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Text Books:
Direct
Overview:
General
Historical Sketch:
Evolution of Power Systems:
Late 1870s- Commercial use of electricity.
In 1882- First Electric power system which includes Generator,
Cable,fuse,Load designed by Thomas Edison at Pearl Street station in
New york.
It was DC System (Low Voltage 110V),underground cable is used to
distribute the power to consumers. Only 59 consumers are benefited
by this low voltage DC system. Incandescent lamps are used as a load.
In 1884-Motors were developed by Frank Sprague. After the invention
of motors electricity is used more effectively or it was appreciated.
In 1886 -Limitation of DC
High losses and Voltage Drop
Transformation of Voltage required.
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2.
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In
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Standard
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In1920-Transverter(Mechanicalconverter-polyphase
Limitations of HVAC
Reactive
power loss
Stability
Current
carrying capacity
Skin and Ferranti effect
Power flow control is not possible.
Advantages of HVDC
No
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Cheaper
Disadvantages of HVDC
Cost
Right of Way(RoW):
An
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This
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The
other factors that influence the line cost are the cost
of compensation and terminal equipment.
In dc lines do not require compensation but the terminal
equipment costs are increased due to the presence of
converters and filters.
Description:
AC
Technical performance
The
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STABILITY LIMITS:
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VOLTAGE CONTROL
The voltage control in AC lines is complicated by line
charging and inductive voltage drops.
The voltage profile in a AC line relatively flat only for
fixed level of power transfer corresponding to surge
impedance loading (SIL) or normal loading.
The Voltage profile varies with the line loading. For
constant voltage at the line terminal, the mid point voltage
is reduced for line loading higher than SIL and increased
for loadings less than SIL.
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Line compensation:
AC lines require shunt and series compensation in long
distance transmission, mainly to overcome of the line
charging and stability limitations.
Series capacitors and shunt inductors are used for this
purpose.
The increase in power transfer and voltage control is
possible through the Static Var Systems (SVS).
In AC cable transmission, it is necessary to provide shunt
compensation at regular intervals.
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PROBLEMS OF AC INTERCONNECTION:
When two power systems are connected through AC
ties(Synchronous interconnection),the automatic generation
control of both systems have to be coordinated using tie line
power and frequency signals.
Even with coordinated control of interconnected systems, the
operation of AC ties can be problematic due to
a) The presence of large power oscillations which can lead to
frequent tripping.
b) Increase in fault level
c) Transmission of disturbances from one system to the other
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The
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GROUND IMPEDANCE:
In AC transmission, the existence of ground(Zero
sequence)current cannot be permitted in steady-state due to
high magnitudes of ground impedance which will not only
affect efficient power transfer, but also result in telephone
interference.
But ground impedance negligible for DC currents and a DC
link can operate one conductor with ground
return( Monopolar operation). The ground return is
objectionable only when buried metallic structures (Such as
pipes) are present and are subject to corrosion with DC
current flow.
Reliability:
The
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There
a)
b)
Energy availability:
Transient reliability:
link
Bipolar link
Homopolar link
Monopolar link:
Bipolar link:
Homopolar link:
Application of HVDC:
The
power transmission
(Transfer the power from one end to another end without
tapping power in between).For this DC system is the best
option. (Or) HVDC transmission where bulk power is
transmitted from one point to another point over long distance.
Power flow control (Back to Back HVDC)
If two regions are very nearby, we can monitor the power
flow from one region to another to control, emergency support
as per our requirement.(Or)Back to Back link where
rectification and inversion is carried out in the same converter
station with very small or no DC lines
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To provide
stability to AC system
This is basically used to control the power and stabilize the
system. It is also used to connect two different frequencies
system.
(Modulation of AC) AC system is connected parallel with DC
system.(or)Parallel connection of AC and DC links. Where both
AC and DC run parallel. It is mainly used to modulate the
power of AC lines.
HVDC is the better option for above cited purposes while
compare with its AC system.
transformers
Smoothing reactors
Harmonic filters
Overhead lines
Reactive power source
Earth electrodes
CONVERTERS
Converters
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How
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Two
VSC
Constant current
Constant voltage
Higher losses
More efficient
Slow control
Simpler control
Complex control
CONVERTER
TRANSFORMERS:
For
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As
SMOOTHING REACTORS:
As
Harmonic filters
Filter are used to provide low impedance path to the ground for the
harmonics current.
Magnitudes of some harmonics are high and filters are used for
them only.
Overhead lines:
But use of ground as conductor is not permitted for longer use and a
bipolar arrangement is used with equal and opposite current in both
poles.
Earth electrodes:
The electrode are buried into the earth where the resistivity is
around (3-10 ohm-m) to reduce transient over voltages during line
faults and gives low DC electric potential and potential gradient at
the surface of the earth.
Public safety.
The electrode must have low resistance (Less than 0.1 ohm) and
buried upto 500 meters into the earth.
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The
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Can be cleared more rapidly by grid control of the valves.
However breaker is also required for clearing the faults in
transformers or taking the whole DC link out of service.
Harmonic filters and shunt capacitors for supplying reactive
power to the converters are connected to AC sides of the
converter.
Large inductance called dc smoothing reactors are connected
in series with each pole of the DC line.
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If
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