Journal of the Transportation Research Board

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD

NO.

1730

Issues in
Pavement Design and
Rehabilitation
Pavement Design, Management, and Performance
Click on article title to reach abstract; abstracts link to full textclick on Full Text icon.

CONTENTS
Foreword

Analysis by High-Speed Profile of Jointed Concrete Pavement Slab Curvatures

Christopher R. Byrum

Fracture Energy Test for Highway Concrete: Determining the Effect of Coarse Aggregate on
Crack Propagation Resistance
Elin A. Jensen and Will Hansen

Mechanistic Design Framework for Spalling Distress

Ligang Wang and Dan G. Zollinger

Temperature Gradient of Concrete Pavement Slab Overlaid with Asphalt Surface Course
Tatsuo Nishizawa, Shigeru Shimeno, Akinori Komatsubara, and Masashi Koyanagawa

Foundation Modeling for Jointed Concrete Pavements

William G. Davids

Three-Dimensional Analysis of Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements

Seong-Min Kim, Moon C. Won, and B. Frank McCullough

Axisymmetric Finite Element Modeling of Block Pavement Subjected to Repeated Loading

Koon Meng Chua, Zehra Askree, and Brian Shackel

Mechanistic Design of Thin Whitetopping Pavements in Colorado

Scott M. Tarr, Matthew J. Sheehan, and Ahmad Ardani

Incorporation of Reliability into Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design

David H. Timm, David E. Newcomb, and Theodore V. Galambos

Analytical Predictions of Seasonal Variations in Flexible Pavements:

Minnesota Road Research Project Site
Bjorn Birgisson, Jill Ovik, and David E. Newcomb

Evaluation of Probability Distribution Function for the Life of Pavement Structures

Stefan A. Romanoschi and John B. Metcalf

Mechanistic-Empirical Rut Prediction Model for In-Service Pavements

Hyung Bae Kim, Neeraj Buch, and Dong-Yeob Park

Top-Down Cracking in Washington State Asphalt Concrete Wearing Courses

Jeff S. Uhlmeyer, Kim Willoughby, Linda M. Pierce, and Joe P. Mahoney

Load and Displacement Prediction for Shakedown Analysis of Layered Pavements

S. H. Shiau and H. S. Yu

Impact of Changing Traffic Characteristics and Environmental Conditions on Flexible Pavements

Zhanmin Zhang, Joseph P. Leidy, Izydor Kawa, and W. Ronald Hudson

Mechanistic-Empirical Approach for Modeling Reflection Cracking

Ahmed A. Eltahan and Robert L. Lytton

Cost-Effectiveness of Paving Fabrics Used to Control Reflective Cracking

William G. Buttlar, Diyar Bozkurt, and Barry J. Dempsey

Rubblization of Concrete Pavements: Field Investigation

Michael G. Niederquell, Gilbert Y. Baladi, and Karim Chatti

Construction and Performance of Fly AshStabilized Cold In-Place Recycled Asphalt

Pavement in Wisconsin
James A. Crovetti

Evaluation of Concrete Pavement Rehabilitation Techniques on I-65 in Indiana

Sedat Gulen and A. Samy Noureldin

Pavement Rehabilitation Selection Based on Mechanistic Analysis and Field Diagnosis of

Falling Weight Deflectometer Data: Virginia Experience
Sameh Zaghloul and Mohamed Elfino

Transportation Research Record 1730

ISSN 0361-1981
ISBN 0-309-06732-4
Subscriber Category
IIB pavement design, management, and performance
Printed in the United States of America
Sponsorship of Transportation Research Record 1730
GROUP 2DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES
Raymond K. Moore, University of Nebraska at Lincoln (Chairman)
Pavement Management Section
Newton C. Jackson, N. C. Jackson Consulting, Inc. (Chairman)
Committee on Rigid Pavement Design
Kathleen T. Hall, ProTech Engineering (Chairman), Don R. Alexander, Jamshid M. Armaghani, Lawrence W. Cole,
Judith B. Corley-Lay, James A. Crovetti, Michael I. Hammons, Szilard C. Hedrei, Anastasios M. Ioannides, Andrew M.
Johnson, Roger M. Larson, Robert R. Long, Jr., Brian R. McWaters, J. P. Mohsen, Eric D. Moody, Tatsuo Nishizawa,
William A. Nokes, Emmanuel B. Owusu-Antwi, Linda M. Pierce, Jeff Roesler, Gary W. Sharpe, Kurt D. Smith,
Mark B. Snyder, Chung-Lung Wu, H. Thomas Yu, Sameh M. Zaghloul
Committee on Flexible Pavement Design
Stephen B. Seeds, Applied Pavement Technology, Inc. (Chairman), Gilbert Y. Baladi, Stephen F. Brown, Albert J. Bush III,
George R. Cochran, Judith B. Corley-Lay, Jean Francois Corte, Bruce Dietrich, Raymond A. Forsyth, Kenneth W. Fults,
Jerry J. Hajek, R. Gary Hicks, Andrew M. Johnson, Joe P. Mahoney, Richard W. May, Brian R. McWaters, David E.
Newcomb, Katherine A. Petros, Cesar A. V. Queiroz, Cheryl A. Richter, Geffrey M. Rowe, F. Chris Rust, Peter E. Sebaaly,
Gary W. Sharpe, Marshall R. Thompson, Per Ullidtz
Committee on Pavement Rehabilitation
Shiraz D. Tayabji, Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc. (Chairman), Roger C. Olson, Minnesota Department
of Transportation (Secretary), John R. Anderson, Jamshid M. Armaghani, William R. Cape, Trenton M. Clark, Jerome F.
Daleiden, Dale S. Decker, Denis E. Donnelly, Chuck A. Gemayel, Thomas M. Hearne, Jr., Mustaque Hossain, John E.
Huffman, Anastasios M. Ioannides, Thomas J. Kazmierowski, Hans Christian Korsgaard, Roger M. Larson, Francesca
LaTorre, James W. Mack, Dennis A. Morian, Scott D. Murrell, A. Samy Noureldin, Emmanuel B. Owusu-Antwi,
John Pontarollo, Peter E. Sebaaly, Eugene L. Skok, Jr., John J. Weigel, Jr.
Transportation Research Board Staff
D. W. Dearasaugh, Jr., Engineer of Design
Lizy Mani, Administrative Assistant
Sponsorship is indicated by a footnote at the end of each paper. The organizational units, officers, and members are as of
December 31, 1999.

FOREWORD
The papers contained in this volume were among those presented at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board in January 2000. Nearly 1,600 papers were submitted by authors; more than 1,000 were presented at the meeting; and
approximately 600 were accepted for publication in the 2000 Transportation Research Record series. The published papers will
also be issued on CD-ROM, which will be available for purchase in late 2000. It should be noted that the preprint CD-ROM distributed at the 2000 meeting contains unedited, draft versions of presented papers, whereas the papers published in the 2000
Records include author revisions made in response to review comments.
Starting with the 1999 volumes, the title of the Record series has included Journal of the Transportation Research Board to
reflect more accurately the nature of this publication series and the peer-review process conducted in the acceptance of papers
for publication. Each paper published in this volume was peer reviewed by the sponsoring committee acknowledged at the end
of the text; members of the sponsoring committees for the papers in this volume are identified on page ii. Additional information about the Transportation Research Record series and the peer-review process can be found on the inside front cover. The
Transportation Research Board appreciates the interest shown by authors in offering their papers and looks forward to future
submissions.

Analysis by High-Speed Profile of Jointed

Concrete Pavement Slab Curvatures
Christopher R. Byrum
Soil and Materials Engineers, Inc., 43980 Plymouth Oaks Boulevard, Plymouth, MI 48170-2584.

FULL
TEXT

A high-speed pavement profile analysis method that detects curvature present in the wheelpaths of
jointed concrete pavement slabs is presented. This technique can be used to analyze slab curvatures
present in pavements and caused by curling and warping forces. The FHWA Long-Term Pavement
Performance (LTPP) program has obtained high-speed elevation profiles for the jointed concrete
pavements in the study. This profile analysis method reads an LTPP profile and detects imperfections
in the road curvature profile, which typically are joints and cracks. It then analyzes the slab regions
(intact slab segments) between these numerical imperfections for the presence of curvature. The result
of a profile analysis is a road profile indexthe curvature indexwhich represents the average slab
curvature present along the wheelpaths for the profile. This profile analysis method was applied to
more than 1,100 LTPP GPS3 profiles. The range of the slab curvatures encountered is described, and
some key factors related to apparent locked-in curvatures (related to warping and construction) are
discussed. The amount of locked-in curvature in slabs significantly affects slab behavior and long-term
pavement performance. Curvature information should be available to pavement rehabilitation
engineers making fix type and funding decisions for pavements. This new analysis method could be
implemented rapidly in routine pavement profile analysis and pavement management systems.

Fracture Energy Test for Highway Concrete

Determining the Effect of Coarse Aggregate on
Crack Propagation Resistance
Elin A. Jensen and Will Hansen
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan, 2340 Hayward, Ann Arbor, MI 48109.

FULL
TEXT

Portland cement concrete fracture propertiesspecific fracture energy, fracture toughness, and
brittlenesswere investigated for typical Michigan highway concretes containing different coarse
aggregates and varying in age: 7, 28, and 91 days. These fracture properties can be determined from the
complete load-deflection curve of a notched beam. The effective beam is 965 mm long, 100 mm wide,
and 200 mm high, with a 100-mm center notch. Results show that the specific fracture energy, which
determines the resistance to crack propagation, for a concrete pavement mix is controlled primarily by
the coarse aggregate type. Differences of 100 percent were obtained between aggregate types. A glacial
gravel yielded the highest resistance (160 N/m), and the dolomitic limestones and blast furnace slag
yielded the lowest resistance (80100 N/m), although the concretes all had similar strength properties.
The fracture toughness, resistance to crack initiation, was found to be linear related with concrete
strength. Typically this results in improved early age fracture toughness for concretes containing
dolomitic limestone and blast furnace slag as coarse aggregate, compared to glacial gravel, because
natural aggregate concrete typically has slower strength gain initially. Concrete brittleness, based on
the entire load-deflection response, showed that concretes containing stronger coarse aggregate, such as
glacial gravel, are significantly less brittle at early ages than are concretes containing weaker aggregate.
However, these stronger aggregate concretes become more brittle, and thus crack sensitive, over time.

Mechanistic Design Framework for

Spalling Distress
Ligang Wang and Dan G. Zollinger
L. Wang, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, Room 508, CE/ TTI Building,
College Station, TX 77843-3136. D. G. Zollinger, Department of Civil Engineering, Infrastructure and Transportation Division,
Texas A&M University, Room 503E, CE / TTI Building, College Station, TX 77843-3136.

FULL
TEXT

Spalling is a distress form in concrete pavements that often manifests as the breakdown of the joint of a
slab within 15 cm (6 in.) of the joint or crack and can occur at both longitudinal and transverse joints.
Efforts have been under way at Texas A&M University to formulate mechanistic spalling models
derived from data gathered in recent Texas Department of Transportation studies related to spall
development. Extensive field studies have led to the establishment of a spalling mechanism consisting of
a step-by-step process that can be characterized with engineering mechanics. These findings indicate
that spalling is the result of damage initiated in the form of a shear delamination that is oriented
parallel to and at a shallow depth below the surface of the pavement. Conditions necessary for
formation of the delaminations include low interfacial strength between the aggregate and mortar and
sufficient evaporation of pore water from the hydrating concrete, resulting in differential drying
shrinkage near the pavement surface. Delaminations have been noted to initiate early in the life of the
pavement and, once formed, extend later into spalls as a result of incompressibles, freeze-thaw cycles,
traffic loading, and other such effects. A design framework for delamination formation and subsequent
spalling development is presented in a practical format in which to mechanistically design concrete
pavement systems relative to spalling distress.

Temperature Gradient of Concrete

Pavement Slab Overlaid with
Asphalt Surface Course
Tatsuo Nishizawa, Shigeru Shimeno, Akinori Komatsubara, and
Masashi Koyanagawa
T. Nishizawa, Ishikawa National College of Technology, Tsubata, Ishikawa 929-0395, Japan. S. Shimeno and
A. Komatsubara, Research Institute of Japan Highway Public Corporation, 1-4-1 Tadao, Machida, Tokyo 194-8508, Japan.
M. Koyanagawa, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture, 1-1-1 Sakuragaoka, Setagaya-ku,
Tokyo 156-8502, Japan.

FULL
TEXT

In the structural design of composite pavement with a concrete pavement slab overlaid with an asphalt
surface course, it is very important to estimate the temperature gradient in the concrete slab. An
asphalt surface course reduces the temperature gradient in an underlaid concrete slab, resulting in
the reduction of thermal stress of the concrete slab. This effect was investigated by temperature
measurement in model pavements and by thermal conductivity analysis. Thermal properties were
estimated by a backanalysis by using measured temperatures over 1 year. From the numerical
simulations varying the thickness of asphalt surface and concrete slab, the relationship between the
reduction effect and the asphalt thickness was derived as a function of the thickness of asphalt surface
course, which can be used in the structural design of the composite pavement.

Foundation Modeling for

Jointed Concrete Pavements
William G. Davids
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maine, 5711 Boardman Hall, Orono, ME 04469-5711.

FULL
TEXT

Issues related to the finite element modeling of base and subgrade materials under jointed plain
concrete pavements are examined. The three-dimensional finite element program EverFE, developed in
conjunction with the Washington State Department of Transportation, was employed for the analyses.
The relevant modeling capabilities of EverFE are detailed, including the ability to model multiple
foundation layers, the incorporation of loss of contact between slab and base, and the efficient iterative
solution strategies that make large three-dimensional finite element analyses possible on desktop
computers. The results of parametric studies examining the effects of foundation type (layered elastic
and dense liquid) and properties on the response of jointed plain concrete pavements subjected to axle
and thermal loads are presented. Special attention is paid to the interactions between joint load transfer
effectiveness and foundation type, and joint load transfer is shown to change significantly with different
foundation models and properties. A consideration of simultaneous thermal and axle loadings indicates
that the effect of foundation type and properties on critical slab stresses caused by edge loading and
a positive temperature gradient is relatively small. However, the slab response is quite sensitive to
foundation type for a combined negative temperature gradient and corner loading. On the basis of these
results, use of an equivalent dense liquid foundation modulus in mechanistic rigid pavement analysis or
design is not recommended when stiff base layers are present.

Three-Dimensional Analysis of Continuously

Reinforced Concrete Pavements
Seong-Min Kim, Moon C. Won, and B. Frank McCullough
S.-M. Kim and B. F. McCullough, Center for Transportation Research, The University of Texas at Austin, 3208 Red River,
Suite 200, Austin, TX 78705. M. C. Won, Construction Division, Texas Department of Transportation, 125 East 11th Street,
Austin, TX 78701-2483.

FULL
TEXT

Continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) performance depends primarily on early-age

cracks that result from changes in temperature and drying shrinkage. Presented is the behavior of the
CRCP due to the temperature change obtained by using a three-dimensional finite element model. The
nonlinear effects of the bond-slip between concrete and steel and between concrete and base have been
studied. Modeling for the curling effect and for the viscoelastic material characteristics also has been
considered. The results from the two-dimensional and three-dimensional models have been compared to
verify the possibility of using a two-dimensional model. From this study, it was found that crack width
and concrete stress are dependent on the transverse steel arrangement near the edge (longitudinal
joint), but they are almost independent in the interior of the slab. The tensile stress occurring at the top
of the edge on the transverse steel location can be higher than that occurring at the top of the slab
center. This represents the possibility of forming a transverse crack from the edge on the transverse
steel location. The two-dimensional model with the plane stress element gives results very close to those
of the three-dimensional model, except near the edge.

Axisymmetric Finite Element Modeling of

Block Pavement Subjected to
Repeated Loading
Koon Meng Chua, Zehra Askree, and Brian Shackel
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia. Current affiliation for
K. M. Chua: Department of Civil Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131.

FULL
TEXT

A two-dimensional finite element code, PAVE2D, is used to model a concrete block pavement as a solid
of revolution. However, use of this approach in its normal form poses a difficultythe relatively stiff
elements near the axis of revolution cannot rotate. It is proposed that the stiffness of these elements be
modified to allow some degree of rotation that would still give a reasonable state of stress. This is done
by determining a ratio of the modulus of a flat circular plate and that of a straight beam of equal span
and thickness that would give an equal rotation along the entire span. This ratio is used to reduce the
modulus of the elements representing the concrete blocks according to their proximity from the axis of
revolution. PAVE2D is a large deformation capable code that has an updated Lagrangian formulation.
The proposed method has an advantage over the traditional three-dimensional finite element analysis
because it accommodates stress-related nonlinearity and geometric nonlinearity, and it is capable of
simulating loading and unloading without huge computing resource requirements. The computer
simulations shown include modeling a field test in which a 70-mm-thick block pavement was subjected
to loading from a falling weight deflectometer and modeling block pavements 80 mm and 120 mm thick
subjected to repeated loading. The proposed method can be used to evaluate different block shapes and
arrangements and can be used to predict rutting characteristics of these pavements. The method applies
to rigid pavement.

Mechanistic Design of Thin Whitetopping

Pavements in Colorado
Scott M. Tarr, Matthew J. Sheehan, and Ahmad Ardani
S. M. Tarr and M. J. Sheehan, Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc., 5420 Old Orchard Road, Skokie, IL 60077-1030.
A. Ardani, Research Branch, Colorado Department of Transportation, 4201 East Arkansas Avenue, Denver, CO 80222.

FULL
TEXT

A mechanistic design procedure was developed for the state of Colorado to determine the required
concrete thickness of thin [12.7 cm to 17.8 cm (5 in. to 7 in.)] whitetopping overlays on asphalt pavements.
Field testing was conducted to evaluate critical load locations for whitetopping with joint spacing up to
3.66 m (12 ft). The load-induced flexural strains were used to calibrate fully bonded stresses computed by
applying finite element analysis techniques to partially bonded stresses measured in the field. For each
test section, load testing was conducted throughout the course of a day to develop a temperature
correction for the critical stresses derived for zero temperature gradient (zero slab temperature curling).
Equations predicting the critical concrete flexural stresses and asphalt concrete strains for use in
whitetopping were developed. A mechanistic design procedure is described that allows the evaluation of
trial whitetopping thicknesses and joint spacings. The procedure computes the concrete and asphalt
fatigue life for specific material properties. Iterations are required to determine the appropriate
parameters that provide the required design life for both concrete and asphalt layers. In addition to the
design procedure, the effect of surface preparation during construction was studied by comparing
identical slabs constructed on milled and unmilled asphalt. It was concluded that existing asphalt
pavement should be milled and cleaned before concrete placement for an overall reduction of 25 percent
in the critical load-induced stresses. However, new asphalt, such as that placed in repair patches, should
not be milled before concrete placement to avoid a 50 percent increase in critical load-induced stresses.

Incorporation of Reliability into

Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design
David H. Timm, David E. Newcomb, and Theodore V. Galambos
D. H. Timm and T. V. Galambos, Department of Civil Engineering, University of MinnesotaTwin Cities, 500 Pillsbury Drive SE,
Minneapolis, MN 55455. D. E. Newcomb, National Asphalt Pavement Association, 5100 Forbes Boulevard,
Lanham, MD 20706-4413.

FULL
TEXT

Pavement thickness design traditionally has been based on empiricism. However, mechanistic-empirical
(M-E) design procedures are becoming more prevalent, and there is a current effort by AASHTO to
establish a nationwide M-E standard design practice. Concurrently, an M-E design procedure for flexible
pavements tailored to conditions within Minnesota has been developed and is being implemented.
Regardless of the design procedure type, inherent variability associated with the design input parameters
will produce variable pavement performance predictions. Consequently, for a complete design procedure,
the input variability must be addressed. To account for input variability, reliability analysis was
incorporated into the M-E design procedure for Minnesota. Monte Carlo simulation was chosen for
reliability analysis and was incorporated into the computer pavement design tool, ROADENT.
A sensitivity analysis was conducted by using ROADENT in conjunction with data collected from the
Minnesota Road Research Project and the literature. The analysis demonstrated the interactions between
the input parameters and showed that traffic weight variability exerts the largest influence on predicted
performance variability. The sensitivity analysis also established a minimum number of Monte Carlo
cycles for design (5,000) and characterized the predicted pavement performance distribution by an
extreme value Type I function. Finally, design comparisons made between ROADENT, the 1993 AASHTO
pavement design guide, and the existing Minnesota design methods showed that ROADENT produced
comparable designs for rutting performance but was somewhat conservative for fatigue cracking.

Analytical Predictions of Seasonal

Variations in Flexible Pavements
Minnesota Road Research Project Site
Bjorn Birgisson, Jill Ovik, and David E. Newcomb
B. Birgisson, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Florida, 345 Weil Hall, P.O. Box 116580, Gainesville,
FL 32611-6580. J. Ovik, Office of Materials and Road Research, Minnesota Department of Transportation, 1400 Gervais
Avenue, Maplewood, MN 55109-2044. D. E. Newcomb, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minnesota,
122 Civil Engineering Building, 500 Pillsbury Drive SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455-0116.

FULL
TEXT

The mechanistic analysis and design of flexible pavements is very dependent on knowledge of traffic
loading, materials, and climatic factors. Seasonal variation of climate factors such as temperature,
temperature history, and precipitation affects the subsurface conditions of the pavement layers,
including the in situ temperature, moisture content, and state of moisture. In turn, these subsurface
conditions have a direct relationship with the pavement strength and stiffness, causing seasonal
variations in both strength and pavement layer moduli. Many agencies are now moving toward a
mechanistic-empirical pavement design, in which the design inputs include, as a minimum, the seasonal
variations in pavement layer moduli. The ability to analytically predict and quantify the climatic effects
on pavement strength and stiffness has been investigated by numerous researchers, but few comparisons
with measured field data have been completed, because of a lack of pavement sites with extensive arrays
of monitoring instrumentation. Detailed is a comparison between field results and predictions obtained
from an analytical tool, called the enhanced integrated climate model (ICM). The climatic factors used as
inputs into the model include temperature, rainfall, wind speed, and solar radiation. The ICM is used to
predict seasonal variations in temperature, moisture content, and layer moduli at two representative
flexible pavement test sections at the Minnesota Road Research Project site.

Evaluation of Probability
Distribution Function for the
Life of Pavement Structures
Stefan A. Romanoschi and John B. Metcalf
S. A. Romanoschi, Department of Civil Engineering, Kansas State University, 119 Seaton, Manhattan, KS 66506.
J. B. Metcalf, Department of Civil Engineering, Louisiana State University, 3508A CEBA, Baton Rouge, LA 70803.

FULL
TEXT

Determination of the probability distribution function for the time to failure is essential for the
development of pavement life models, because the probability distribution function reflects the
variability in pavement degradation. The pavement life and failure time are associated with the number
of equivalent standard axle load applications for which the degradations reach a critical level. When the
critical degradation level is reached, maintenance and rehabilitation work needs to be done to improve
pavement condition. Research was undertaken to identify the appropriate statistical models for
determination of the probability distribution function for the time to failure of pavement structures.
The study used the rutting data collected on a test lane at the first full-scale accelerated pavement test in
Louisiana. The research indicated that closed-form solutions or Monte Carlo algorithms can be used
when the degradation models have a known form. The bootstrap algorithm can be used to determine
the confidence intervals for probability of failure at a given time. If the form of the degradation model is
not known, the survival analysis method based on censored observations must be used. The methods
can be used not only for rutting life models but also for other pavement life models: cracking initiation
time, cracking life, roughness, and serviceability lives.

Mechanistic-Empirical Rut Prediction

Model for In-Service Pavements
Hyung Bae Kim, Neeraj Buch, and Dong-Yeob Park
H. B. Kim, Division of Highway Design and Planning, Yooshin Engineering Corporation, Seoul 135-080, Korea.
N. Buch and D.-Y. Park, Michigan State University, 3546 Engineering Building, East Lansing, MI 48824.

FULL
TEXT

Rutting is a major mode of failure in flexible pavements. Development of accurate predictive rut
performance models is an ongoing pursuit of the pavement engineering community. This has resulted
in a plethora of rut prediction models ranging from purely mechanistic to empirical. Presented is the
development of a mechanistic-empirical rut prediction model that uses data from 39 in-service flexible
pavements from Michigan. The proposed model accounts for the rut contribution of the subgrade,
subbase, base, and asphalt concrete layers. The model addresses inventory-type variables like pavement
cross section, ambient temperature, and asphalt consistency properties. The applicability of the model
was validated by using data from 24 Long-Term Pavement PerformanceGlobal Positioning System
(GPS) sites. For 19 of the 24 GPS sites, the predicted rut depth was within 5 mm of the measured
rut depth.

Top-Down Cracking in Washington State

Asphalt Concrete Wearing Courses
Jeff S. Uhlmeyer, Kim Willoughby, Linda M. Pierce, and Joe P. Mahoney
J. S. Uhlmeyer, K. Willoughby, and L. M. Pierce, Materials Laboratory, Washington State Department of Transportation,
P.O. Box 47365, Olympia, WA 98504-7365. J. P. Mahoney, Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington,
Box 352700, Seattle, WA 98195-2700.

FULL
TEXT

For years, pavement engineers within the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT)
have observed that longitudinal and fatigue (multiple-interconnected) cracks in their thicker asphalt
concrete (AC) pavements appeared to crack from the top of the wearing course downward. Often, the
cracks stop at the interface between the wearing course and the underlying bituminous layers (a depth
of about 50 mm). Studies done elsewhere in the United States and internationally have reported similar
results. The results of extensive coring that WSDOT routinely collects in its pavement rehabilitation
process were compared in a study. WSDOT normally cores AC pavements to determine thickness for
use in mechanistic-empirical design. In addition to coring for AC thickness, specific information noting
surface-initiated (top-down) cracking with the crack depth or full-depth cracking was noted. WSDOT
observed top-down cracking occurring in the thicker sections, with thinner sections cracking full depth.
Top-down cracking generally started within 3 to 8 years of paving for pavement sections that were
structurally adequate and were designed for adequate equivalent single-axle loads.

Load and Displacement Prediction for

Shakedown Analysis of Layered Pavements
S. H. Shiau and H. S. Yu
Department of Civil, Surveying, and Environmental Engineering, The University of Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia.

FULL
TEXT

A complete shakedown assessment of pavement behavior under repeated loading requires a shakedown
load analysis as well as a displacement evaluation. Both load and displacement bounding calculations at
shakedown are presented, and the pavement subjected to repeated loading is analyzed as a plane strain
problem. The proposed shakedown load formulation is verified by using numerical results for a
homogeneous isotropic half space. To illustrate the relevance of the numerical formulations, the
numerically determined residual stresses are compared with available experimental data. The variation
of shakedown loads with different material properties for two-layered pavements is investigated in
detail. The results of permanent displacement bounds are presented and compared with the
displacement finite element calculation. Simple design charts for the layered pavements are presented.

Impact of Changing Traffic

Characteristics and Environmental
Conditions on Flexible Pavements
Zhanmin Zhang, Joseph P. Leidy, Izydor Kawa, and W. Ronald Hudson
Z. Zhang and I. Kawa, Center for Transportation Research, The University of Texas at Austin, ECJ Hall 6.100,
Austin, TX 78712-1076. J. P. Leidy, Texas Department of Transportation, 125 East 11th Street, Austin, TX 78701.
W. R. Hudson, Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712.

FULL
TEXT

Although the trend for the next generation of pavement design methods is shifting to mechanistic
design, the use of design methods based on the AASHO road test results is still the current design
practice in Texas and some other states. Critical to these design methods are the AASHTO load
equivalency factors (LEFs), which are used to convert the mixed traffic axle loads into standard 18-kip
(80.1-kN) equivalent single-axle loads. Several studies have been conducted on the subject of load
equivalency for pavement design and analysis. However, there remain uncertainties related to various
issues of load equivalency. Over the years, the composition and characteristics of traffic using Texas
highways have been changing. The North American Free Trade Agreement has accelerated such
changes in that more trucks, primarily moving among midwestern states, Texas, and Mexico, are
traveling on Texas highways. In addition, the original AASHO road test was conducted at a site
with environmental conditions significantly different from the environmental conditions in Texas.
It is therefore critical to understand fully the impact of such changing traffic characteristics and
environmental conditions on pavements in Texas. Presented is the methodology used to analyze the
impact of these factors on the AASHTO LEFs.

Mechanistic-Empirical Approach for

Modeling Reflection Cracking
Ahmed A. Eltahan and Robert L. Lytton
A. A. Eltahan, Fugro-BRE, Inc., 8240 Mopac Expressway, Suite 220, Austin, TX 78759. R. L. Lytton, Texas Transportation
Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843.

FULL
TEXT

Models developed to predict reflective cracking in flexible pavement overlays do not explicitly
incorporate the combined effect of the cracked and uncracked areas in the original pavement. This
affects the development of cracks in the overlay. Therefore, a model is needed that will incorporate this
factor explicitly, making predicting of cracking in pavement overlays more realistic in pavement
management systems and pavement reliability. A mechanistic approach based on fracture mechanics
with an empirical stochastic form to develop the desired model is presented. This approach has been
adopted because the new design trends (such as the new 2002 AASHTO design guide) will follow a more
mechanistic approach than the current trends. In addition, this approach is lacking in the literature for
data of in-service roads. The use of the developed model for the study of crack initiation is presented.
Data obtained from the Florida Department of Transportation are divided into Interstates and
arterials. The results show that the proposed model predicts the observed cracking with an R2 of 0.72
for the Interstates and 0.40 for the arterials. Because the exact time of crack initiation is not recorded,
the observed crack-initiation time is approximated by the last time no cracking was observed (i.e., right
before cracking was first recorded). The proposed methodology predicts the crack-initiation time with
an average absolute error of 18.6 percent.

Cost-Effectiveness of Paving Fabrics

Used to Control Reflective Cracking
William G. Buttlar, Diyar Bozkurt, and Barry J. Dempsey
W. G. Buttlar, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, 205 North
Mathews Avenue, 1212 Newmark Laboratory, Urbana, IL 61801. D. Bozkurt, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, 205 North Mathews Avenue, 3214 Newmark Laboratory, Urbana,
IL 61801. B. J. Dempsey, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign,
205 North Mathews Avenue, 1215 Newmark Laboratory, Urbana, IL 61801.

FULL
TEXT

The Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT) spends $2 million annually on reflective crack control
treatments; however, the cost-effectiveness of these treatments had not been reliably determined. A recent
study evaluated the cost-effectiveness of IDOT reflective crack control System A, which consists of a
nonwoven polypropylene paving fabric, placed either in strips longitudinally over lane-widening joints or
over the entire pavement (area treatment). The study was limited to projects constructed originally as
rigid pavements and subsequently rehabilitated with one or more bituminous overlays. Performance of
52 projects across Illinois was assessed through crack mapping and from distress and serviceability data
in IDOTs condition rating survey database. Comparisons of measured reflective cracking in treated and
control sections revealed that System A retarded longitudinal reflective widening crack development, but
it did not significantly retard transverse reflective cracking, which agrees with earlier studies. However,
both strip and area applications of these fabric treatments appeared to improve overall pavement
serviceability, and they were estimated to increase rehabilitation life spans by 1.1 and 3.6 years,
respectively. Reduction in life-cycle costs was estimated to be 4.4 and 6.2 percent when placed in medium
and large quantities, respectively, and to be at a break-even level for small quantities. However, life-cycle
benefits were found to be statistically insignificant. Limited permeability testing of field cores taken on
severely distressed transverse joints suggested that waterproofing benefits could exist even after crack
reflection. This was consistent with the observation that, although serviceability was generally improved
with area treatment, crack reflection was not retarded relative to untreated areas.

Rubblization of Concrete Pavements

Field Investigation
Michael G. Niederquell, Gilbert Y. Baladi, and Karim Chatti
Pavement Research Center of Excellence, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University,
3546 Engineering Building, East Lansing, MI 48824.

FULL
TEXT

Substantial resources are required to preserve aging highway systems. Various alternatives have been
used for the rehabilitation of concrete pavements, including bonded and unbonded overlays, full-depth
repair, crack and seat and asphalt overlay, joint and crack repairs, asphalt overlay, and rubblization
with asphalt surface overlay. Presented are the results of extensive field investigation of rubblized
concrete pavements. Various trenches were made in the rubblized pavements before the asphalt surface
was placed. Some trenches were made at midslab, and others were made at old joints and cracks. In
some trenches, permeability tests were conducted. Advantages and shortcomings of the rubblization
procedures are presented and discussed. It is shown that well-executed rubblization procedures lead to
durable pavements and that, for certain concrete pavements, rubblization is not a viable option because
it may lead to inadequate pavement performance.

Construction and Performance of

Fly AshStabilized Cold In-Place
Recycled Asphalt Pavement in Wisconsin
James A. Crovetti
Department of Civil Engineering, Marquette University, Haggerty Hall, Room 267, P.O. Box 1881, Milwaukee, WI 53201-1881.

FULL
TEXT

Cold in-place recycling (CIR) is a common rehabilitation practice used in Wisconsin to improve the ride
quality and structural capacity of deteriorated asphalt pavements. In recent years, increased emphasis
has been placed on incorporating stabilizers into the CIR materials to improve the structural capacity
of the CIR base layer. This improvement can serve to increase the performance life of the completed
pavement or to allow for a reduced hot-mix asphalt (HMA) surface thickness. The city of Mequon,
Wisconsin, included asphalt emulsion and fly ash CIR stabilization over a portion of its CIR projects in
1997. Presented are the findings relating to the constructability of the fly ashstabilized CIR pavement
as well as performance trends for the CIR pavements based on distress and deflection testing results.
CIR is a common rehabilitation practice used in Wisconsin to improve the ride quality and structural
capacity of deteriorated asphalt pavements. In one type of CIR application, existing HMA layers are
pulverized, graded, and compacted, then used as a base layer for a new HMA surface. The pulverization
process is completed to provide uniformity of support to the HMA surface and to significantly reduce
or eliminate the occurrence of reflection cracking of the HMA surface. In most CIR applications,
pulverization is completed through the full thickness of the existing HMA layers, as well as through the
top 25 to 50 mm of aggregate base. Penetration into unbound aggregate base materials aids in cooling
of the bits on the pulverizer mandrel. After pulverization, graders typically are used to spread the
materials to the desired width and shape. Compaction is achieved by using vibrating steel drum and
pneumatic-tire rollers. The moisture content of the CIR materials is adjusted, as necessary, by surface
spraying from a water tanker truck.

Evaluation of Concrete Pavement

Rehabilitation Techniques on I-65 in Indiana
Sedat Gulen and A. Samy Noureldin
Division of Research, INDOT, 1205 Montgomery Street, P.O. Box 2279, West Lafayette, IN 47906.

FULL
TEXT

Construction of hot mix asphalt (HMA) overlays on top of old concrete pavements is the most common
concrete pavement rehabilitation strategy. These overlays, however, usually are subject to reflection
cracking related to the movement of the old concrete slab. In addition, these overlays may be vulnerable
to rutting when subjected to large traffic volumes of heavy trucks. Concrete overlays have the
advantage of being rut resistant compared with HMA overlays. However, the current national
experience of the performance of these overlays is limited, compared with HMA overlays. Doubts often
are raised about the cost-effectiveness of these overlays, the ease of their rehabilitation at the end of
their design life, and the time required to close the road to traffic for ongoing and postconstruction
operations. Presented is an evaluation of three concrete pavement rehabilitation techniques employed
on I-65 in Indiana: (a) a fiber-modified HMA overlay on top of cracked and seated concrete pavement;
(b) an HMA overlay on top of rubblized concrete pavement; and (c) an unbonded concrete overlay on
top of 30-mm intermediate HMA layer on top of old concrete pavement. Evaluation of these techniques
will continue until 2002. Performance of these rehabilitation techniques was assessed considering the
performance of restoration (no overlay) techniques applied in 1985 on the same highway segment. It
was concluded that all rehabilitation techniques performed satisfactorily. The unbonded concrete
overlay segment exhibited the best performance in reflection cracks elimination, structural capacity,
and skid resistance. The rubblized segment exhibited the best performance in ride quality and
uniformity of structural capacity. Life-cycle cost analysis suggested that the unbonded concrete overlay
was the most cost-effective segment.

Pavement Rehabilitation Selection

Based on Mechanistic Analysis and
Field Diagnosis of Falling Weight
Deflectometer Data
Virginia Experience
Sameh Zaghloul and Mohamed Elfino
S. Zaghloul, Stantec Consulting Ltd., 152 Main Street, Cambridge, Ontario, N1R 6R1 Canada.
M. Elfino, Virginia Department of Transportation, 1401 East Broad Street, Richmond, VA 23219.

FULL
TEXT

The effectiveness of using the field diagnosis and falling weight deflectometer (FWD) mechanistic
analysis in reducing a 65-km (40-mi) segment of asphalt pavement to project level segments is discussed,
along with selecting a cost-effective rehabilitation strategy. A mechanistic-based analysis was performed
on the deflection basins measured from I-85 in Virginia to backcalculate the layer moduli. The 65-km
segment was divided into structurally homogeneous sections based on the backcalculated layer moduli.
The data of each homogeneous section were analyzed further to assess the in situ structural capacity, to
identify weak layers, to estimate the remaining structural life, and to determine the current and future
rehabilitation needs. It was found that some sections have almost no remaining structural life, and
others have remaining structural life of more than 10 years. A comparison was made between the
FWDfield diagnosis rehabilitation program and a visual inspection rehabilitation program. Results of
the comparison indicated that the visual inspection rehabilitation program resulted in selecting thicker
overlays for some of the project sections (overdesigned) and thinner overlays for the other sections
(underdesigned). It is estimated that the difference between the FWDfield diagnosis rehabilitation
program and the visual inspection rehabilitation program for the overdesigned sections is in the range
of 45 percent of the construction cost (savings). Life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) was performed to
quantify the difference between the two rehabilitation programs for the underdesigned sections. Results
of the LCCA indicated that the FWDfield diagnosis rehabilitation program would result in 26 percent
and 42 percent reduction in the construction cost and user delay cost, respectively.