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Crime Victims
An Introduction to Victimology
SEVENTH EDITION
ANDREW KARMEM
John Jay College of Criminal .lLstite
: WADSWDRTH
CE N GAGE Learning-
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EENEAGE Learning
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Brief Contents
FOREWORD taxi
PREFACE (xiii
1
2
3
1D
11
What Is Victimology? l
The Redistouiery of Crime l.I it:tims 30
Sources of Information about Crime Victims: The
UCR and the MIPS 51
Violent Crimes: Murders and Robberies i0
Victims Contributions to the Crime Problem in?
Victims and the Criminal Justice System: Cooperation
and Conflict; Part 1: The Polioe lI l-Il
Victims and the CriminallustioeSystem: Cooperationiand Conflict:
Part2: Prosecutors. Defense Atton ieys. Judges. and Corrections
officials 163
Children as Victims 153
Victims of Violence by Lovers and Family Members 2.23
Victims of Rape: and Other Sexual Assaults 259
Additional Groups of Victim with Special Problems 29]"
vi
BRIEF CONTENTS
12 Repaying Victims 33613 Victims in the Twenty-First Century: Alte mative Directions III
GLOSSARY 4D9
REFERENCES 1!
NAMEINDEX 32
SUElECTINDEJC Illa-1
*Contents
FCl-IIEWOIID Ill
PREFACE txlii
1 MI! I! MIND-gr? 1
The Flight ol t Irittie Victims 1
Stalin-i]: MM
Dewfepmen: all"
Key Terms ER
Quertimtn J nr Disc-mini. and Debate 6R
Critical Thinking lQuestions 6R
Suggested Research Projects 69
I Violent Crimes: Murder: and Robberies Tl]
Focusing cm Murder-.1 m
lining the UCR tu Analyze Murder: Fl
Stdrfi lillg l lr Crime Wm.- Dtl l ll w Trends in
Interpenwml Violent: FJ
Ciadtluts m: Tt tme it: thtt-u tr Rm: T4
Charity: Mr Time in Allen-muted Muir Ram F5
[INNER-"g Vnhmt zmlt mt Parirrm 7W
Mating International mepdn m ili
Assersing Comparative Risks: Putting Crime into
Pmpective El]
Focusing on Robberies 85
Rainier: and Timr Vt cl t nt: 3.1
[Bing list NEW in Andria ROME?! li
Checking Out Hi im im Mun! Rum An: Tmnnucu
into .I i-fmdws 35
Digs-mt! Rails if er ug Re ned 941
Projecting Cumulative Risks 92
The Sen-ch fur Risk Factor: 35
TIJE Determinants
mlnni Lt yics 9n
Musing Ruth: Him- SdJl iF is 5.953 Emit? 93
Ainlur ml emc mburut Risk Talung 99
Fran! Crime Mull-mt Du Vt tlr mt cdl tun Hewnlr mr 3 9
Cnnlumtlr as Victims T91
thmcm rm-1r as Appiird w Victims HM
Summary 105
Key Terms 1.05
Queru mn for Discussion and Debate l
Critical Thinking Questions 106
Suggested Research PIDjMIR 1.an
CONTENTS
5 Uictlms Cortttibutinns tn the Crlme Problem 10?
The Questim: of hai-eti Responsibility 108
The Carin-users]- Mt Filmed Rnpdmtitl it ljl 110
Vitlim Fctttl it dl tm, MIPIIEIITI-GJIJ tutti P rm-umuicttt 2
Victim Mtrittuiun .atttt Mma utt 3
Tile Fieqmq- ell-Shani R puttsibti iif itt Vitaiirttl Cn mrs fit;
[tin-igniting Cutttpitle innutrtttte .dtltf Fat Re mnsiiuiary 1T5
tl ittitlt Blaming versus Victim Defending 11.7"
Vic-tint Facilitation and hunt Theft.- [1 [t the 1:111:12?
Who Wind Up Careless? 119
Stealing artful Fant cttlrttiI Pm l 11.9
Witnit tuttrttn tr Situuiai Er Mint (untamed Iii-Tarn Parka? 122
Staining tine Vin-inf Facilitating the Crime 1 25
Stolen Identities: Which Tiiefn an: Victim-Facilitated.
and. Which Precautions Are Reasonable? 121i
Tilt! tWI trtE tJritf Pmbitttt 123
Dtj nliml Fiji s uf ummqu d Victim ell-Idem!)- Theft 1 3
Lame: .ItNi Stt irittg Ut
Law and Law En lrtttttettl .132
abusing Vul tmrfw {Quorum Rt sic-an tn titm .idtsjrtptirs 1 33
Victim DefEnding; Ftttiit tall ult it A ur tier Hrcttr
grl itr Problem L16
Transcenditts Viicl tt tt bruins 311d \iitlilll ihfmditts 137
The Leila] littpmtance ul lIIeterniining Responsibility 13-9
Summary 112
Key Tea-rte} 1-12
Questions fun Discussitm and Debate 1-1-3
Critical Thinking Questions 1-1}
Suggested Research Tnpic 14.1
Uictlms and the Etlmhal Justice System: Cooperation
-fdrt- W
Jt nt ECII ITEIITS
11
How the Criminal justice Brill?! Handles Rape Victims 2?4
The Cmtmtersy Mt L Jtl mnn eid Aun li t 2 33
The Agree: versus the Aerated 282
EJrju dtll Ed Pubit rtty rtmf it epmlt lrt .H Nl m thdrdii 2?th
Rare Sitar Last: 235
Fume due Rmttdntr 235
Carmen-ration 22??
Ann, Mmmm, And Asia tlrfitrtll m 28 ?
Cris n ll IenIer-s: Providing Emergency Assistance 2%?
The liediscmery or More Rape Victims 29:]
[Vim aneu lql Jimr Hut tmtit 29f]
Sexually Amniled Aides 29F
lirevenu ng Rape 293
Summary 29-1
Key Terra-i 205
Questions For Discussim: and Debate 295
Critical Thinking Questions 295
Suggested Research Projects 2 36
Additional 6mm! of Victim with Special
Problems 2!?
Victims qurintes Cmnmitted at Scltunl 298
Tilt-eats Fun-alt Ce ege Student-rs 298
Hunter: Fun-r Middle Salim! emf High School Student: 3m:
Individuals Men-acted by Stalkers 311
Stalking: A New Weidfurdir OM Menu 3
Cyhetsl d u f; .4 New Wunf lr at New WWI-1| 314
Targets of Hate lI. .rirrtes: 315
Rt tiihweriuy tr Very if Hutuwn 5
How iHItdl Halt? J M
Cn ttlim uru System Reruns 320
Vic-tints uFWotirplaee 1ll iinlence 321
Slaying: .sr War-Jr 322
Law Eru nrcement Damn Injured and Killed
in the Li"! tilDuty 323
Mm. mm Mm, use", Haw, me Why? 324
shunting Serum}- 32?
12
CON TENTS
Cmuahies ol Temnr urn 32?
rimming tJ ne Tin-mt qFTemrinn 323
Assirtcmee and Rowe-3- 331
Sumnury 334
Keg.I Terms 334
Questions for Discussion and Debate 334
Critical Thinking Questions 33-1
Suggested Research Projects 335
Repaying Victims 335
The Costs oJ Crime 336
Gaining Restitution from Offenders 338
Bath hr Basis 333
The Rise, Fall, and Redistwery af enitutiun 33h
Bil-emu! Gtttttlt. Quitting Hrti wplti t 34f?
O mutu tt er in Maine Rotate-rims 342
Ohstdd es Undennunhrg Reitiruriun 345
Rttt t rtrt itm to Atom 345
Winningju grncnts in Civil Ctturi 3?The Manual grinterest in Cir-ii in nity 54!
The Equation le 343
Miniatures and Home: 35
(Tailoring Dwnqgex mn Third Fame: 352
Collecting Insurance Reimbursements 35-h
Primes Crime Inittmtite 356
Forms grid. Emmi-y. dmf Ritmitunemt nl 555
Federal Crime ism-arr: 35?
Recovering Losses Iltrouglt Victim Compensation Programs 153
The History I! Valium Cmn uerjmniun by (mu-intents 353
The Debate am Cmnpemoriun tn the United States 359
Haw WM Opel-me.- Similarities and D eltmr 3m
i l-i aunwn ug III-1d Emlmroity Cttttmtrjs l t w Moduli 363
Pon scating lrolits from Notorious Criminals Fifth
Writing and Returning rile Lin.- 36?
Smlllluly 368
Key Terms 360
Quextiom Jor Dixcuuion and Debate 36*?
CONTENTS
Critical Thinking Questions iii-l:
Suggested Research ijens .iin
13 Uictlms In the natty-Fits! Cattury:
Direcllons 33 1
llet-naive
ndyg
at Sperm,
%
Boxes, Tables, and Figures
BOXES
5011.1
Boot 1.2
Ba! LII
Boot LII
50.111
5512.2
Boot-LI
Butt-ll
51115.1
Box 5.2
Ba! 5.]
Butt: ILI
Bax Ll
5917.2
51:th
What the Police Mean by the Term
Uictimolugy 11
Table 15
Table :15
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 5.]
Table 5.1
Table 5.1
Table 6.2
Table 5.]
Table EllTable 5.5
How Often Are Children Kidnapped. and
What Happens to Them? .100
The Controversy Surrounding Widely Held
"Rape Myths" 268
The System s Shortcomings from a
Victims Ploint chiet-t Zilli
A limeline of Some of the Worst Campus
Shootings it]?
Dramatic Examples of lVictim Activism 3H
Estimated Victimization Rates from the UCR
and the NEWS. 2006 65
Murder Rates across the Globe:
Selected Countries Bl
Murder Rates across the Globe:
Selected Cities 33
Comparing le Rislts of Death Posed by Crime.
Accidents. and Certain Diseases. ZED-E Bull
Yearly Estimates of Murders Committed
During Robberies 90
Robbery Rates for Various Groups. 21106 91
Chances of Becoming a Victim over a Lifetime Bull
Which Vehicles Were Stolen Most Frequently
During 2005? I23.
Vehicle That-t Rates in US. Cities. 2116? 124
How Victims of Identity Theft Were Harmed.
Nationwide. 21106 129
States Where Residents Faced
le Highest
Figure 11.5
Figure 12.1
Figure 12.2
Trends in Motor Vehicle Theft Rates in the
United States. 19232006 122
Trends in Rape Rates in the
United States. 19732336 222
Trends in Murders of Students at Middle Schools
and High Schools in the United States. School
Years, 1992 to 2005 310
Trends in Work-Related Murders
in the United States. 1992-260? 3231
Trends in Murders of Lain.I Enforcement Offioers
in the United States. 1923-201]? 32-1
Why Df ficers Were Murdered or Injured.
1992-20116 3.26
Casualties of Terrorism. 198432005 3.30
Opportunities for Restitution 3113
Case Attrition. Funneling or Shrinkage:
The Leaky Net 3-
*Foreword
"Wliar abovr die I-ittim?"
Thismay seem like a mundane quescion, but most ofthe time, when we hear it, we
are hearing a rhetorical way to advocaoc for a philosophy ofjusticc. one that ta
kes
account ol the problems. and costs suffered by victims ofcrime. 1While the pligh
t of
victims of crime is an old one, the philosophy that embraces. the plght as a_jus
tice
priority is. not. For most ofchc history ol our nation. viccims ol crime were la
rgely
invisible in the criminaljuscice process. The very way we referred to cruninal c
ases.
Wilton at. State, made clear an overriding idea that criminaljustice was concern
ed
with a. controversy hemeen a defendant and the stanc. Victbns, if they were considered at all. were only important as. potential wioresses. in chat controversy
.
Beginning in the last third of the twenciech century. however. this isolation
of victims. from the Justice process began to change. 1With concern about the
rising crime rate in the 19sz and. FREE: came an increasing interest in the impa
ct
of crime and the criminal. juscice process on viceims. Perhaps this concern was
inevitable. as. rising rates. ol crime meant there were increasing numbers of cr
ime
victims, families with victims. and Friends or" victims. many of whom could re
count aIJ-too-l requent negative experiences with the way their cases were handled. The conccrn about victims was. also a bit of a backlash ayinst that same e
ra
when tlte rights of criminal suspects were such a prominent issue in Supreme
Court holdings and public policy dehaacs. And it is also likely that as the LLS.
citizenry came to demand more services in general. it would only he nanJral that
one ol the corneitucncies calling For ltelp would he crime viccirns.
Whatever the causesand there are probably severalvictims of crime be
came an important comcicueney. They also became a significant policical force.
and their cii eco. could be seen in the new cornerstone ol almost every policici
ans
campaign promises: to get "tough on crime." Even people who had never been
victims ol serioLLs crime and knew no one in that category came to believe that
a
tough stance on crime was a vico ml riendly stance on crime. For more titan
Jud
FOREWORD
.HJ years. penalties For crime have become ever more seveHl ten with the_jLLsticacion that a concern For victims required tougher measures aginst offenders. But
this was not the only expression ofpro-victim sentiment in the political arena.
Numerous local victims advocacy organizations were fonned. the most notable
ofwhich might be Mothers itginst Drunk Driving. The federal government established a national office on victims of crime in the L15. Department ofjlustice.
while
many states passed new legislation that enumerated. the rights of victims ofcrir
ne. in
many ways. the latest generation ofcriminal justice has been one dominated by th
e
voice of tlte victim. at least as a symbol of alarm and a call for change. No se
t of
ideas ltas had a more profbund impact on the criminalJustice system in the past
.11] years than has the institutionalized. public concern about the victims ofcr
ime.
its public sentiment about the predicament oE the victim grew. social scien
tists developed an interest in the victim as well. A new field, called victirnol
og y.
was established to investigate all aspects oE victims of crime. om prevalence an
d
demographics to needs and. perspectives. Lessons about the social signi cance of
crime gleaned through an active social science of the victim have reshaped our
understanding of crime and justice. From the time when it became popular to
ask. "What about the victim?" to the contemporary ease with which we embrace
concern about the victim in the justice system. much has changed and much has
been learned. Today, anyone who wishes to be informed in crime and justice
must understand what we know about victims of crime.
That is why I am delighted to announce the Seventh Edition or" Andrew
Karmen s superb. seminal tent: on the topic: Crime Victim: .r lni intnrdarriwr a
s
Homology. liroi essor Karmen was. one of the rst scholars to write about the
problems Eaced by victims, and his book remains one of the most authoritative
and accessible studies of victims available today. This new edition retains the
reliable data, even-handed analysis. and thought-provoking presentation of the
previous editions. It adds completely updated statistics. new discussions of rec
ent
developments in viecimology, and l resh perspectives on the future of the field.
No boolt currently available provides a more balanced, comprehensive. or
reliable discussion of the important oontroversies and. dilemmas in the crimina
l
justice policy and practice regarding victims. This book supports its positions
with data. provides statistics that question starire ol the typical myths about
vic
tims. and provoltes the reader to think. carefully about the importance of the
victims movement for criminal justice policy.
Professor [Carmen s e-arlier editions of this boolt were received with praise.
This new edition continues and strengthens its contribution to our knowledge.
[ commend the book no you. To read it is to have your thoughts and opinions
about crime victims become more informed and more e ective. You will be
changed by this book.
Todd ll. Clear
President oE the rnerican Society of Criminology
Distinguished Professor oE Criminal justice
_]ohn_Jay College of Criminal Justice
City University of New York
*Preface
I ntlte early JJ tls. ] became interested in the victims rights movement that was
campaigning to reform crirninal justice policies. [ wanted to develop a course
about victimology. but I found that no comprehensive and. uptodate textbook
existed. .I tccepo ng the challenge, [ decided to write one.
when ] began the rst edition. it was difficult to locate reliable social science
data or even wellinformed speculation about a number of crucial aspects of
criminal victimization. when I prepared the second edition in the late lJEi-iis.
I encountered the opposite problem. Instead ofa scarcity of material, there was
too much: massive amounts. of data and lengthy analyses. especially about rape.
spouse abuse, child abuse. and elder abuse. Liy the mid-L JJiJs. when ] prepared
the third edition. this "knowledge explosion" had become even more di icuh to
manage. Entire issues of scholarly Journals had been devoted to. and whole
books had been written about, the plight of these victims. When 1 wrote the
fourth edition. the most strilting change that I encountered was how the
Internet could provide readily available and continuously updated information
about a wide variety of victims. ts a result. I added an appendix of websites
that faculty and students could chedt out periodically to find out the latest st
atis
tics and the most recent development. concerning new laws, programs, and ser
vioes. (The appendix for this new edition can be found at www.cengageeomr"
criminaljustice]. The fifth edition introduced readers to the problems faced by
risks. murder rates for LIES. cities. and international comparisons. The peda
gogical tools. Murder Rates .I tcross the Globe: Selected vi lountries I and
"Murder Rates Across the Globe: Selected Cities." have been expanded to
reflect several new sources of data. More information about ganghrelated
murders was added.
Chapter 5. "Victims Contribution to the Crime Problem." presents all sides
of this controversial topic. There is considerably more material on automobile theft. including which cars are stolen most often. and what cities are the
most dangerous for parked cars. which will be of great interest to many
students. [ have also extensively updated the section on identity theft. dis
FRE FACE I
cussing both the statistics. methods. and careless behaviors associated with
this crime. The expanded coverage of these timely topics provides a bridge
to an analysis of rislt reduction and. crime prevention strategies
Chapter G. Victims and the Criminal Justice System; Cooperation and
Conflict: Part 1.: The Police." contains updated material. including several
new cases. and the latest statistics about reporting. stolen property recovery.
and clearance rates (this table includes additional cities and covers ntore
years}. A section on the oode of the streets as it relates to "snitching" should
provoke a lively classroont discussion.
Chapter T". Victims and the Criminal Justice System: Cooperation and
Conflict: Part 2: Prosecutors, lkrense Attorneys. Judges, and Corrections
{J ieials." oontains updated statistics and sornc new. real-life caseL The section on "recognizing second-class treatment" in vietims interactions with
law enforcement now includes a real-life case that compares ltow two
kidnappings were handled by the police.
Chapter 3. Children as Victims," contains expanded discussions and up
dated statistits. especially about missing children and sexually abused
youngsters. Several cases have been added along with new material about
scme abuse in religious communities. The dash between maxintalist and
minimalist perspectives has been expanded.
Chapter 3. "Victims of Violence by Lovers and Family Members" features a
new discussion ofthe dii l erences between criminal and non-criminal forms
of abuse. "Recognizing Wanting Signs" is now a distinct section; this information has been expanded. A section on "The Legislative Response" to
abuse ltas been added. encouraging students to think about how provictint
movements can lead to policy change. The chapter also benefit. from new
cases. and. updated statistieL
Chapter 1.[|I. "Victints ofllapcs and Other Sexual Assaults." contains the
latest stat stics and sonte new. reallife cascs. Early in the chapter, students a
re
encouraged to think about the very language used to describe rapes and
scme assaults, and its implications for victims. The sections on acquaintance
rape, on rape underreporting. and on sexual violence among inmates have
been expanded. Finally. a box identifying rape myths" has been added.
Chapter 1]. "Additional {Zroups of Victints with Special Problents,I has
been reorganized for flow and clarity. The chapter now includes more information about students harmed on campus. including a section on shootings on college grounds {a new box presents a timeline of the worst campus
shootings. and the aftermath of the ZIJEITI and 2lKJH rampagcs is discussed).
The maxintalistminimalist debates surrounding date rapes and drug
facilitated sexual assault have been sharpened. Updated statistics and er:-
tion
Survey and the Flil s thrift-m Crime Report can be found on the Internet. Those
who are interested in monitoring these trends can compare the data as it becomes available on the FBI and Ii-Jli websites to the EEJHIE : statistics [and in
a few
instances. for army that appear throughout this seventh edition.
FRE FACE
USING THIS TERTIOOK
This seventh edition is intended to meet several distinct needs. The optimal sit
uation is to use this text as the foundation for an undergraduate elective cours
e
on victimology that runs For an entire term. In. fact, more than enough material
is provided to sustain even a graduate-level course. If other topics must be cov
ered in either an advanced criminology or criminal justice course. certain victi
m
issues can be selected to address the major concerns of these two disciplines an
d
ofthe general public.
Many discussions are important in criminology. triminaljuscice. policy anal
ysis and research methods. For courses that require a term paper or class projec
t
this edition provides upto-date references. suggestions For short researclt proje
cts
at the end of eaclt chapter. plenty of statistics. and numerous observations abo
ut
problems ofmeasurement and interpretation. The extensive compilation of the
types of victimization that recently have been recognized or arejust waiting to
be "rediscovered" (see the listing at the end of Chapter 2} can serve as a launc
hing pad for exploratory research and term projects. For courses that incorporate
writing requirements via essay exams. several questions for discussion and debat
e
plus a few that stimulate critical thinking appear at the end ofeach chapter. An
in
structor s manual with short answer questions is also available. as are Microsof
t
IJDWELPOIII IED visual aids
HY GROWING CIIEDENIIALS"
AS A CRIME VICTIM
Each time ] revise this textbook. my credentials {un ortunately] broaden and
deepen. Direct experience often is the best teacher and a souree of sensitivity
and insight about life s problems and personal challenges. [n all the prel aces
of the previous editions. 1 listed my credentials not only as a criminologist an
d
vietimologist but also as a crime victim.
] know from personal eneounters what it is lilte to be a victim ofa range of
street and whitecoLIar crimes {tltanltl ully. none of them were really serious}.
In
fact my very first experience was something to laugh at. in retrospect. After [
graduated front college. I got my First car: a brand new 1964 : Mustang. ] drove
it around upstate New Yorlt. where] was attending graduate school. for about a
quarters kept for tolls in an ashtray and some items in the glove
compartment.
Shorrly before the fourth edition was completed, my firmily was the victim
of a con game that turned out to be a rather common scam:
We picked a moving company out ofthe Yellow Pages because it advertised
low rates and accepted credit cards. [should have been suspicious when they
arrived in a rented truclt, but I foolishly signed some papers authorizing
them to charge me for packing materials. While we loaded computer components. valuables. and pets into our cars and shuttled them to our new
house. they quickly used an enormous amount of shrink-wrap and. cardboard boxes on our old fumiture. cheap picture frames. and clothing. 1.II hyen
their rented van arrived at our new home ten miles away. they presented me
FRE FACE
with a bill that was inflated by about SiJlUll worth ofunnecessary pardtaging. Then they demanded irrunediate payment in cash before they would
unload our stuff that Saturday night. or else they would drive away with all
our possessions and charge us for unloading and storage. I called the police
but they insisted it was a business dispute and said that they could not intervene. [ had no choice but to visit several ATMs and. use all our credit
cards and then to hand over the cash. ("in Monday, [ contacted some col
leagues at jothay College of Criminaljusticc who have dose connections
with law enforcement agencies. They made inquiries and warimd me that
this company was known to have mob tics. Because these gangsters literally
knew where we lived. a fear of reprisals intimidated me
om pursuing my
claims about fraud in civil court or through state regulatory agencies or
consumer affairs bureaus. Years later, [ read in the newspaper that some
victims received protection as witnesses for the prosecution and that these
moving scam operators eventually were put out ofbusiness and incarcerated.
By the time I completed the fifth edition. my credentials had grown sorrte
more.
I Just like many other New Yorkers. I knew some victims ofterrorism who
barely escaped death by evacuating the World Trade ( Jenter before the
Twin Towers collapsed.
a My daughter s backpack was stolen by a thief who pried open the trunk of
our automobile after watching her park the car and walk away.
a More importantly. I received just a taste of what it is like to be a victim of
identity theft. The fraud detection unit ofa credit card company called one
morning and asked if anyone in my family had recently charged exactly Hill]
at a department store and Ill) at a eornputer software store about 40 miles
away. When I answered no. and wondered aloud how such round number
amounts could be charged for merchandise that is taxed. they simply said.
"Dont worry. just fill out an affidavit." When the paperwork finally arrived
weeks later, [did what dicy asked and never heard anything about these
peculiar financial transactions again.
liy the time the sixth edition came out. ] had received plenty of fraudulent
e-mails [called "phishing"see the discussion ofidencitytheft in Chapter ] ll warn
ing me that I must immediately update my account at some bank or credit card
company or eliay before it is oaen. Ii-esides these pathetic attempts to con me.
very litde else happened. which probably re ected the nationwide drop in crime
that has lowered virtually everyones risks ofbeing victimized {see Chapter 4).
However, while preparing this seventh edition, my family was victimized
twicein other countries ! My daughter s car was broken into near a museum
in Montreal. Canada. and her husbands digital camera was stolen (and [ paid a
hefty bill for a new door lock and. rear window for the damaged vehicle). In
Londons theater district. a pickpocket defdy removed my wifes wallet from
her backpack (see Chapter I]. Fortunately. although she lost some cash and her
driver s license. whoever ended up with her credit cards was not able to purchas
e
PREFACE
anything or steal her identity. Meanwhile. back home. [ suspected that someone
entered our car one night wltilc it was parked unlocked in our driveway because
the glove compartment was open the next mooring. .As far as I could tell, nothing was taken. Sure enough. the next night the thief returned and stole the re
mote for our garage door opener from the car s sun. visor while we were eating
dinner. Fortunately. just an hour later I discovered that the remote was missing
due to my habitual carelessness about locking my car door [see Chapter 5]. so I
disconnected the garage door opener. I did not report these two minor matters
to the police. The incidents in Montreal and London were reported to the au
thorities, but they have not contacted us, so presumably the car thief and the
pickpocket were never caught and our stolen property was not recovered (see
Chapter fr:|.
One other recent incident is worth recounting because it is humorous:
I [keep my canoe chained to a raid: at the town beach during warm weather.
[ came down one hot summer day to do some paddling and discovered that
someone had stolen the chain and the padlockbut the canoe was undamaged. ilo figure!
Obviously. victimization is rarely a laughing matter. Others have suffered far
more severely than] have; some survive lifeshattering events and endure devas
tating losses. But these many brushes with an odd assortment of offenders over
recent decades ltave sensitized me to the kinds of expenses. emotional soesses.
and physical injuries that taken together constitute the victim s plight." I susp
ect
that many victimologists and victim advocates have been drawn to this humanistic
discipline because their own painful experiences inspired them to try to allevia
te
the suffering of others.
AHCILLARIES
To further enhance the teaching of victimology courses. the following supplements are available to qualified adopters. Please consult your local sales repre
sen
tative for details.
Instnacmrs. Resource Manual with T s! Banlt
By Debra Heath-Thornton of Messiah College. Prepare for class more quickly
and effectively with such resources as detailed chapter outlines. learning objec
tives, key terms. lecture suggestions, and handouts. A Test Bank with more than
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FRE FACE mi
Mltnasn
What Is Victimology?
The Flight of Crime Victims
Studying Victimization Scierni caillyr
Why Objectivity l5 Dairdale
W s-rims or Offenders?
Cn mr nek as I- crirns
thims Versus "Good Guys"
Sources of Bias
W rrhrrniegfs tirade-served Ha-d
Reputation"
The Origin of rl is:l:irnolog_yI
victimology (unpaired
to Criminology
Parafiels Between Criminology
and lri crimalogjr
Difference: and Bomdaries
The inter-lace with Other
Disciplines
Divisions within the Discipline
Why Study Ir ictfmology?
What V Ktimologisls Do
Etep 1 ; identity. Define. and
Describe the Problem
Step 2: Measure the True
Dimensions of the Problem
Etep 3; Investigate How victims
Are Han-tiled
Step It; Gather Evidence to Test
Hypotheses
Seminary
THE FLIGHT OF CRIME VICTIMS
The concept or a "victim" can be traced [rack to ancient societies. [t was colt
nectod to the notion of sacri ce. in the original meaning; of the term. a victim
was a pelson or an animal put to death during a Ieligious ceremony in ordel to
appease some supernatural power or deity. Clver the centuries. the word has
picked up additional meanings. Now it commonly refers to individuals who suffer injulies. losses. oI haldships :Iirr anyl reason. leopJe can become victims o
f
accidents. natulal disasters. diseases. or social problems such as warfare. disc
rimination. political witch hunts. and other injustices. Crime victims are ltarnted
lay
illegal acts.
2 error-ten I
Wetimizacion is an asymmetrical interpersonal relationship that is abusive. painful. destnac
tive. parasitical. and unfair. While a crime is in
progress, offenders temporarily force their victims
to play roles (almost as if following a scrith that
iilctlmoiogy s Uodeserved
Bad Reputation
As the pletlious sections demonstrated. objectivity is
desirable within victimology. ironically. many outsidcrs do not approach the eld of victimology in
an objective way. They seem hostile to it on a gut
level because they believe it is hopelesslyI biased.
Some prominent and insightful people who ought
to know better use the word "victiniologyI as an
epithet spit out through clenched teeth. Not very
long after the term enoered mainstleam cultulc. vic
timolog}l (undeselvedly!) became a "dirty word."
This disturbing trend emerged duling the 1900s
and unfortunately is becoming even mon: entren
ched and pronounced during the twenqrtirst
century. Sloane dramatic illustrations of how vic
timolog}l has been had-mouthed in the media as
muddled thinking or even denounced as a contempcible point o!~ View appear in Box Ll
wuoriswcsimntoovr 13
19-11
19-17
195?
1955
19E
1965
1966
1967
Early
1930!
MI!!19305
1972
1973
197-1
1976
1977
1979
Even.
Hans iron Hentlg publ nhc-r an article focusing on
the inc-ration between victims and criminals.
Renjemln Mendelscrhn coins the term victimology is an article written in French.
In Great Britain. Margery Fry proposes legislation that would authorize the gpuemment to
reimburse victims for their losses.
Mtrvinrrplfgeng studies thecircumstancs
surrounding the deaths ofmurder victims. and
discovers thatseme centriruted tt theironn
demise.
The u_S. Congress holds hearings on the plight
of crime victims but rejects legislative proposals
to cover their lasso.
California become-s the first u..ste1.e to set up a
special fund to repay victins for crime inflicted
expenses.
A research tetmcarric-r but a natlpnwldesune;
to flndoui. about crimes that were not reported
to the police.
A presidential commissitn recommends that
crImInoltgisis Study victims.
Stephen Schtfc-r Invites the first textbook ebput
victims.
The firstseitcrime squedsarnd rape cr eis centers
are organized.
Prosecutors initiate ulctim-wilnus assistance
prpgrems.
The federal government initiates a yearly
National Crime it iclirlllilaliun Survey of the
gene-rel public to uncover fistharnd information
about street crimes.
The first international conference of victimolry
glsts is convened in Jerusalem.
The fist sheltm for battered women is set up in
Minnesota.
Thefirstscholarly-journaldevotediovlctimolngy
begins publication.
New York State enacts the fist "Sun of Sem
law tn prevent offenders frem profiting from
telling about their exploits.
The World Society of Uictimolegy- is founded.
Year
1981
1982
1955
1935
19!}
I 99d.
2W3
2DD|1
Mill.
President Reagan proclaims iriclims
week every April.
Rights
1! crtAPtEit l
Criminolog rsis apply their findings to devise local.
regional, and. national crime-prevention strategies.
1rictirniologists scrutinize tlte patterns and trends
tltey detect to develop persmaalited victimization
prevention strategies and risk reduction tactics.
Both criminologists and viccimologists study
how the criminal justice system actually works. in
contrast to the way the system is supposed to work
according to agency regulations. official roles. fed
eral and state legislation, court decisions. and politicians promises. Criminological research reveals
ho tIt.r suspects. defendants. and convicts are mally
handled. while victimological studies examine the
way injured parties are actually treated by police
officers. prosecutors. defense atmrnc ys. andjudgcs.
Criminologisis assets the needs of oll endcrs for
counseling. psychotherapy. additional education.
job training, and dnag treatment. In addition. criminologists evaluate tlte effectiveness ofvarious reha
bilitacion programs offered behind bars or available
to probationers or parolees tltat are intended to
reduce recidivism rates. Similarly, victimologists
want to diagnose the emotional problems that beset
people after they have been harmed by oll enders.
and to test out the usefulness of programs designed
to facilitate their recovery [see Roberts. l J9ll. and
Lurigio. 1994]). Criminologjsts try to calculate the
social and economic costs that criminal activity
imposes on a community or on society as a whole.
1rictirniologists estimate the losses and expenses that
individuals and businesses incur due to acts of violence. theft. or fraud.
Differences arid Boundaries
Criminology and victimology differ in several important ways. Criminology is several hundred years
old. whereas victimology did not emerge until the
second half of the EEJth century. (Iriminologists
Study Vlttlmalng yl
last parallel between criminology and lvictimol
merits. highlighting. Criminology and victimolare not well-paying fields ripe with opportunities
SUMMARY
Victimization is an asyminetiital relationship that
is abusive. parasitical. destructive. unfair. and illegal.
Offenders haim their victims physically. financially.
and emotionally. Laws that recognized that injured
pai ijesdeseivd governiiienulsupportand economic
aid were passed centuries ago. but until the middle
of the twentieth century the plight of crime lvictims
was largely overlooked. even by most eiiminolo
gists. When some researchers began to study victims. their initial interest betrayed an anti-victim
WHATISVICTIMDLDGTT 1 ."
bias They sought et idenoe that the Irictinis behavior before and during the incidents contributed to
their own downfall. Since the l Jt mlls. the majority of
the social scientists attracoed to this new discipline
have Iahomd to find ways to ease the suffering of"
victims and to prevent ature incidents. Lint a colitmitment to strive for objectivity rather than no he
reflexively "provictim" is the best stance to adopt
when carrying out research or evaluating the effectiveness ofpolicies.
Victimoiogy is best viewed as an area of
specialization within criminology. lloth criminologists and victimologists seek to be impartial in
their roles as social scientists when investigating
1.! CHAPIER I
Jawbrealeing, itssocial consequences. and the ollrcial
responses lay the justice system. But much or
criminology in tlte past can he eharacterized as
"ofl enderology." so tlte new focus on those who
suffer provides some balance and rounds out any
analysis of problems arising from lawhreaking
behavior.
Victimologists carry out studies that seek to
identify, deline. and describe all the ways that illegal
activities harm targeted individuals: to measure the
seriousness ofthe problem: Do discover how vieein rs
cases are actually handled lay the legal sysuem. and
to uest researeh hypotheses to see if they are sup-
$~
The Rediscovery of
Crime Victims
The Discovery of Crime IIr ir:i.im5 Stage I: Calling Attention to an
Overlooked Problem
Stage 2: Winning Victories.
The Dedine of Crine Victims
The Rediscover;r of Crime Victims Implementing Reforms
Social Movements: Taking Up Stage 3_. EWFEE I NIE of an
the W mf Cause Opposition and Development
Elected Of cial: Enactfng of Resistance to Ftrrl nrer
legislation Named Alter Victims Changes
The News Media: Portraying the Stage A: Research and Temporary
Victims Plight Resolution of Disputes
Comer-cial intereso. EEHIHQ Bedisouvering Additional Groups
Security Products and Services f Victins
to Lictirm
StlnmaryI
VietimoIo-gy Contributes to the
Rediscover]; Process
THE IIHSCIIl Il Elt lr OF CRIME VICTIHS
Each law that prohibits a certain act as being hartriful derincs the wmngdoer as
a
criminal subject to punishment. and at the same time specifies that tlte injured
parnl h a victim deserving some sort of redress. The Lrws forbidding what an.now called street crimesmurder. rape. robbery. assault. burglary. and theFt
can be traced back to biblical times. 1III- Iren the thirteen American colonies
were
settled by immigrants From Great Britain. the earliest penal codes were based on
religious vaIUes as well as English consumers. law. Hence. victims oF interperso
nal
3D
violence and thef t were "discovered" ages ago. in
the sense that they were formally identilied and ofcially recognized.
THE DECLINE OF CRIME
VICTIMS
Scholars ol the hisoory of the legal system report
that in past oenturies viccims played a leading role
in the resolution ofcrirrrinal matocrs. To discourage
retaliation by victims and their familiesacts that
could lead Do endless feuding if ofl enders and their
kin counteraoadtcdsoeieties in simpler times
established direct repayment schemes. Legal codes
around the world enabled injured parties to receive
money or valuath from wrongdoers to compen
sate for the pain. suffering. and losses they endured.
This process of victim-oriented justice pre
vailed mostly in small villages engaged in fanning.
where social relations were based on personal
obligations, clear-cut family ties, strong religious
beliel s. and sacred ctaditions. But the injured party s
role diminished as induscrialization and urbanizacion brought about business relations that were
voluntary. secular. impersonaL rationalized. and
contractual.
(liver the centuries, victims lost control over the
process of dcncrmining the lane of the offenders who
harmed them. Instead. the Local governmental sout
orre dominated judicial proceedings and catctacocd
lines from convicts. physically punished them. or
even executed them. The seriousness ofthe wounds
and losses in icted upon victims were ofimportance
only For determining the charges and penalties
wrongdoers l aced upon conviccion. Restoring injured parties to the condition they were in before
the crimes occurred was no longer the main
concern. In fact. the recovery ofdamagcs became a
separate matter that was handled in another arena
(civil court) according to a different set of rules
(tort law) aFter criminal proceedings were con
cluded (Si-chafcr. IJ SJ.
troubles stem
Road Rage
R-earrh o needed to addrms widupread fears about
the chances oft-lemming a victim of road rage. Flareups between drivers with short fuses must have been
45 CHAPTER 2
SUMMARY
Victinmlogiso. an: social scientists who
seriirl:
For objectivity when studying the characoetistics 0t"
victims. the suffering they endure. their reactions
on choir plight. their interactions with offenders.
and the way ushers [such as journalists. elecoed
of cials. and [ample allied with social movements
4! CHAPTER 2
ID! 2.1
English common:
law. 34]
civil court. 3|
ms: law. 3|
public pmmcumts 31
pie-a negotiations, 32
women s movement.
33
cit-ti] lights movement.
33
cit-i] libelties
movement. 34
34 Amber him. 35
elder abuse. 34 Mtg-5.11113 Law. 35
) rights self-de nition of
movement, 34 the victimization
hale crimes. 3-i- PEMC 3 }
self-help movement. 35
3D CHAPTER 2
const ructionist
approach. 3 )
moral entrepreneurs, 41]
social construction. rill
con ict approach. 39 claimsmaking, Alli
stigma contests. 33
typi eation. 4U traf cking in human
false memory beings. 44 :
syndrome. 42
road rage, 4-1
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND DEBATE
1. Describe what happens it eaclt stage of the
rediscovery process.
2. Argue that the reditoovery of victims by the
news media. eIecDed of cials. and coirutiemial
enterprises is :1 "Inbred blessing" by stressing the
downside: the potential for exploitation.
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTH JNS
a
Sources of Information
about Crime Victims
The UCR and the NCVS
Crime i1 the Streets: The Big Picture The FRI": Uniform Crime Report
the Use- andnatrse of tatis tr cs tuctn
interpreting Statistic The 315 : National Crime
Victimization Survey {NCVSII
19 TW ( lial 59W! Comparing the ucn and the new
of Victimization Data
A First Glance at the Big Picture:
Looking at the FHl s Crime Clock
Using Data to Bring the Big Ficuare
inbr Focus
Summary
CRIME IN THE STREETS: THE BIG PICTURE
Victimologists {Hillel and interplet data to answer questions such as: How many
people are harmed by criruinah each year? How Iapidly are the ranks of people
who have surl eled misr onunes glowing? nd. a matter or particular concern.
which gloups are talgeted the rue-n and. the least often? Researchers want to
find out where and when the nujoricy of crimes occur. wItetIteI predators on
the plow] intimidate and subJ Ugate their pley with weapons and it so. what kinds
of weapons. Victirnologists also want to determine wItetIteI individuals are at
tacked by complete strangers oi people they Itnow. and how these intended tar
gets act when confnanted by assailants. What plop-onion tly to escape or ght
back. how nuny are injured. what percentage need to be hospitalized. and
how Inuch money do they typically lose in an incident?
51
52 tnAPtER 3
The answers to basic questions like these. when
taken together. constitute wltac can be termed the
big picturean overview of what is really happening across the United States during the First de
cade of this new century. The big picture serves as
an antidote to impressions based on direct but limited personal. experiences. as well as sellserving
reports. circulated by organizations with vested in
terests, misleading media images, etude stereotypes.
and widely held myths. But putting together the
big picture is not easy. Compiling an accurate por
trayal requires caie rl planning. formulation of the
right questions. proper data-collection techniques.
and insightful analyses.
Until the lJ TIils. l e w el l orts were made to routinely monitor and systematically measure various
indicators of a victim s plight. 1n the IJHils. a great
many social scientists and agencies were conducting
tlte research needed to bring the big picture into fo
cus. By the 1.990s. all sorts ofspecialiiiterest groups
began keeping count and disseminating their own
estimates about the suffering of a wide variety or
victims. indudiiig youngsters wounded at school.
college students hurt or killed on campus. children
reported missing by their parents. and people singled
out by assailants who hate their "kind."
Most of the statistics and analyses presented in
this chapter concern the dreaded crimes ofmurder
and robbery. Statistics about murders are more
complete. consistent [over time and from place to
place). aocurate. and detailed than those for any
other crime. Robbery statistics are far less precise
and reliable but are so ll eatoemely important be
cause holdups rel the public s fears about strangers
committing crime in the streets.I Uther street
crimes. involving violence (assaults) or stealing {bur
glaries. vehirdc thefts) will also share the locus of
attention in this chapter.
The Ilse and Abuse of Statls liu.
Statistics are meaningful ntutihers that reveal
important unfonriatioit. Statistics are oI crucial importance to social scientists. policy analysts. and decision
makers because they replace vague adjectives siach as
many." "moist," and tests" with precise numbers.
(Iriminologiscs and victimologists botli gather their
own datatomalte their own calculations, or they sena-
one
who! trite
every 22 seconds
Ef e
crime Indalo ense
every 3 sec
One
ptnptrtytrln ie
every isettntls
CINE
Wight
every 14 seconds
Brie
larceny- rth
every 5 seconds
tvtryl seconds
Brie
mumrvtflldelhtft
56 CHAPTER 3
into the number of seconds {1 10 x on as 2-1 x 365 =
3|.536,1]EHJJ orminutes{(:[f X 2-1 X 365 = 515.ft[]ff] in
an entire year. For instance, during BEING, about
1.10fo people were slain in the United States. The
calculation {515.Ift ff].-[l3 , [flf]:| = 3| indicates that
approximately every 3i minutes one American was
murdered that year CED], ZIIIIIITI].
Just a glance at this chart alerts even the casual
reader to its chilling message. The big picture it
portrays is that crimes of violence (one every 22
seconds) and theft (one every three seconds] are
all too common. As the Crime Clock ticks away.
a stream of casualties flows into morgues. hospital
emergency rooms. and police stations throughout
the land. Practically every moment somewhere in
the United States another person is experiencing
what it feels like to be harntcd by a criminal.
These grim reminders give the impression that being victimized is virtually inevitable. it seems to be
just a matter of time before one s number is
called" and disaster strikes. Sooner or later, it will
be every hmericans "turn" so it appears.
The FBI [Hill-i: 141 offers a disclaimer that
points out that crimes do not take place with such
rigid predictability. The Crime Clock should be
viewed with care. The most aggregate representation of UHF. data, it conveys the annual reported
crime experience by showing a relative frequency
of occurrence of the Part ] index offenses [referred
to as "street crimes" in this teatdiook. see below]. it
should not be taken to imply a regularity in the
commission of crime. The Crime Clock represents
the annual ratio ol crime to fixed time intervals." In
other innards, the FIi-I s Uniform Crime Reporting
Division is reminding the reader that in reality the
number of offenses carried out by lawbreakers ebbs
and ows, varying with the time ofday, day ofthe
week. and season. These frequencies represent proJcctions over the course of an entire year and not
the actual timing of the attacks.
Because the Future seems so ominous. this
Crime Clock mode of presentation ltas inherent
sltock value. it lends itself to media sensationalism.
fearmongering political campaigns. and marketing
ploys. Heightened anatieties can be exploited to
garner votes and. to boost the sales ol bu rglar alarms
Furthermore, it can be argued on methodological grounds that the alarming figures revealed on
the Crime Clock are actually underestimates of
how dangerous the streets of tlte United States re
ally are. The big picture is much worse. The FLii s
calculations are based solely upon crimes known to
the police across tlte country. Liut not all illegal acts
are reported. The police lind out about only a striall
fraction of all the incidents of violence and even a
smaller proportion of the thefts that actually take
place.
Many victims do not bring their troubles to the
attention of their loml polioe departments The
reportingratevaries from crime to ctime,placeto plane.
year to year. and group to group {see Chapter fl about
lvictim reporting rates). Hence. one waytolook at tltese
Crime Clock statistics is to assume that they represent
the tip of the iceberg: The actual number ofpeople
harmed by o cnders in tltese various ways must be
considerably higher.
However. these impressions about the risks to
life and limb in the United States today can legitimately be given an opposite spin. It can be argued
on Justifiable methodological grounds that conditions irrfcrred from these numbers are overly dramatic and unduly pessimistic. and consequently
misleading. The numbers lack context"the rec
ognio on that tltere are millions of potential targets
throughout the nation. The ticking away of the
Crime Clock is an unnecessarily frightening way of
depicting the big picture because it uses a formula
that ignores population size. Instead of" seconds
and minutes, another figure could be used in the
calculation that takes into account the actual
{huge} nLunber of people or possessions at risk.
Because there are so litany hundreds of millions
of residents. homes. and automobiles that could be
selected by predators on the prowl. the actual
chances ofany given individual getting targeted dur
ing the course ofa year may not be so high or so
worrisome.
SOURCES UFINF DIIM TICHI ABOUT CRIME VICTIMS 5?
Although the FBI s Crime Clock infers that
being singled out by an oifender is a shockingly
common occurrence, :1 different set ofautltoritative
numbers circulated by another branch ofthe US.
lJeparcrnent ofjuscice yields a very different impression. Estimates about the chances of being
victimized from a different sourcea nationwide
survey {NEJWFiare presented as rates per 1.0110
persons for violent crimes and per 1,110 households
for property crimes per year. Adding a denominator I ["for every 1,110 each year") seems to malte a
world of difference in terms of "conresrt." The im
plicit message when rates are calculated is almost the
opposite: Don t worry so much about being tar-
unusual event.
The FBI s um Crime Report rues:The Ir rIR was established in 132? by a committee
set up by the International Association ofChiel s of
Police. The goal was to develop a uniform set of
definitions and reporting formae. for gathering
crime statistics. Since 1931]. the Flll has published
crime data in the MGR that was forwarded volun
tarily by police dcpartments across the United
States. In recent years, more than 17.0110 village.
town. municipal. oounty. and state police departments and sheriffs departments in all 50 states. the
District of Columbia. and several territories that
serve about 9-1- pereent of the roughly 30 million
inhabitants of the United States participate in the
data. collection princess. usually via state criminal
justice clearinghouses. Unfortunately, both Parts ]
and Part Ii ofthe UCR have been of limited value
to those interested in studying victims rather than
incidents or arrestees.
5! crtAPtErt 3
Part 1 of the [NIH focuses on eiglat index
crime-s. illegal acts most people think about when
they hear the term "street crime." Four index crimes
count violent attacks directed "against persons": murder. forcible rape, robbery. and. aggravated assault.
The other four eonstitute crimes against property":
burglary. larceny {thefts ofall kinds}, motor vehirde
theft. and arson. The category ofarson was added in
10?) at the request ofCongress when poor neighborhoods in big cities experienced many blazes of
suspicious origin. However, incidents of arson are
still unreliably measured because intentionally set
fires might remain classi ed by fire marshals as being
"of Lurknown origin."
The ranking of these eight offenses. from inurder to arson. is considered by the FBI for record
keeping purposes to correspond to their relative
degree of seriousness (see below). The number of
acts of violence and theft known to the authorities
is presented for cities. counties, states. regions ofthe
country, and even many college campuses [since
the mid-liEHIIs: see Chapter 11.). For each crime.
the FBI compiles information about the number
of incidents reported to the police, the total esti
mated losses in billions of dollars dare to property
crimes. the proporcion of cases that were solved.
and some characteristics of the suspecrr. arrested
but. unfortunately for victimologists. nothing about
the people who led the complaints.
In Part [I. the [ICR fumishes data about the
number of people arrested [without estimates of
the number of illegal acts committed} for 21 as
sorted offenses. Some of these crimes that led to
\Ir hen reading Table 3.]. not: that the de nitions are parallel but not idenucal. Recall that the
NCIS and (ICE victimization rates are not directly
comparable. I Itesmndarddenominators for the Ii l IR
C rne
HER Dell-Milan
mm
late (per routine]
Mu der
FIBICIIHE Rape
Robbery
Aggravated
Assault
Sinqale Assault
Personal Larceny
Burglary
Larceny-Than
Motor Vehicle
Theft
The willfdtnonnegllgent] klllingofone human be ng
by another: Includes manslaujtterand deathrcluetio
recklessness; m5 dead-u due toarcidents.
sulcide-s. andjustiflable homicldec in self-defense.
The carnal knowledge ol a. female forcirly and
against her wlll; incl-ides attempts,- excludes other
sexual assaults and statutory rape.
The talc-so of or atternptlng to take anything of
valuefrom thecare. cmtody. or control ofaperson
or persons by force or threat of force; include-5
commercial utablishments and carjacklng. armed
and unarmed.
CI IM
NCLI S Defitition
attidenla
lute Ipor tantrum
NIL- ler
Flap-e
Not included in use-surrey
Thecarnal knowledge ofamaleor female througs
the use of force or threats of rlolence; Includes
attempts as Itroll ac vernal threats: excludes :eaual
contacts and statutory rape.
not measured
orerall 192.0110
completed 11?.EIDI]
attempted 36.000
not computed
ED
SD
3|]
66 CHAPIER 3
TAIL! 3.1
[Mlllled]
Clil I le
m DeI Iidll
Incidents
Ilole [per limos]:
Sexual Assault
Flowery
Aggravated
Assault
Simple Assault
Personal Thelt
Household
Euglary
Thelt
Motor Vehicle
1helt
The imposition ol unwanted semi contact {grahblng. Iondliigi with or IrtritJI rrout force: nclucles
attempts and threats: excludu molestations of
children under 11.
The taking directly from a person oi property or
cash by loroe or threat oi force with or without a.
weapon; includes attempts.- eircluzles commercial
establishments.
The attacking oi a person Irrith a weapon.
regardless of Irlirliether an injury is stetained:
includes attempts as Irtrell as attadts without a
Iweapon that result In serious injuries; escluoes
severe physical abut! ol children under 12.
The attackiig of a person Iriithout a weapon
resulting In rninor wounds or no physical Injury;
includes attempts and lntralamily violence.
The tllelt of cash or possessions from any place
other than the vict m s home or its immediate
IrIlitinity wluiout the use of force or threats;
includes pocket picking and puse matchan as
well as attempts.
memlawlul entryol a residence. garage. or shed.
usually but not always for the purpose oi melt,includes attempts: excludes commercial or governmental premises.
The tllelt of property or cash without contact:
includes attempts to take unguarded possessions
as mall at lamenievs comitted by persons invited
into the home.
The driving away or taking Irtritl rrout authorisation
ol any household s motorised uelilcle, includes
attempts.
overall 59.0w
ovemll "3.11m
completed HEADNattempted 23D.DDD
ovemll 13qu
overall 3.??1Dm
overall 113.1101
overall 31551309
completed 2.E-IE.I:IDD
attempted i13.DDll
overall 14353.0)
overall 391.00:
in
HE
L530
Till
3320 lpef 1E|E|.|2||2|D
households]
LIN
ll]
12.190
WE.uh
in nu;- ool add no b mlaln uumolrauodiry-rrm
AI will are m;
AI MM rate-we rounded on La the Mthl1a.
"Ea! mites min multiplied is,- 100 lumi
toms-rites! 1m
like.
%
Violent Crimes:
Murders and Robberies
Focusing on Murders Checking Out Whether More
Using the UCR Robberies Arie Turning into
Murders
to Analyze Murders
Searching for Crime Waiter: Differential Risk: of Being
Detecting Trends in Interpersonal Robbed
Glam-T Pruieeting Cumulative Risks
:22? E" m "1 Murder The Search for Risk rat-ms
Changes over Time in Aggravated The Deterrninani: of
53" a :fif il l ; and Liferqales
Uncovering Ivictimization Patterns Reducing Risks:
Making International How 53m 3 531:9 EVEN- 99:?
[Umlmm Ambivaience about Risk Taking
listening Comparative Risks: Putting From Crime Prevent-fan to
Crime in! PEEPEEIW E Victimization Prevention
Focusing on Robberies Criminals as Victims
Robbers and Their Ii ictin irs Deterrence Theory
Using the NM as Applied to Ii ictinis
to Analyze Robberies Summary
FDCUSING ON MURDERS
This chapter focuses on people hanncd by vinieitt ori eiiders. especially by ino
rdercrs and robbers. {The plight of those who suffer :it the lursds of rapists wi
ll he
7-D
examined in Chapter IU.} Data from the {ICE and
the NEE/S will be used to answer a sec of unsecding questions:
I What are the odds ofbeing attarJted during any
given year? Annual incidence rates reveal the
risks faced by large numbers ofpeople.
What are the chances that a person will be
harmed by a criminal at least once during his or
her lifetime [not just in a single year}?
Cumulative rirltt estimate these odds by
projecting current situations into the future.
Does violent crime burden all eorrutt unities and
groups equally. or are sonte types ofpeople
more likely than others to be physically injured
and killed? Diii ertntiel. risks indicate the odds
of an unwanted event taking place for minbers of a social grouping [for example: urban,
suburban. or rural residenix}.
planning {premeditation"). These defining characteristics of rstdcgree murders carry the most severe
punisluiienu. induding [dependingon the state} execution or life imprisonment without parole. Killing
eertain peoplepolice o iters. corrections olficers.
judges. witnesses; and victiiits during rapes. kidnap
pings. or robberiesmay also be capital o enses.
ii homicide committed with intent to in ict
grievous bodily injury {but no intent to kill] or with
extreme recklessness ("depraved heart"] is prosecuted as a second-degree murder. A homicide oommitted in the "sudden heat ofpassion" as a result of
the victim s piovocations is considered a "voluntary"
{or first-degree) manslaughter. The classic example is
"the husband who comes home to find his wife in
bed with another man.I .rr negligent killing usually is
created as an "involuntary" (seconddegree) malt
slaughter. or it may not be subjected tocriminal prosecution at all.
1 2 time-ten -t
Second-degree murder is not a capital crime
and cannot lead to the dcatlt penalty. Offenders
convicted of manslaughter are punished less severely than those convicted ofmurder. "iome types
ofslayings have special names [see Holmes. 1994):
infanticide (ofa newborn by a parent). iilicide {ofa
child by a parent or stepparent). parricide (ofa par
ent by a child]. domestic or intirrtate partner homi
cide {of a spouse or lover). serial killing {several or
more victims dispatched one at a time over an extended pcriod). truss murder (several people slaugh
tered at the same time and place}, felony murder
[committed during another serious crime, like robbery or rape). and contract killing {a professional
"hit" for an agreed-upon fee).
The first criminologists who were attracted to
victimology were drawn by the interaction be
tween victims and oil enders. They were especially
intrigued by any prior relationships between the
two parties in cases of interpersonal violence. For
example. they wondered whether the killer and the
mortally wounded person had known eaclt other
[as intimates, adversaries. or casual acquaintances).
andwhcther those who wereslain shared many com
mon characteristics with their killers. They also
wanted to nd out what groups ofpeople suffered
the greatest casualties. how they perisltcd. and what
caused the confrontations that led to untimely
deaths. In otherwords. they wanted to derive a pro
le or statistical portrait of the "typical" murder.
killer, and victim.
IK E IVS interviewers ask no questions about
murders of household members. so the [ICE and
tlie reeords of coroners or rrtedical examiners are
tlie o icial sources of inlormation. HER guidelines
1.1 so:
are
1:
m 5 "
1, E
a 1 350 1 !
r. J
r was
t r E
C 250 3
L 5 r
. 2m .3
E ll
15:: a
i 4 E
rat:
a
50
0 0
assesses sasssassessteasersastronomer
1": I
_ I 15:5ng assault. rate + UCR aggravated mull tall:
Fl Ii Ll I E 4.2 Trendsio Aggravated howl! Rates in the Llrtlted States. 1973-20
06
NDTE: MIPS Islam ndings arliu lh-d Io. mtn lhlk with redesigned me Indy.
S l lLES: FBI A WM Homeowners. 199mm.
years into the new century. a dramatic improve
ment in the level of serious interpersonal violence
became evident from NIWS Figures. Between
109.1 (when the survey was redesigned and the rate
hit a peak) and 2mm. aggravated assaults disclosed to
Nf. VS interviewers "crashed" about (:0 percent.
LICK data show a different pattern. After years of
rising numbers ofrcports about serious attacks. cottt
plaints to the police about aggravated assaults peaked
in the early liJlls. After that. just as the r siffVS line
on the graph indicated. the level of violenee stub
sided substantially during the second half of the
1 J9lls and continued to dittunish gradually through
2mm. But unlike the Nl IlS figures. the USE rates
in 2mm were lowbut not at their lowest levels in
All years. During 2110?. reports to the police about
shootings. stabbings, and other aggravated assaults
once again drifted downward [FBI. ZlKJH].
Change: over. Tiara: in Robbery Rates Robbery
is often cited as the offense most people worry
about when they discuss their fears about crime in
the streets. Trends in robbery rates are displayed in
Figure 4.}. The {.lt JR trend line shows that robberies soared after 19?? and peaked in 191-3]. plunged
uncil 1935. and then shot up again to record levels
in the early I JJils. After that. reports ofmugings
and hold-ups plummeted impressively until 2012.
and then leveled out during the rst decade of the
2Ist century, rising a bit in 2006 and then falling
back a little during 2[H1T{FL1I. 201m}.
The .N CJVS trend line tells a sunilar. but not
identicaL story. It indicates that the robbery rate
fell between I974 and IJ ri, rebounded until
I JKI when it hit an all-time high. dropped sharply
during the early IJEHJL but then climbed back. up
from liiHr t until I JM. lter that. the robbery rate
VIOLENTCIIMES: MURDERS ANDRDEBERIES T?
H F- UI or
N
u.
c.
200
G
a
[101 rule (per HILMD inhabitanlsl
El
3 M3 .3
.W3 3%..
You
"a
.3" 32% .33
answers. e e se;
fsf"
.a cvslare +uctme
F IG U I. E 4.] Trends In Bellamy ora in reunited 518111. 1973-2015
ME: lick intlucla. mpourcd (ammo-Sal robberies. IIJ HM. (is ndioga itlJr
h lily inIh tin
redrairjn 1m rut-rip.
source. Fart acts. mamas. arr-rams, sariam.
ttrmbled from the second half of the walk uncil
21102. llobbery rates crashed an impressive (:5 percent between ]393 and 211112. reaching theirlowest
levels since the NCKSI surveys beyn, before creep
ing up a little by 2111113.
The graphs depicted in Figures 4.I. 4.2. and 4.3
con rm the good news dtat violent crime rates ltavc
fallen dramatically. perhaps even crashed." from
their historically high {and politically imolerable)
levels in the early i Jjils. UCR figures for 3107
showed violent crime totals were down slightly after
inching up in 211116 {FJJL 21th. To conclude from
these graphs showing favorable trends in murders.
robberies. and aggravated assaults that the "ttlrrrst
is over" trughc be overly optimistic. however.
Certainly. interpersonal violence is not "getting otn
ofhand" or "spiraling out of control" for the nation
as a whole. although speci c oontmunicies may be
rocked by sporadic spikes in lawlessness and blood-
rl Id: tamoat
Patterns can emerge when rates are calculated separately for each grouping, especially by sex, age. race.
marital status, income class. and area of" residence.
Once a pattern has been established over the years
tlren the group s differential risks {as obscured in the
pastJ can be projected into the future. For example.
because men historically have suil ered assaults more
often than women (according to tlre annual surveys).
it can be predicted that men will Face greater risks of
being attacked than women next year and in the
foreseeable friture. unless profound social changes affecting interpersonal violence take place.
The diilerential risks derived From victimization patients will be investigated for the crimes of
murder and robbery.
Differential Risks of Busing Murdered As was
noted in Chapter 3. the murder rate in the United
States in aim was 5.? per l[)i],i][H]. That means that
between Five and six people ofall backgrounds were
killed. and at least 3 ).9 9-1 survived out oF every collection of 1.[|(J.ilii{i people. This statistic captures the
odds oF being slain for the ctitious "average"
Americas]. which is a useful social construct for certain purposes {for example. to compare risks faced lry
the average American to the average Canadian or
Mexicanj. But this composite statistic oonoeals as
much as it reveals. When the FBI compiles statistics
from SHRs and publishes them in annual U s, a
number ofstriking patterns within homicides emerge
{which should be especially alarming for those who
fall into some or all ofthe highrisk categories. and
should be somewhat reassuring for members ofotlter
groupsa. The risks ofbeing murdered vary greatly lry
region ofthe couim y. area ofresidencc {urban. suburban. or rural]. seat. age, and race.
As for different sections oF the country. the
highest homicide rates For many years have been
found in the South (with 6.0 per ii ili