-adjoinl

by (:2.42)
scattered

_>))(.v('a(lilx
l,e )a,ted

property

field

same

_l,' >\-_('ll_,

l,'>id(,-

)h('

Ol)(.rator

it is generally

manner.

is of the

This

l,_,tlmlar\

>illll,]y

not

2.12,

,)))tai),',l
_rall>i)i,)))

r('(luirv>

I)OSsil,]( , to r('('ox('r

is })ecause

the

functional

ilk('

(I).2)

in

as that

in

form

_+n:+no

-_

V x

)lla)

of a .-\slt,m

operator,

in the

r(',_,v('r_

.f,l-V

V
x

_)..

-"o*"

'Pd

'H"c

df_

_1 Jn

( Vx

Hin_ _:a

.Vx

H_, t - "o""
b21_ii,,c._

" HSCat)

dQ

H "_'_t"

_1

_::

V x H _''c

dS

It is observed
(2.42).
the
than

that

All other

two integrals
(2.42).

the first integral

integrals

in (D.7)

over domain

shows the same form of the FEM

contribute

to the

9td are not identical,

system

leading

system

excitation.

to a different

Apparently,
FEM

system

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