Electron theory and atoms

All matter is comprised of molecules, which in turn are comprised of atoms, which are again
comprised of protons, neutrons and electrons. A molecule is the smallest part of matter
which can exist by itself and contains one or more atoms.
Electron theory and atoms
Resistance
In the topic current we learnt that certain materials such as copper have many free electrons.
Other materials have fewer free electrons and substances such as glass have practically no
free electron movement therefore making good insulators. Between the extremes of good
conductors such as silver, copper and good insulators such as glass and rubber lay other
conductors of reduced conducting ability, they "resist" the flow of electrons hence the term
resistance..
Resistance
Ohms Law
Ohms law, named after Mr. Ohm, defines the relationship between power, voltage, current
and resistance. These are the very basic electrical units we work with. The principles apply
to a.c., d.c. or r.f. (radio frequency).
Ohms Law
Current
A flow of electrons forced into motion by voltage is known as current. The atoms in good
conductors such as copper wire have one or more free electrons of the outer ring constantly
flying off. Electrons from other nearby atoms fill in the holes. There are billions of electrons
moving aimlessly in all directions, all the time in conductors.
Current
Voltage
Voltage should be more correctly called "potential difference". Voltage is actually the
electron moving force in electricity (emf) and the potential difference is responsible for the
pushing and pulling of electrons or electric current through a circuit.
Voltage
Capacitance

In the topic current we learnt of the unit of measuring electrical quantity or charge was a
coulomb. Now a capacitor (formerly condenser) has the ability to hold a charge of electrons.
The number of electrons it can hold under a given electrical pressure (voltage) is called its
capacitance or capacity. Two metallic plates separated by a non-conducting substance
between them make a simple capacitor. Here is the symbol of a capacitor in a pretty basic
circuit charged by a battery.
Capacitance
Inductance
The property of inductance might be described as "when any piece of wire is wound into a
coil form it forms an inductance which is the property of opposing any change in current".
Alternatively it could be said "inductance is the property of a circuit by which energy is
stored in the form of an electromagnetic field.
Inductance
Reactance
Reactance is the property of resisting or impeding the flow of ac current or ac voltage
in inductors and capacitors. Note particularly we speak of alternating current only ac, which
expression includes audio af and radio frequencies rf. NOT direct current dc.This leads to
inductive reactance and capacitive reactance.
Reactance
Resonance
Resonance occurs when the reactance of an inductor balances the reactance of a capacitor at
some given frequency. In such a resonant circuit where it is in series resonance, the current
will be maximum and offering minimum impedance. In parallel resonant circuits the
opposite is true.
Resonance
Impedance
Impedance is one of the most confusing aspects of electronics - I will de-mystify impedance
by taking an extremely casual approach. I have known electronic enthusiasts who still
couldn't even mentally visualise the concept of impedance even after 25 years.
Impedance
Diodes

Diodes are semiconductor devices which might be described as passing current in one
direction only. The latter part of that statement applies equally to vacuum tube diodes.
Diodes however are far more versatile devices than that. They are extremely versatile in
fact.
Diodes
Transistors
Generally transistors fall into the category of bipolar transistor, either the more common
NPN transistors or the less common PNP transistor types. There is a further type known as a
FET transistor which is an inherently high input impedance transistor with behaviour
somewhat comparable to valves. Modern FET's include some very rugged transistor
devices.
Transistors
Transformers
The name transformers is derived from the fact that when two coils are placed in close
inductive proximity to one another the lines of force from one cut across the the turns of the
other inducing an ac current, energy is transformed from one winding to another and this is
called transformer action.
Transformers
Radio Terminology
start in the fascinating and wonderful world of electronics by learning the primary basics radio terminology. You need a clear understanding of all radio and electronics terms.
Radio-Terminology A-L
Radio-Terminology M-Z
Soldering
Among the foremost of reasons an electronic project frequently fails to work properly is due
to "poor" soldering practices. This is usually caused by "dry joints" when soldering. Here I
discuss the correct procedures for soldering electronic projects.
Soldering
Electronic project tools

The absolute minimum of electronics projects tools to successfully undertake any electronic
project you need needle nose pliers, diagonal cutters, a quality soldering iron and a digital
multimeter. The pliers are used to bend resistor leads etc, the soldering iron for soldering
components together and the diagonal cutters for removing excess component leads. To test
your electronic project you need a digital multimeter to test for circuit continuity, measure
circuit resistances and voltages.
Constructing electronic projects
Power Supplies
Everybody needs to understand the basics of Power Supplies. Several tutorials
including switched mode power supplies

Atoms and electrons

Everybody knows about atoms and electrons don't they? Well we could skip this part but of
course we won't because you will likely learn something new.
Electron theory states all matter is comprised of molecules, which in turn are comprised of
atoms, which are again comprised of protons, neutrons and electrons. A molecule is the
smallest part of matter which can exist by itself and contains one or more atoms.
If you turn on a light switch for example you will see the light bulb (globe) glow and emit
light into the room. So what caused this to happen? How does energy travel through copper
wires to light the bulb? How does energy travel through space? What makes a motor turn, a
radio play?
To understand these processes requires an understanding of the basic principles. For the
light to glow requires energy to find a path through the light switch, through the copper wire
and this movement is calledelectron flow. It is also called current flow in electronics. This
is the first important principle to understand.
The word matter includes almost everything. It includes copper, wood, water, air....virtually
everything. If we were able to take a piece of matter such as a drop of water, divided it by
two and kept dividing by two until it couldn't be divided any further whileit was still water
we would eventually have a molecule of water.
A molecule, the smallest particle which can exist, of water comprises two atoms of
Hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen - H2O.
An atom is also divisible - into protons and electrons. Both are electrical particles and
neither is divisible. Electrons are the smallest and lightest and are said to
be negatively charged. Protons on the other hand are about 1800 times the mass of electrons

and are positively charged. Each are thought to have lines of forces (electric fields)
surrounding them. In theory, negative lines of force will not join other negative lines of
force. In fact they tend to repel each other. Similarly positive lines of force act in the same
way.
The fact that electrons repel electrons and protons repel protons, but electrons and protons
attract one another follows the basic law of physics:
Like forces repel and unlike forces attract.

Sounds a bit like a teenage romance - opposites attract.

When an electron and proton are brought in close proximity to one another it is the electron
which moves because the proton is 1800 times heavier. It is the electron which moves
in electricity. Even though the electron is much smaller, its field is quite strong negatively
and is equal to the positive field of the proton.
If the field strength around an electron at a distance of 1,000,000th of a centimetre was a
certain amount, then the field strength around an electron at a distance of 2,000,000th of a
centimetre will be 1/4 as much. This is because the field decreases inversely with the
distance squared. If an increase in one thing causes an increase in something else, these two
things are said to vary directly. 2,000,000 electrons on an object produce twice the negative
charge than 1,000,000 electrons would.
Since the electric-field strength of an electron varies inversely with the distance squared, the
field strength a centimetre away would be quite weak. The fields surrounding protons and
electrons are known as electrostatic fields. "Static" means stationary or not moving.
When electrons are made to move, the result is dynamic electricity. "Dynamic" means
movement. To produce a movement of an electron it is necessary to either have a negatively
charged field "push it", a positively charged field "pull it", or, as normally occurs in an
electric circuit, a negative and positive charge (a pushing and pulling of forces).
There are more than one hundred different atoms or elements. The simplest and lightest is
Hydrogen. An atom of Hydrogen consists of one electron whirling around one proton much
like the moon revolving around the earth. The next atom in terms of weight is Helium (He)
consisting two protons and two electrons. The third atom is Lithium (Li) with three protons
and three electrons and so it goes on.
Some of the elements and their atomic weights are:
Hydrogen (1); Helium (2); Lithium (3); Carbon (6); Oxygen (8); Aluminium (13); Silicon
(14); Iron (26); Nickel (28); Copper (29); Germanium (32); Gold (79); Lead (82).
Most atoms have a nucleus consisting of all the protons of the atom and also one or more
neutrons. The remainder of the electrons (always equal in number to the nuclear protons) are

whirling around the nucleus in different layers. The first layer of electrons outside the
nucleus can only accomodate two electrons. If the atom has three electrons then two will be
in the first layer and the third will be in the next layer. The second layer is completely filled
when eight electrons are whirling around it. The third is filled when eighteen electrons are
whirling around.
Don't think these electrons whirl around in some haphazard manner, they don't. The
electrons in an element of a large atomic number are grouped into rings having a definite
number of electrons. The only atoms in which these rings are completely filled are those of
inert gaseous elements such as Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon.
All the other elements have one or more uncompleted rings of electrons.
Some of the electrons in the outer orbit of atoms such as copper or silver can be easily
dislodged. These electrons travel out into the wide open spaces between the atoms and
molecules and may be termed free electrons. It is the ability of these electrons to drift from
atom to atom which makes electric current possible. Other electrons will resist
dislodgement and are called bound electrons.
Electron Theory and Metals
It would be impossible for electronics to exist without metals and they are crucial to modern
technology. Here are some of the properties of a few metals commonly used in electronics.

Figure 1. - properties of selected metals

Note: Iron is the only metal significantly affected by a magnet.

1. Density at 20 C is Kg per M

2. Ohms

-1

3. These properties can be altered dramatically by the presence of relatively small amounts
of impurities.

Another property of metals is malleability. This is because rows of positive ions can easiy
slide over one another and still maintain a regular pattern. This is the reason why metals can
be stretched without breaking.
Alloys
Most metals in use today are in fact alloys. Common examples are stainless steel, high speed
steel from which our drill bits are made and in common use in electronics - Solder (60% Sn,
40% Pb - that's tin and lead) and; Nichrome for resistance wire and electrical heating
elements (80% Ni, 20% Cr - that's nickel and chrome).
What is resistance?
In the topic current we learnt that certain materials such as copper have many free
electrons. Other materials have fewer free electrons and substances such as glass, rubber,
mica have practically no free electron movement therefore making good insulators. Between
the extremes of good conductors such as silver, copper and good insulators such as glass and
rubber lay other conductors of reduced conducting ability, they "resist" the flow of electrons
hence the term resistance.
The specific resistance of a conductor is the number of ohms in a 1' (305mm) long 0.001"
dia round wire of that material.
Some examples on that basis are Silver = 9.75 ohms, Copper = 10.55 ohms, Nickel = 53.0
ohms and Nichrome = 660 ohms
From this information we can deduce that for a voltage applied to a piece of Nichrome
wire , only around 10.55 / 660 = 0.016 of the amount of current will flow as opposed to the
the current flowing in the same size copper wire.
The unit of resistance is the ohm and 1 ohm is considered the resistance of round copper
wire, 0.001" diameter, 0.88" (22.35 mm) long at 32 deg F (0 deg C).
Resistance in series and parallel
It follows if two such pieces of wire were connected end to end (in series) then the
resistance would be doubled, on the other hand if they were placed side by side (in parallel)
then the resistance would be halved!
This is a most important lesson about resistance. Resistors in series add together as R1 + R2
+ R3 + ..... While resistors in parallel reduce by 1 / (1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 + .....)
Consider three resistors of 10, 22, and 47 ohms respectively. Added in series we get 10 + 22
+ 47 = 79 ohms. While in parallel we would get 1 / (1 / 10 + 1 / 22 + 1 / 47) = 5.997 ohms.
Resistance and Power

Next we need to consider the power handling capability of our resistors. Resistors which are
deliberately designed to handle and radiate large amounts of power are electric cooktops,
ovens, radiators, electric jugs and toasters. These are all made to take advantage of power
handling capabilities of certain materials.
From our topic on ohms law we learnt that P = I * I * R that is, power equals the current
squared times the resistance. Consider our example above of the three resistors in series
providing a total resistance of 79 ohms. If these resistors were placed across a 24 volt power
supply then the amount of current flowing, from ohms law, is I = E / R = 24 / 79 = 0.304
amperes.
Using any of our power formulas we determine that 0.304 amperes flowing through our 79
ohm resistance dissipates a combined 7.3 watts of power! Worse, because our resistors are
of unequal value the power distribution will be unequal with the greater dissipation in the
largest resistor.
It follows as a fundamental rule in using resistors in electronic circuits that the resistor must
be able to comfortably handle the power it will dissipate. A rule of thumb is to use
a wattage rating of at least twice the expected dissipation.
Common resistors in use in electronics today come in power ratings of 0.25W, 0.5W, 1W
and 5W. Other special types are available to order. Because of precision manufacturing
processes it is possible to obtain resistors in the lower wattage ratings which are quite close
in tolerance of their designated values. Typical of this type are the .25W range which exhibit
a tolerance of plus / minus 2% of the value.
Resistors come in a range of values but the two most common are the E12 and E24 series.
The E12 series comes in twelve values for every decade. The E24 series comes in twenty
four values per decade.
E12 series - 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82
E24 series - 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 43, 47, 51, 56, 62, 68,
75, 82, 91
You will notice with the E12 values that each succeeding value falls within the plus / minus
10% of the previous values. This stems from the real old days when resistances were stated
as within 20% tolerance (accuracy). Later values of plus / minus 5% tolerance led to the E24
range of resistance. Quite common today are 2% tolerance metal films types but for general
purpose use we tend to stick to E12 values of resistance in either 1%, 2% or 5% tolerance.
Cost is the determining factor and many retailers now stock the 2% range of resistance as a
standard to minimise stocking levels and also at reasonably low cost.
As examples of say the "22" types (red - red) from the E12 series we get 0.22, 2.2, 22, 220,
2,200, 22,000, 220,000 and 2,200,000 or eight decades of resistors.

In my opinion these ought to be referred to respectively as R22, 2R2, 22R, 220R, 2K2, 22K,
220K and 2M2. Here the R, K and M hold places where no decimal points are used to cause
confusion.
Consider if I meant to write (in the old fashioned way) 2.2K in for a circuit value but forgot
to type in the "K" so you just had 2.2, would the circuit work? No! How easy is it for you to
read decimal points above.
Isn't 2K2 easier to see as meaning 2,200 ohms as against 2.2K? What if you didn't see the
decimal point in 2.2K, couldn't it be taken to mean 22K or 22,000 ohms? Now you know
why I prefer to use 2K2 or 22K or 22R - no confusion.
Resistance colour chart codes
Here in this large colour chart is the resistance colour code - learn the sequence forever BLACK, BROWN, RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, GREEN, BLUE, PURPLE, SILVER,
WHITE
I have accommodated two current colour banding of resistances - four band and five band
resistance colour code. It should be pretty self explanatory I hope.

The five band code is more likely to be associated with the more precision 1% and 2%
types. Your "garden variety" 5% general purpose types will be four band resistance codes

Why is ohms law so very important?

Ohms law, sometimes more correctly called Ohm's Law, named after Mr. Georg Ohm,
mathematician and physicist b. 1789 d. 1854 - Bavaria, defines the relationship between
power, voltage, current andresistance. These are the very basic electrical units we work
with. The principles apply to a.c., d.c. or r.f. (radio frequency).
Ohms Law is the a foundation stone of electronics and electricity. These formulae are very
easy to learn and are used extensively throughout our tutorials. Without a thorough

understanding of "ohms law" you will not get very far either in design or in troubleshooting
even the simplest of electronic or electrical circuits.
Would you believe I receive email from fools who assert "all this mathematical rubbish over
ohms law is totally unecessary" - actually I've 'cleaned' that up a bit. They are the true nonbelievers, the guaranteed non-achievers of the future.
Mr. Ohm (that is his 'real'name) [Georg Ohm b 1789 d 1854 - Bavaria] established in the
late 1820's that if a voltage [later found to be either A.C., D.C. or R.F.] was applied to
a resistance then "current would flow and then power would be consumed".
Some practical every day examples of this very basic rule are:
Radiators (electric fires), Electric Frypans, Toasters, Irons and electric light bulbs.

Figure 1 - ohms law power consumption through a resistance

The radiator consumes power producing heat for warmth, the frypan consumes power
producing heat for general cooking, the toaster consumes power producing heat for cooking
toast, the iron consumes power producing heat for ironing our clothes and the electric light
bulb consumes power producing heat and more important light for lighting up an area. A
further example is an electric hot water system. All are examples of ohms law at its most
basic.
Hot and Cold Resistance encountered in Ohms Law
One VERY important point to observe with ohms law in dealing with some of those
examples is that quite often there are two types of resistance values. "Cold Resistance" as
would be measured by an ohm-meter ordigital multimeter and a "Hot Resistance". The latter
is a phenomenem of the material used for forming the the resistance itself, it has a
temperature co-efficient which often once heated alters the initial resistance value,
usually dramatically upward.
A very good working example of this is an electric light bulb.
bright idea " .

"what may be termed a

I just measured the first light bulb with my digital multimeter. It showed zero resistance, in
fact open circuit. That's what you get, when for safety reasons you put a burnt out bulb back
into an empty packet and a "neat and tidy" wife puts it back into the cupboard.
.
O.K. here's a "goodie" and, it's labelled "240V - 60W", it measured an initial "cold
resistance" of 73.2 ohms. Then I measured our actual voltage at a power point as being
243.9V A.C. at the moment [note: voltages vary widely during a day due to locations and
loads - remember that fact - also for pure resistances, the principles apply equally to A.C. or
D.C.].
Using the formula which you will learn below, the resistance for power consumed should be
R = E / P OR R = 243.9 / 60W = 991 ohms
2

That is 991 ohms calculated compared to an initial reading of 73.2 ohms with a digital
multimeter? The reason? The "hot" resistance is always at least ten times the "cold"
resistance.
Now through our "Electronics Q&A" I asked people around the world to perform similar
measurements for me. The results were substantially the same even allowing for the
different AC voltage levels in different countries.
Another example is what is most often the biggest consumer of power in the average home.
The "electric jug", "electric kettle" or what ever it is called in your part of the world. Most
people are astonished by that news. My "electric kettle" is labelled as "230 - 240V 2200W".
Yes 2,200 watts! That is why it boils water so quickly. [As a former plumber among my
many qualifications, I could give you the formula of power required to boil water in a
certain space of time, but I won't - alright, it's at the VERY, VERY bottom of this page.]
What are the ohms law formulas?
To make it much easier for you I have put all the relevent formulas together for you here
complete with worked examples of ohms law. You will notice the formulas share a common
algebraic relationship with one another.
For the worked examples voltage is E and we have assigned a value of 12V, Current is I and
is 2 amperes while resistance is R of 6 ohms. Note that "*" means multiply by, while "/"
means divide by.
For voltage [E = I * R]
2 amperes * 6 ohms

E (volts) = I (current) * R (resistance) OR 12 volts =

For current [I = E / R]
I (current) = E (volts) / R (resistance) OR 2
amperes = 12 volts / 6 ohms
For resistance [R = E / I] R (resistance) = E (volts) / I (current) OR 6 ohms =
12 volts / 2 amperes

Notice how simple it is?

Now let's calculate power using the same examples.
For power

P = E / R OR Power = 24 watts = 12 volts / 6 ohms

2

Also

P = I * R OR Power = 24 watts = 2 amperes * 6 ohms

Also

P = E * I OR Power = 24 watts = 12 volts * 2 amperes

That's all you need for ohms law - remember just two formulas:
for voltage E = I * R and;
for power P = E / R
2

You can always determine the other formulas with elementary algebra.
Ohms law is the very foundation stone of electronics!
Knowing two quantities in ohms law will always reveal the third value. I suggest you print
these formulas out and paste them onto scrap cardboard to keep your ohms law as a handy
reference until you are quite familiar with it.
If you prefer I've added [2nd May, 2001] a graphical representation here in figure 2.
See further below for related topics and links including FREE downloads.

Figure 2 - ohms law graphical chart

What is current?
A flow of electrons forced into motion by voltage is known as current. The atoms in good
conductors such as copper wire have one or more free electrons of the outer ring constantly
flying off. Electrons from other nearby atoms fill in the holes. There are billions of electrons
moving aimlessly in all directions, all the time in conductors.
When an emf (voltage) is impressed across a conductor it drives these free electrons away
from the negative force toward the positive. This action takes place at near the speed of
light, 300,000,000 metres per second although individual electrons do not move far they
have a shunting effect. This is similar to a number of cars pulled up at traffic lights when the
last vehicle fails to stop and hits the second last vehicle which in turn hits the third last
vehicle...............
The amount of current in a circuit is measured in amperes (amps). Smaller units used in
electronics are milli-amps mA (1 / 1,000th of an ampere) and micro-amps uA (1 /
1,000,000th of an ampere). An ampere is the number of electrons going past a certain point
in one second.
The quantity of electrons used in determining an ampere is called "coulomb" which one
ampere is one coulomb per second. A coulomb is 6,280,000,000,000,000,000 or 6.28 X
10 electrons.
18

This (a coulomb) is the unit of measuring electrical quantity or charge.

What is voltage?
Voltage should be more correctly called "potential difference". It is actually the electron
moving force in electricity (emf) and the potential difference is responsible for the pushing
and pulling of electrons or electric current through a circuit.
Sources of electromotive force (EMF) or voltage
To produce a drift of electrons, or electric current, along a wire it is necessary that there be a
difference in "pressure" or potential between the two ends of the wire. This potential
difference can be produced by connecting a source of electrical potential to the ends of the
wire.
As I will explain later, there is an excess of electrons at the negative terminal of a battery
and a deficiency of electrons at the positive terminal, due to chemical action.
Then it can be seen that a potential difference is the result of the difference in the number of
electrons between the terminals. The force or pressure due to a potential difference is termed
e.m.f. or voltage.
See: electron theory

An emf also exists between two objects whenever there is a difference in the number of free
electrons per unit volume of the object. If the two objects are both negative, current will
flow from the more negatively charged to the less negatively charged when they are
connected together. There will also be an electron flow from a less positively charged object
to a more positively charged object.
The electrostatic field, i.e. the strain of the electrons trying to reach a positive charge or
from a more highly negative charge is emf or voltage.
It is expressed in units called volts, short for voltage. A volt can be defined as the pressure
required to force a current of one ampere through a resistance of one ohm.
To make this easier to visualise, consider the water pressure (voltage) required to pass a litre
of water (current) through a copper pipe of a certain small diameter (resistance).
Also try and visualise water going through other pipes of varying diameters (smaller to
larger in size). Either the water pressure required would vary or the volume delivered would
vary, or both.
You have just grasped the basics of ohms law, where E = voltage; I = current in amperes and
R = reistance in ohms:
This voltage can be generated in many different ways
Some examples:
Chemical (batteries) e.g. dry cell 1.5V, wet cell storage about 2.1V
Electromagnetic (generators)
Thermal (heating junctions of dis-similar metals)
Piezoelectric (mechanical vibration of certain crystals)
Photoelectric (light sensitive cells)
What is capacitance?
In the topic current we learnt of the unit of measuring electrical quantity or charge was a
coulomb. Now a capacitor (formerly condenser) has the ability to hold a charge of electrons.
The number of electrons it can hold under a given electrical pressure (voltage) is called its
capacitance or capacity. Two metallic plates separated by a non-conducting sunstance
between them make a simple capacitor. Here is the symbol of a capacitor in a pretty basic
circuit charged by a battery.

Figure 1. - capacitor schematic in a circuit

In this circuit when the switch is open the capacitor has no charge upon it, when the switch
is closed current flows because of the voltage pressure, this current is determined by the
amount of resistance in the circuit. At the instance the switch closes the emf forces electrons
into the top plate of the capacitor from the negative end of the battery and pulls others out of
the bottom plate toward the positive end of the battery.
Two points need to be considered here. Firstly as the current flow progresses more electrons
flow into the capacitor and a greater opposing emf is developed there to oppose further
current flow, the difference between battery voltage and the voltage on the capacitor
becomes less and less and current continues to decrease. When the capacitor voltage equals
the the battery voltage no further current will flow.
The second point is if the capacitor is able to store one coulomb of charge at one volt it is
said to have a capacitance of one Farad. This is a very large unit of measure. Power supply
capacitors are often in the region of 4,700 uF or 4,700 / millionths of a Farad. Radio circuits
often have capacitances down to 10 pF which is 10 / million, millionths of a Farad.
The unit uF stands for micro-farad (one millionth) and pF stands for pico-farad (one million,
millionths). These are the two common values of capacitance you will encounter in
electronics.
Time constant of capacitance
The time required for a capacitor to reach its charge is proportional to the capacitance value
and the resistance value.
The time constant of a resistance - capacitance circuit is:
T=RXC
where T = time in seconds
where R = resistance in ohms
where C = capacitance in farads

The time in this formula is the time to acquire 63% of the voltage value of the source. It is
also the discharge time if we were discharging the capacitance. Should the capacitance in
the figure above be 4U7 (4.7 uF) and the resistance was 1M ohms (one meg-ohm or
1,000,000 ohms) then the time constant would be T = R X C = [1,000,000 X 0.000,0047] =
4.7 seconds. These properties are taken advantage of in crude non critical timing circuits.
Capacitors in series and parallel
Capacitors in parallel ADD together as C1 + C2 + C3 + ..... While capacitors in series
REDUCE by:
1 / (1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + .....)
Consider three capacitors of 10, 22, and 47 uF respectively.
Added in parallel we get 10 + 22 + 47 = 79 uF. While in series we would get:
1 / (1 / 10 + 1 / 22 + 1 / 47) = 5.997 uF.
Note that the result is always LESS than the original lowest value.
Simplified calculations for Capacitors
We said above that parallel combinations simply add the values together. Series
combinations are somewhat more difficult requiring 1 / (1 / C1 + 1 / C2 + 1 / C3 + ...).
This can be simplified somewhat to:
[(C1 X C2) / (C1 + C2)]
Try three or more in series. Do the first two then arrive at an intermediate value, then do the
third with the intermediate value and so on.
What is even more difficult is if you need to use a series combination to get down from a
known value capacitor to a desired net value of capacitance. In that case use this formula:
[(C1 X C2) / (C1 - C2)]
As one example, if you have a 220 pF fixed capacitor but need a net value of about 68 pF:
[(220 X 68) / (220 - 68)] = 98.4 pF (use 100 pF)
Again try three or more in series. Do the first two then arrive at an intermediate value, then
do the third with the intermediate value and so on.

Remember low value capacitors are 5% tolerance and higher values are likely 10% so don't
get too paranoid with precision calculations. As an exercise play around with 18 pF 5%
tolerance and 82 pF 10% tolerance using both extreme ends of tolerance as well as their
nominal values. When we come to electrolytic capacitors the tolerance is often + 80% / 20% and require a DC polarization. Helps to keep things in a proper perspective.

Figure 2. - capacitors in series and in parallel

A very important property of Capacitors

Capacitors will pass AC currents but not DC. Throughout electronic circuits this very
important property is taken advantage of to pass ac or rf signals from one stage to another
while blocking any DC component from the previous stage.

Figure 3 - capacitors passing ac blocking dc

What do capacitors look like?

In figure 4 we have a photo of a selection of fixed and variable capacitors. The upper
capacitor is a variable capacitor. Down the left hand side we have a number of electolytic
capacitors.

Figure 4 - a selection of fixed and variable capacitors

The red capacitor in the lower left is a tag tantalum type of greater tolerance and high
stability. The yellow is a metallised polypropylene film type while the green ones at the right
are the popular polyester types "Greencaps".
In the middle are silver mica capacitors which I personally think are somewhat over rated
although these were 1% tolerance types. At the upper right is a 25 pF beehive trimmer.
Should your budget allow, consider building an LC meter kit to be able to measure either
the inductance of your chokes, inductors or even check the capacitance of capacitors.
Electrolytic Capacitors from by-gone years for radio restoration
Many radio restorers get stumped when it comes to finding replacement electrolytic
capacitors. This is especially so when looking for the high voltage types.
What is inductance?
The property of inductance might be described as "when any piece of wire is wound into a
coil form it forms an inductance which is the property of opposing any change in current".
Alternatively it could be said "inductance is the property of a circuit by which energy is
stored in the form of an electromagnetic field".
We said a piece of wire wound into a coil form has the ability to produce a counter emf
(opposing current flow) and therefore has a value of inductance. The standard value of
inductance is the Henry, a large value which like the Farad for capacitance is rarely

encountered in electronics today. Typical values of units encountered are milli-henries mH,
one thousandth of a henry or the micro-henry uH, one millionth of a henry.
A small straight piece of wire exhibits inductance (probably a fraction of a uH) although not
of any major significance until we reach UHF frequencies.
The value of an inductance varies in proportion to the number of turns squared. If a coil was
of one turn its value might be one unit. Having two turns the value would be four units
while three turns would produce nine units although the length of the coil also enters into
the equation.
Inductance formula
The standard inductance formula for close approximation - imperial and metric is:
imperial measurements
L = r2 X N2 / ( 9r + 10len )
where:
L = inductance in uH
r = coil radius in inches
N = number of turns
len = length of the coil in inches
metric measurements
L = 0.394r2 X N2 / ( 9r + 10len )
where:
L = inductance in uH
r = coil radius in centimetres
N = number of turns
len = length of the coil in centimetres

[ADDED 22nd May, 2002] Someone asked about a formula which takes into account the
spacing bewtween windings, the 10len above automatically takes that into account, if you're
confused think about it!.
High "Q" Inductance formula
It has been found that the optimum dimensions for a high "Q" air core inductor is where the
length of the coil is the same as the diameter of the coil. A simplified formula for inductance
has been derived to establish the required number of turns for a given inductance value.
metric measurements
N = SQRT [( 29 * L ) / (0.394r)]

where:
L = inductance in uH
r = coil radius in centimetres
N = number of turns

Solenoid Inductors
Coils wound on a former (with or without a core) may have multilayers of windings which
are called solenoid windings.
Self Resonant Frequency of an Inductance
All coils also exhibit a degree of self-capacitance caused by minute capacitances building up
around and between adjacent windings.
Depending upon the application this may be of considerable concern. This self-capacitance
combined with the natural inductance will form a resonant circuit (self-resonant frequency)
limiting the useful upper frequency of the coil. There are special winding techniques to to
use on occassion to minimise this self capacitance.
Iron Cores
If the coil is wound on an iron core the inductance is greatly increased and the magnetic
lines of force increase proportionally. This is the basis of electro-magnets used in solenoid
valves and relays.
Power Transformers
When the coil is wound on special iron laminations or cores and a second winding is placed
on the core a "transformer" results. This is the basis of all power transformers although only
alternating current (a.c.) can be transformed. The voltage relationship in transformers is
proportional to the turns. For example a power transformer might have 2,500 turns on the
primary side and the secondary side might have 126 turns. Such a relationship is 250 : 12.6
and if the primary were connected to 250V a.c. the secondary would produce a voltage of
12.6V a.c.
Interesting, if the core size and the wire diameter on the primary supported a primary current
of 100 mA, the the primary power available would be 250V X 100 mA or 250 X 0.1 = 25
watts. Ignoring core and copper losses we could say that 25 watts is now available on the
secondary side at 12.6V which is 25W / 12.6V = 1.98 amps. In practice we don't get that
kind of efficiency however it would pay to remember that most power transformers are
designed to function most efficient at or near full design load.
R.F. Transformers
In many radio applications the coil is wound on a ferrite or powdered iron core. Typical
examples are the ferrite rod receiving antenna used in cheap transistor radios or the i.f.

transformers enclosed in metal cans in those radios - red, yellow, black, green cores. The
core is manufactured to be optimum for the frequency range of interest and greatly enhances
the inductance for a specific number of turns. If we wound a coil on a blank former we
might get an inductance of say 10 uH, adding a specific core might increase the inductance
to 47 uH. By using screw in / screw out cores (as in the metal cans) we can vary the
inductance over a fair range of interest.
What is reactance?
Reactance is the property of resisting or impeding the flow of ac current or ac
voltage in inductors and capacitors. Note particularly we speak of alternating current only
ac, which expression includes audio af and radio frequencies rf. NOT direct current dc.
Inductive Reactance
When ac current flows through an inductance a back emf or voltage develops opposing any
change in the initial current. This opposition or impedance to a change in current flow is
measured in terms of inductive reactance.
Inductive reactance is determined by the formula:
2 * pi * f * L
where: 2 * pi = 6.2832; f = frequency in hertz and L = inductance in Henries

Capacitive Reactance
When ac voltage flows through a capacitance an opposing change in the initial voltage
occurs, this opposition or impedance to a change in voltage is measured in terms of
capacitive reactance.
Capacitive reactance is determined by the formula:
1 / (2 * pi * f * C)
where: 2 * pi = 6.2832; f = frequency in hertz and C = capacitance in Farads

Some examples of Reactance

What reactance does a 6.8 uH inductor present at 7 Mhz? Using the formula above we get:
2 * pi * f * L
where: 2 * pi = 6.2832; f = 7,000,000 Hz and L = .0000068 Henries
Answer: = 299 ohms

What reactance does a 33 pF capacitor present at 7 Mhz? Using the formula above we get:
1 / (2 * pi * f * C)
where: 2 * pi = 6.2832; f = 7,000,000 Hz and C = .0000000000033 Farads
Answer: = 689 ohms

Now in the real world we don't use big numbers like that, we use exponentials on our pocket
calculator to get numbers like this:
For inductive reactance
where: 2 * pi = 6.2832; f = 7 X 10+6 Hz and L = 6.8 X -6 Henries
Answer: = 299 ohms

For capacitive reactance

1 / (2 * pi * f * C)
where: 2 * pi = 6.2832; f = 7 X 10+6 Hz and C = 33 X -12 Farads
Answer: = 689 ohms

What is resonance?
Resonance occurs when the reactance of an inductor balances the reactance of a capacitor at
some given frequency. In such a resonant circuit where it is in series resonance, the current
will be maximum and offering minimum impedance. In parallel resonant circuits the
opposite is true.
Resonance formula
The formula for resonance is:
2 * pi * f * L = 1 / (2 * pi * f * C)
where: 2 * pi = 6.2832; f = frequency in hertz L = inductance in Henries and C = capacitance in Farads

Which leads us on to:

f = 1 / [2 * pi (sqrt LC)]
where: 2 * pi = 6.2832; f = frequency in hertz L = inductance in Henries and C = capacitance in Farads

A particularly simpler formula for radio frequencies (make sure you learn it) is:

LC = 25330.3 / f 2
where: f = frequency in Megahertz (Mhz) L = inductance in microhenries (uH) and C = capacitance in
picofarads (pF)

Following on from that by using simple algebra we can determine:

LC = 25330.3 / f 2 and L = 25330.3 / f 2 C and C = 25330.3 / f 2 L

Impedance at Resonance
In a series resonant circuit the impedance is at its lowest for the resonant frequency whereas
in a parallel resonant circuit the impedance is at its greatest for the resonant frequency. See
figure 1.

Figure 1 - resonance in series and parallel circuits

"For a series circuit at resonance, frequencies becoming far removed from resonance
see an ever increasing impedance. For a parallel circuit at resonance, frequencies
becoming far removed from resonance see an ever decreasing impedance".
That was a profoundly important statement. Please read it several times to fully understand
it.
A typical example to illustrate that statement are the numerous parallel circuits used in radio.
Look at the parallel resonant circuit above. At resonance that circuit presents such a high
impedance to the resonant circuit to the extent it is almost invisible and the signal passes by.
As the circuit departs from its resonant frequency, up or down, it presents a lessening
impedance and progressively allows other signals to leak to ground. At frequencies far
removed from resonance, the parallel resonant circuit looks like a short path to ground. For
series resonance the opposite is true.
What is impedance?
First comes the simple answer. If the demand exists we will provide a complex answer
to impedance later.

Now here comes one of the most confusing aspects of electronics - which I will de-mystify
by taking an extremely casual approach, so what's new!. I have known electronic enthusiasts
who still couldn't even mentally visualise the concept even after 25 years.
I'll keep it dead simple, very inelegant but dead simple and give all the purists heart
palpitations. I bet you walk away with a better understanding though.
If you need to know the technical answer for impedance and you should, then consult one of
the must read texts I will have suggested elsewhere.
A simple example of impedance
Assume you have available these 4 items on your bench:
(a) A series of eight fresh AA type 1.5 volt cells to create a total of 12 volts supply.
(b)
A
12
volt
heavy
duty
automotive
battery
fully
charged.
(c)
a
small
12v
bulb
(globe)
of
very,
very low wattage.
and;
(d) a very high wattage automotive high-beam headlight.

Now if we connect the extremely low wattage bulb to the series string of AA cells we would
expect all to work well. Similarly if we connect the high wattage, high-beam headlight to
the heavy duty automotive battery all will be well. Well for a time anyway. Both of these
sets are "sort"of matched together. Light duty to light duty and heavy duty to heavy duty.
Now what do you think would happen if we connect the high beam headlightto the series
AA cells and conversely the low wattage bulb to the automotive battery?.
In the first case we could imagine the high beam headlight would quickly trash our little tiny
AA cells. In the second case our min-wattage bulb would glow quite happily at its rated
wattage for quite a long time. Why?, therein lies my expanation of impedance. Consider it!
The heavy duty battery is capable of delivering relatively large amounts of power but the
series string is capable of delivering only relatively minimal power. The first is a low
impedance sourceand the other, in comparison is a relatively high impedance source.
On the other hand the high beam headlight is capable of consuming relatively large
amounts of power but the minature bulb is capable of consuming only minimal amounts
of power.
High Impedance loads and Low Impedance loads
Again the first is a low impedance load and the other is high impedance load. If you're
keen to apply ohms law you will discover why, research it through the text books.
Meanwhile take a well deserved coffee or tea break now and think it over. Me?, I'll just have
another beer while I'm waiting for you.

Good break?. If you were paying attention you would now be able to understand an analogy
- a particularly rough but effective one;
Imagine a tiny caterpiller chewing on a large blade of grass - no problem plenty to eat there.
Now on the other hand imagine a poor cow stuck in a desert with only one similar blade of
grass available to eat. I hope you have some better understanding now.
General expression of Impedance
The term impedance is a general expression which can be applied to any electrical
entity which impedes the flow of current. Thus this expression could be used to denote
a resistance, a purereactance, or as is most likely in the real world, a complex
combination of both reactance and resistance.
What are Diodes?
Diodes are semiconductor devices which might be described as passing current in one
direction only. The latter part of that statement applies equally to vacuum tube diodes.
Diodes however are far more versatile devices than that. They are extremely versatile in
fact. It might pay you to review the topic of Electron theory and atoms
Diodes can be used as voltage regulators, tuning devices in rf tuned circuits, frequency
multiplying devices in rf circuits, mixing devices in rf circuits, switching applications or can
be used to make logic decisions in digital circuits. There are also diodes which emit "light",
of course these are known as light-emitting-diodes or LED's. As we say diodes are
extremely versatile.
Schematic symbols for Diodes
A few schematic symbols for diodes are:

Figure 1 - schematic symbols for diodes

Types of Diodes
The first diode in figure 1 is a semiconductor diode which could be a small signal diode of
the 1N914 type commonly used in switching applications, a rectifying diode of the 1N4004
(400V 1A) type or even one of the high power, high current stud mounting types. You will
notice the straight bar end has the letter "k", this denotes the "cathode" while the "a"

denotes anode. Current can only flow from anode to cathode and not in the reverse
direction, hence the "arrow" appearance. This is one very important property of diodes.
The second of the diodes is a zener diode which are fairly popular for the voltage regulation
of low current power supplies. Whilst it is possible to obtain high current zener diodes,
most regulation today is done electronically with the use of dedicated integrated circuits and
pass transistors.
The next of the diodes in the schematic is a varactor or tuning diode. Depicted here is
actually two varactor diodes mounted back to back with the DC control voltage applied at
the common junction of the cathodes. These cathodes have the double bar appearance
of capacitors to indicate a varactor diode. When a DC control voltage is applied to the
common junction of the cathodes, the capacitance exhibited by the diodes (all diodes and
transistors exhibit some degree of capacitance) will vary in accordance with the applied
voltage. A typical example of a varactor diode would be the Philips BB204G tuning diodes
of which there are two enscapsulated in a TO-92 transistor package. At a reverse voltage Vr
(cathode to anode) of 20V each diode has a capacitance of about 16 pF and at Vr of 3V this
capacitance has altered to about 36 pF. Being low cost diodes, tuning diodes have virtually
replaced air variable capacitors in radio applications today.
The next diode is the simplest form of vacuum tube or valve. It simply has the old cathode
and anode. These terms were passed on to modern solid state devices. Vacuum tube diodes
are mainly only of interest to restorers and tube enthusiasts.
The last diode depicted is of course a light emitting diode or LED. A led actually doesn't
emit as much light as it first appears, a single LED has a plastic lens installed over it and this
concentrates the amount of light. Seven LED's can be arranged in a bar fashion called a
seven segment LED display and when decoded properly can display the numbers 0 - 9 as
well as the letters A to F.
Rectifying Diodes
The principal early application of diodes was in rectifying 50 / 60 Hz AC mains to raw DC
which was later smoothed by choke transformers and / or capacitors. This procedure is still
carried out today and a number of rectifying schemes for diodes have evolved, half wave,
full wave and bridge rectifiers.

Figure 2 - rectifying diodes

As examples in these applications the half wave rectifier passes only the positive half of
successive cycles to the output filter through D1. During the negative part of the cycle D1
does not conduct and no current flows to the load. In the full wave application it essentially
is two half wave rectifiers combined and because the transformer secondary is centre
tapped, D1 conducts on the positive half of the cycle while D2 conducts on the negative part
of the cycle. Both add together. This is more efficient. The full wave bridge rectifier
operates essentially the same as the full wave rectifier but does not require a cetre tapped
transformer. Further discussion may be seen on the topic power supplies.
A further application of rectifying diodes is in the conversion or detection of rf modulated
signals to audio frequencies. Typical examples are am modulated signals being detected and
early detection schemes for fm also used diodes for detecting modulation.
Voltage Regulating Diodes
For relatively light current loads zener diodes are a cheap solution to voltage regulation.
Zener diodes work on the principle of essentially a constant voltage drop at a predetermined
voltage (determined during manufacture). An example is a Philips BZX79C12 type with a
regulation range between 11.4V and 12.7V but typically 12V and a total power dissipation
of 500 mW in a DO-35 package. The dissipation can be extended by using a series pass
transistor, see power supplies. Notice in figure 3 there is a resistor to miminmise current
drawn but mainly as an aid to dropping the supply voltage and reducing the burden on the
zener diodes.

Figure 3 - zener voltage regulation diodes

In the second schematic of figure 3 we have three zener diodes in series providing voltages
of 5V, 10V, 12V, 22V and 27V all from a 36V supply. This configuration is not necessarily
recommended especially when the current being drawn is seriously mismatched between
voltages. It is presented purely out of interest.
Varactor or Tuning Diodes
These types of diodes work on the principle that all diodes exhibit some capacitance. Indeed
the zener diode BZX79C12 quoted above has, according to the data book, a capacitance of
65-85 pF at 0V and measured at 1 Mhz.
For AM Radio band applications a specific diode has been devised. The Philips BB212 in a
TO-92 case is one such type. Each of the diodes has a capacitance of 500 - 620 pF at a
reverse bias of 0.5V and <22 pF at 8V. This diode's capacitance ratio is quoted at 22.5:1
which could not be achieved easily if at all with an air variable capacitor. This type of diode
is depicted in figure 1 above.
Several obvious advantages come immediately to mind, a small transistor type package,
very low cost, ease of construction on a circuit board, can be mounted away from heat
generating devices, frequency determining circuitry entirely dependent upon resistor values
and ratios, DC voltage control can be either from frequency synthesiser circuits or perhaps a
multi-turn potentiometer. Such a potentiometer aids band spreading and fine tuning if two
potentiometers are used. The only real limitation is your imagination and the calculations
involved.
Diodes as frequency multipliers
Just one more example of the versatility of diodes is the frquency doubling circuit depicted
in Figure 4. Now if that looks a lot like the full wave rectifier from figure 2 above you
would be correct. That is why the ripple frequency for 50 / 60 Hz always comes out at 100 /
120 Hz.

Figure 4 - diodes as frequency multipliers

Here the input is a wide band transformer and the signal passes to a full wave rectifier
comprising two 1N914 diodes. The DC component caused by the rectification passes to
ground through RFC which of course presents a high impedance to the rf porion of the
signal but essentially a short circuit for DC. The original signal should be down about 40 dB
and with this type of circuit there would be a loss of somewhere around 7.5 dB so the 2 X
signal would require further amplification to restore that loss.
Diodes as mixers
With some subtle re-arrangement to figure 4 we can get the circuit to function as a two
diode frequency mixer. Note that there are other diode arrangements as well in this
application. See mixers.

Figure 5 - diodes as frequency mixers

The diodes here act as switches and it can be mathematically shown that only the sum and
difference signals will result. For example, if F1 was 5 Mhz and F2 was 3 Mhz then the sum
and difference signals from the diodes would be 8 Mhz and 2 Mhz. None of the original
signals appear at the output and this is a most important property of using diodes as mixers.

It should be noted that although 1N914 diodes are depicted you would normally use hot
carrier diodes in any serious application and the diodes need to be well matched.
Applications of switching Diodes
Similar types of diodes have been developed specifically for band switching purposes.
Although a typical 1N914 type switching diode can be used for such purposes it is
preferable to use diodes which have been optimised for such purposes because the Rd on is
much lower. This means the diode resistance Rd can have a serious affect on rf circuits in
particular the "Q" of a tuned circuit. One example of a low Rd device is
the Philips BA482 diode used for band switching in television tuners. It has a typical Rd of
0.4 ohms at a forward current of 10 mA.
In figure 5 we have one application where switching diodes operate. All diodes serve to
switch in or out capacitors in the diagram which is presented here just to illustrate one single
application of switching diodes, many, many more applications exist. Again the limit is your
imagination.

Figure 6 - applications of switching diodes

The switching diodes in figure 4 switch in or out successively higher values of capacitors as
each control select line is "grounded". The voltage from the +5V feed line proceeds through
the diode at DC thus opening the diode and making it appear "transparent" for rf purposes.
The capacitor with the value attached is then "switched" into circuit. Other components
marked RFC and Cbp are chokes and bypass capacitors for "clean" switching. The bypass
capacitors and choke values would be determined by the frequency of operation.
We could just have easily have switched inductors instead of capacitors. Note why Rd is
quite important on overall circuit performance. If we were using inductors the diode
resistance Rd would have a significant affect on inductor "Q" which in turn would affect
filter performance, if it was in fact an LC filter application.
Switching Diodes in Logic Circuits

If you you completed the tutorial on digital basics you should be aware of binary numbers.
There are a whole range of digital building blocks available and just by way of one
illustration of using diodes we have presented the 74HC4040 twelve stage binary ripple
counter (there are others with varying number of stages).
In the schematic of figure 7 we have this counter which divides by successive division of
two for twelve stages. Initially because there is no voltage drop across the resistor a high
appears on all anodes as well as on pin 4 the master reset causing the counter to reset forcing
all outputs low and in turn a voltage drop across each diode and across the resistor and a low
on reset.
Progressively each of the outputs change from low to high for a certain period of time and
without unduly complicating matters when all outputs as selected by our diode combination
(in this particular case 1 + 2 + 32 + 64 = 99) are simultaneously high the voltage drop across
the resistor will cease and cause pin 11 (reset which was formerly low) to go high and reset
all the internal ripple counters.

Figure 7 - applications of switching diodes in digital logic circuits

At the same time pin 4 changes state also with reset. It can been shown this happens once
every 99 periods. Simply by placing diodes on the right outputs we can select to divide by
any number up to 4095 using this particular counter.
Light-Emitting-Diodes or LED's
Many circuits use a led as a visual indicator of some sort even if only as an indicator of
power supply being turned on. A sample calculation of the dropping resistor is included in
figure 8.

Figure 8 - connecting light emitting diodes (LED's) to supply

Most leds operate at 1.7V although this is not always the case and it is wise to check. The
dropping resistor is simply the net of supply voltage minus the 1.7V led voltage then divided
by the led brightness current expressed as "amps" (ohms law). Note the orientation of both
cathode and anode with respect to the ground end and the supply end. Usually with a led the
longer lead is the anode.
Introduction to transistors?
Transistors, I was once told, "were the fastest acting fuse known to mankind". This of course
was a reference to the fact an early transistor was intolerant of fault conditions whereas in
years gone by, vacuum tubes (valves) would cop a lot of abuse. Just remember that fact.
[one of "murphy's laws" - The component exists to protect the fuse]
Generally transistors fall into the category of bipolar transistor, either the more common
NPN bipolar transistors or the less common PNP transistor types. There is a further type
known as a FET transistor which is an inherently high input impedance transistor with
behaviour somewhat comparable to valves. Modern field effect transistors or FET's
including JFETS and MOSFETS now have some very rugged transistor devices. I am often
asked about the term "bipolar" - see later.
History of Transistors
The transistor was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1948. Large scale commercial use
didn't come until much later owing to slow development. Transistors used in most early
entertainment equipment were the germanium types. When the silicon transistor was
developed it took off dramatically. The first advantages of the transistor were relatively low
power consumption at low voltage levels which made large scale production of portable
entertainment devices feasible. Interestingly the growth of the battery industry has paralleled
the growth of the transistor industry. In this context I include integrated circuits which of
course are simply a collection of transistors grown on the one silicon substrate.

How do transistors work?

Transistors work on the principle that certain materials e.g. silicon, can after processing be
made to perform as "solid state" devices. Any material is only conductive in proportion to
the number of "free" electrons that are available. Silicon crystals for example have very few
free electrons. However if "impurities" (different atomic structure - e.g. arsenic) are
introduced in a controlled manner then the free electrons or conductivity is increased. By
adding other impurities such as gallium, an electron deficiency or hole is created. As with
free electrons, the holes also encourage conductivity and the material is called a semiconductor. Semiconductormaterial which conducts by free electrons is called ntype material while material which conducts by virtue of electron deficiency is called ptype material.
How do holes and electrons conduct in transistors?
If we take a piece of the p-type material and connect it to a piece of n-type material and
apply voltage as in figure 1 then current will flow. Electrons will be attracted across the
junction of the p and n materials. Current flows by means of electrons going one way and
holes going in the other direction. If the battery polarity were reversed then current flow
would cease.

Figure 1. - electron flow in a p-n juction of a diode

Some very interesting points emerge here. As depicted in figure 1 above a junction of p and
n types constitutes a rectifier diode. Indeed a transistor can be configured as a diode and
often are in certain projects, especially to adjust for thermal variations. Another behaviour
which is often a limitation and at other times an asset is the fact that with zero spacing
between the p and n junctions we have a relatively high valuecapacitor.
This type of construction places an upper frequency limit at which the device will operate.
This was a severe early limitation on transistors at radio frequencies. Modern techniques
have of course overcome these limitations with some bipolar transistors having Ft's beyond
1 Ghz. The capacitance at the junction of a diode is often taken advantage of in the form of
varactor diodes. See the tutorial on diodes for further details. The capacitance may be
reduced by making the junction area of connection as small as possible. This is called a
"point contact".
Now a transistor is merely a "sandwich" of these devices. A PNP transistor is depicted in
figure 2 below.

Figure 2. - sandwich construction of a PNP transistor

Actually it would be two p-layers with a "thin" n-layer in between. What we have here are
two p-n diodes back to back. If a positive voltage (as depicted) is applied to the emitter,
current will flow through the p-n junction with "holes" moving to the right and "electrons
moving to the left. Some "holes" moving into the n-layer will be neutralised by combining
with the electrons. See electron theory and atoms. Some "holes" will also travel toward the
right hand region.
The fact that there are two junctions leads to the term "bipolar transistor".
If a negative voltage (as depicted) is applied to the collector of the transistor, then ordinarily
no current flows BUT there are now additional holes at the junction to travel toward
point 2 and elctrons can travel to point1, so that a current can flow, even though this section
is biased to prevent conduction.
It can be shown that most of the current flows between points 1 and 2. In fact the amplitude
(magnitude) of the collector current in a transistor is determined mainly by the emitter
current which in turn is determined by current flowing into the base of the transistor.
Consider the base to be a bit like a tap or faucet handle.
Transistor amplification
Because the collector current (where the voltage is relatively high) is pretty much the same
as the emitter current and also controlled by the emitter current (where the voltage is usually
much lower) it can be shown byohms law
P=I2XR

that amplification occurs. See small signal amplifiers.

The NPN transistor
We discussed a PNP transistor above. The only differences between PNP and NPN
transistors are in manufacturing (i.e. location of the p-layers and n-layers) and of much

importance in the biasing. The schematic symbols for PNP and NPN transistors, (the work
horse is the NPN) are shown in figure 3 below. A silicon NPN transistor needs to be forward
biased by about 0.65V for it to turn on.
Historical Footnote on Transistors - [added 1st May, 2000]
This is an interesting excerpt from a post by a friend to a list I subscribe to:
"The more I think about Tesla the more it brings to mind another bright guy that got off
track and missed out. His name was Shockley. I worked for him in the early days of
Silicon Valley".
"He had the technology and the people to put the 'silicon transistor' on the market, BUT
he was obsessed with a thing he called the "four layer diode" to be used for telephone
switching. That product finally went nowhere and the guys that left Shockley and started
Fairchild Semiconductor were the guys that marketed the transistor in it's first
commercial silicon form".
"And the four layer diode?, finally turned out to be the SCR, a good product but not the
world beater that the silicon transistor was".
[end historical footnote]
Meanwhile back to our transistor tutorial and figure 3 depicting a schematic of a PNP
transistor and an NPN transistor.

Figure 3. - schematic of PNP transistor and NPN transistor

Notice the only difference is the location and direction of the arrows in the emitter. This
denotes direction of current flow in the emitter. Note: that is not a topic I will enter into
discussion as I've seen too many discussions already - I have no opinion <G>.
Also see small signal amplifiers.
Download PDF data sheet P2N2222A - plastic bipolar transistor 238K
FET's as transistors

In figure 4 below I have depicted the schematics of the two most popular types. A J-FET and
a dual gate mosfet. Typical types might be MPF-102 for a J-FET and the old RCA 40673 for
the dual gate.

Figure 4. - schematic of J-FET transistor and dual gate mosfet transistor

The FET of course is characterised by its extremely high input impedance. Some people
claim the FET is a superior device to a bipolar transistor. I consider that to be a subjective
opinion with the proviso that FET development has led to some amazing developments,
particularly with power-fets.
I won't go into any length about how FETS operate except to point out the principal
differences to NPN and PNP transistors. A bipolar transistor has moderate input impedance
(depending on configuration) while some FETs can and do have input impedances measured
in megohms. Bipolar transistors are essentially "current" amplifiers while FETS could be
considered voltage amplifiers.
Download PDF data sheet MPF-102 J-FET 270K
How are semiconductors made?
Strictly speaking this tutorial presented by Harris Semiconductor applies more to integrated
circuits but the principle remains much the same.
The process of manufacturing semiconductors, or integrated circuits (commonly called ICs,
or chips) typically consists of more than a hundred steps, during which hundreds of copies
of an integrated circuit are formed on a single wafer.
Generally, the process involves the creation of eight to 20 patterned layers on and into the
substrate, ultimately forming the complete integrated circuit. This layering process creates
electrically active regions in and on the semiconductor wafer surface.
What are the digital basics?
Digital circuits work on the basis of a transistor being used as a switch. Consider a light
switch, a transistor can be considered almost the same and in some circuits transistors are
used to control large amounts of power with very little input power being used.
Look at figure 1 below. Here are two crude transistor switch circuits. In the first circuit if
there is no voltage applied to the base of Q1 then it is not switched "on" and accordingly the

+ 5V passing through the 10K loadresistor from our + 5V supply appears at both the
collector of the transistor and also at output 1.
If we apply + 5V to the base of Q1 then because it is greater than 0.7 V than the grounded
emitter, see the topic "transistors" for much greater detail on that operation, Q1 will
switch on just like a light switch causing the + 5V from our supply to drop entirely across
the 10K load resistor. This load could also be replaced by a small light bulb, relay or LED in
conjunction with a resistor of suitable value. In any event the bulb or led would light or the
relay would close.

Figure 1. - transistors as digital switches in digital basics

The basic principle in digital basics is that we have just created an "electronic switch" where
the positive voltage on the base produces zero voltage at the output and zero voltage on the
input produces the + 5V on the output.
The output is always the opposite to the input and in digital basics terms this is called an
"inverter" a very important property. Now looking at Q2 and Q3 to the right of the
schematic we simply have two inverters chained one after the other. Here if you think it
through the final output 2 from Q3 will always follow the input given to Q2. This in digital
basics is your basic transistor switch.
Logic Blocks in Digital Basics
Depending upon how these "switches" and "inverters" are arranged in integrated circuits we
are able to obtain "logic blocks" to perform various tasks. In figure 2 we look at some of the
most basic logic blocks.

Figure 2. - digital switches in digital basics

In the first set of switches A, B, and C they are arranged in "series" so that for the input to
reach the output all the switches must be closed. This may be considered an "AND-GATE".
In the second set of switches A, B, and C they are arranged in "parallel" so that for any input
to reach the output any one of the switches may be closed. This may be considered an "ORGATE".
These are considered the basic building blocks in digital logic. If we added "inverters" to
either of those blocks, called "gates", then we achieve a "NAND-GATE" and a "NORGATE" respectively.
Here in figure 3 we examine the digital basics in schematic form.

Figure 3. - digital basics in schematic form

Now here we have depicted four major logic blocks AND-GATE, NAND-GATE, OR-GATE
and NOR-GATE plus the inverter. Firstly the "1's" and the "0's" or otherwise known as the
"ones" and "zeros". A "1" is aHIGH voltage (usually the voltage supply) and the "0" is no
voltage or ground potential. Other people prefer designating "H" and "L" for high and low
instead of the "1's" and the "0's". Stick with which system you feel most comfortable.
Several interesting points emerge here. Of interest to the next section on binary numbers is
the pattern of all the inputs for each logic block. Not only are they identical but, for only two
inputs A and B there are four possible output situations which are called "states". These are
digital basics. There actually can be many numbers of inputs. An eight input NAND-GATE
is a common and quite useful digital logic block.
Next of particular interest is if you study them very carefully, that for the very identical
inputs, each of these logic blocks gives us a totally different output result. Compare them.
Finally for the same inputs the NOR-GATE outputs are the direct opposite to the ANDGATE outputs while the OR-GATE outputs are the direct opposite to the NAND-GATE
outputs.
Binary Numbers and Hex-Decimal in Digital Basics
If you have a single switch or input you can have two possible input states, it is either on or
off. With two switches or inputs you have four possible input states as shown above. If you
go to three inputs you have eight possible states and four inputs give you sixteen states.
Again digital basics.
By adding another input you double the previous number of states. Doubling the inputs
gives you the square of the states.
We say four inputs gives sixteen states so doubling that gives us eight inputs so the number
of states should be 16 X 16 or 256.
Consider this. If I offered you a job and I made you two alternative offers for monthly
payment - Offer No. 1 is to pay you a most generous $10,000.00 for the month. Offer No. 2
is to pay you one cent for the first day you work for me, two cents the next day and doubling
each day thereafter for the whole 30 day month. Which offer would you accept? Answer at
the very bottom of this page.

Binary Coded Decimal

To the right we have provided a table of
BCD data which is all based upon the old
"1's" and "0's".
If at first it looks a bit intimidating don't

Binary Coded Decimal BCD

8
4
2
1
0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

0
1
0

0
1
2

worry you will very quickly get the hang

of it. Notice first of all we have in the
extreme right hand column the numbers 0
- 9 and the letters A to F. The first four
columns are headed 8 - 4 -2 - 1
We explained earlier by adding switches
you double the previous capacity for
numbering in binary. Notice the pattern of
our 0's and 1's. Under the column 1 we
get a succession of 0, 1, 0, 1..... Under the
column 2 we get a succession of 0, 0, 1,
1..... etc.

0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
B
C
D
E
F

In fact under every column heading you

have exactly an equal number of zeros
first followed by the same number of
ones. Look at column 8 for example.
Eight zeros followed by eight ones.
Now look at the far right column and look
up number seven, follow that row reading
across right to left and you will see the
sequence 0 - 1 - 1 - 1. Okay if a one
means a turned on switch with the value
of that column what does 4 + 2 + 1 =?

Of course the answer was seven. Try it with any number you like. Alright what's this A to F
stuff? Look at a digit on a digital clock or watch for example. For those numbers to be
represented in digital format requires four switches but now we will start using the correct
terms. The word is "bits", heard that before? Now we're right into digital basics.
Four bits are called "a nibble" and guess what?, eight bits are called "a byte". Bet you've
heard that one for sure unless you live under a rock.
You should know by now that four switches (OK bits right!) can represent sixteen states and
with a digital clock you only go 0 to 9 and don't need anything else so that was called BCD
or Binary Coded Decimal. The last word is because we humans count in decimal format or
decades. Digital devices including computers DON'T, they can't. All they see are ones and
zeros, nothing else.
Digital Basics of Computers

Early computer programmers needed the digital basics to some way represent the human
recognised numbers 10 to 15 under the decimal system in a way which still represented one
decade. They conveniently chose A - F the first six letters of the alphabet and six in latin is
"HEX". Hex-Decimal was born, six alphabetical characters with ten decimal numbers
comprising a set of sixteen unique settings of bits all told. The first home computers such as
my old personal favourite, the Apple II, had an eight bit "data bus" which dealt in "bytes"
and had a sixteen bit (65,536 or 64K) "address bus".
The only changes since the 1970's has been the ever increasing speed of the digital logic
blocks contained within microprocessors, repeated doubling of the number of switches, (er
sorry bits!) reduced power consumption for efficiency, and expanded on board "instruction
sets" of micro-code for sharp programmers to use. Dead simple really.
By the way, computers and other digital devices can NOT multiply or divide, they can only
add and subtract or shift a sequence of bits left or right. When a computer ostensibly
multiplies 3 X 4 it actually deep down in the nitty gritty department of all those basic logic
blocks shown in figure 3 above, which are buried deep within your IBM or Mac
microprocessor, takes the number four, adds four again and; finally adds four again to get
twelve. Anyone who tells you otherwise reveals a deep ignorance of digital basics, trust me.
Want more proof? Take the word "proof". In ASCII format the word "proof" in lower case is
five letters of the alphabet represented as a sequence of hex-decimal bytes as follows 70 72 6F 6F 66
in decimal format that would be
112 114 111 111 102

A computer looks at those sequence of bytes to "interpret" the word "proof". To achieve that
colour change to red I used the html instruction <font color="#FF0000"> which of course is
a six byte instruction in hex-decimal. As an exercise for yourself see if you can see how the
conversion from hex-decimal to decimal equivalent for the word "proof" occurs. O.K. it's
just digital basics.

What are the dangers of earth systems?

Guys and Gals,
I know this is quite basic but I have just concluded a discussion with a scout master re
crystal sets (qrp!) and good earthing.
As most of you know I am a licensed Plumber here in Australia. In my time I have met
many water services (copper or galvanized pipe) which were DEADLY LIVE.

Most of the electrical fatalities in NSW (my state) and presumably elsewhere are plumbers
and electricians who were electrocuted by live earthing.
A typical scenario is this with M.E.N. systems (same in US and UK I believe):
Power is supplied to the site through a two cored cable (active and neutral here). At the
metering box all neutral leads connect to a common neutral link, i.e. leads coming back
from various power and light circuits etc. Also connected to this neutral link is the earth
wire leading to a bulk connection of all other earth wires. A further earth wire leads off to
the water service and, in the case of more modern homes now, a separate earth stake driven
into the ground.
Taking the case where no earth stake exists, if the main neutral conductor coming into the
house is interrupted (and often can be for a variety of reasons) then the only return path for
electrical continuity is the earthing system, down through the water service, out into the
street and back up through EVERYBODY'S water service / earth system.
Modern installations have (a) a separate earth stake in the ground AND (b) an insulating
bush in the water service where it connects to the water main. Other areas / countries might
well be different. Certainly millions of older installations world-wide are as described
above.
How do I know a water service is live? Standard procedure (for those who follow rules and
procedures - idiots don't) is to first connect, by way of proper earth clamp, an insulated earth
wire of standard 4 mm size to the water service as it emerges from the water main. This
cable is then run out to the meter box for connection to the neutral link.
Many, many times I have scraped this earth wire down the side of the meter box to be
greeted by a shower of sparks. At this point both the law and common sense compel me to
cease all work and contact the electrical authority who will arrive within half an hour. Often
the cause is simply a broken neutral at the point of attachment to the house (if the active
broke you would have no power). Other times it has taken teams from the electricity supply
several days to locate the source.
Strangely, I have been abused by consumers for "creating trouble", especially after the
electricity supply have put up a ladder and cut the active line for "immediate" safety
reasons.
Sorry it was long winded, but it is a VERY REAL hazard. Many a plumber has died by
cutting through old galvanized pipes. One was charged with manslaughter (rightly so) after
leaving an inexperienced apprentice alone on site with instructions to "start removing the
old gal pipe - I'll get the materials".

What are transformers?

The name transformers is derived from the fact that when two coils are placed in close
inductive proximity to one another the lines of force from one cut across the the turns of the
other inducing an ac current, energy is transformed from one winding to another and this is
called transformer action.
There are a great variety of transformers for a variety of applications including power
transformers, audio transformers and rf transformers among others. All work on the above
principle.
Power transformers
As the name implies a power transformer is designed to usually translate voltage from one
level to another. Another type called a current transformer will not be discussed here. The
schematic of a transformer is depected in figure 1 below. Consider also the topics covered
under power supplies where power transformers are used.

Figure 1. - general transformer schematic

Some power transformers have a centre tap on the secondary side. Note in figure 1 above
the left hand side is usually denoted the "primary" whilst the right hand side is denoted the
power transformers "secondary" side. Most power transformers are designed for frequencies
in the region of 50 / 60 Hz which are the principle mains frquencies around the world.
Some examples of power transformers are shown in figure 2 below.

Figure 1. - photograph of different types of power transformers

The transformer on the upper left has "flying leads" for, in the case of all these transformers,
the incoming voltage is the Australian standard 240V AC. The secondary side has three
"lugs" to connect to and this is a 240V - 6.3V CT transformer.

The transformer on the upper right hand side is a multi-tap type with "flying leads" on both
sides. The output allows you to select 6.3V, 9V, 12V and 15V depending upon your
requirements, maximum current is 1A.
The transformer on the bottom left is called a "plug pack" in Australia. This one plugs
directly into a power point and because a rectifier is included within the plug pack it
produces 12DC @ 1A on its output. Note the four way connector shown at the centre, very
bottom of the picture. This connector is designed to connect to the four sockets the
manufacturer considers most popular.
The power transformer on the bottom right has a bit more "grunt" but only providing "lugs"
for connecting leads. It is also a "multi-tap" type but designed to provide 2 amps.
Modern power transformers are wound on a "bobbin" which fits a core manufactured of
materials to suit mains frequencies. The power handling capacity of a power transformer is
determined by the physical size of the core and its properties. Design information is
available from manufacturers. Ultimately the design information will provide the number of
turns per volt. It is important to note that "toroid" power transformers are becoming
increasingly popular and can handle larger amounts of power for the same physical
dimensions and are thought by many "experts" to offer superior performance, particularly in
higher power audio amplifiers.
The relationship of turns per volt holds good for both primary and secondary. A transformer
designed for a nominal 250V AC input and a nominal 6.3V secondary output has a turns
ratio of 250 / 6.3 or about 40:1
"Good design" usually leads to the cross-sectional "copper" areas of both the primary and
the secondary being equal. Purely by way of illustration and not necessarily related to the
real world, if the primary consisted of 2,400 turns of #34 gauge wire which is 0.16mm dia
we would have a total cross sectional area of:
2,400 * [(0.16 * pi) / 4]. Where [(pi X D ) / 4] is the customary formula to determine the
area of a circular object.
2

Here you should get 2400 X 0.0201 = 48.24 mm

Therefore if our turns ratio was 20:1 for a 12V secondary, we would get 200 turns secondary
still occupying approximately 48.24 mm . With a little high school algebra we determine
this gives us a secondary diameter of 0.55 mm diameter which is around about #24 gauge
wire.
2

CAUTION: Of necessity I have greatly simplified the above to give a broad overview of
how power transformers are designed. Always consult manufacturers such as Magnetics for
tables and correct design information.

Remember "electricity KILLS!". Home construction of power transformers is a lost cause

because the cost of component parts will always greatly exceed the cost of an off-the-shelf
transformer.
Audio transformers
Essentially the main purpose of an interstage audio transformer is to isolate the DC and
couple the signal, with minimal loss. The transformer windings look like short circuits to
DC, yet are seen as complex impedances to the AC signal. Much which is contained on the
topic of audio transformers is of necessity somewhat over simplified to give a general
overview.
Go to: Audio Transformers
RF transformers
RF transformers generally fall into two categories, band pass filters and broad band
transformers. Bandpass filters might well fall into the category of those used in IF amplifier
filters while broad band transformers are generally used for impedance matching.

Figure 3. - schematic of an rf transformer

The type of broad band transformer depicted in figure 3 is often wound on a ferrite toroid of
sufficient permeability to give a reactance of about 5 tomes the highest impedance at the
lowest frequency of interest.
What are audio transformers?
Audio transformers are "wide band" transformers. In essence a "transformer" is two or more
windings coupled by a common magnetic field. It is this magnetic field which provides the
means to pass voltages and currents from the primary winding to the secondary winding
when alternating current flows.
Essentially the main purpose of an interstage audio transformer is to isolate the DC and
couple the signal, with minimal loss. The transformer windings look like short circuits to
DC, yet are seen as complex impedances to the AC signal.
Much which follows on the topic of audio transformers is of necessity somewhat over
simplified to give a general overview. A transformer schematic is depicted in Figure 1
below.

Figure 1. - audio transformers schematic

Audio transformers were originally used in valve or tube amplifiers as interstage and output
transformers. Early transistor amplifiers similarly used audio transformers for coupling and
output stages.
There is nothing particularly mystical about audio transformers although their use is not
particularly widespread today. I expect the greatest interest would come from people
interested in restoring or building tube audio amplifiers. We will first consider the basic
requirements.
We must assume fidelity is foremost in the minds of most restorers. Therefore the first
requirement must be a relatively wide bandwidth, this is in the audio sense. My research
into long forgotten and dusty, musty papers in my secret collection leads me to freshen my
mind that audio transformer coupling is essentially applicable to power stages for
impedance matching. Resistance-coupled amplifiers essentially produce undistorted output
signal voltages regardless of plate-load-resistance value.
Maximum output power is produced when the impedance of the load matches the plate
impedance of the tube. Using triodes, somewhat less output power but significantly less
distortion results when the load impedance is between two to three times the plate
impedance.
However tetrode or pentode tubes have very high plate impedances and the primary
impedance of the coupling transformer is often between 1/10 to 1/5 of the tube plate
impedance because it it not entirely feasible to produce audio transformers with primary
impedances beyond 20K.
Primary impedance of audio transformers
Let us assume we are going to design a transformer of 20,000 ohms primary impedance.
Now there is a direct mathematical relationship between the inductance of the primary, the
design impedance and roll off frequencies. For very obvious reasons you would want steer
somewhat clear of mains frequencies. One superior advantage of battery powered equipment
is that "50 / 60 Hz mains hum" is not a problem. Of necessity because of the voltages
involved all tube equipment derives its power from a "mains supply". Battling 50 / 60 Hz
mains hum is an absolute pain so our theoretical transformer will begin "rolling off" at 100
Hz. Here is the formula.

Figure 2. - audio transformers formulas

In our fomula 4 * pi may be taken as 12.566, f is 100 Hz and of course R is 20,000 ohms.
This formula is for a 3 dB roll off at 100 Hz. Substituting all those numbers into our formula
and remembering all units are Henries, Ohms and Hertz we get a primary inductance of
15.92 Henries. That is a huge and possibly impossible value to obtain.
Looking through some data books...... if there is sufficient interest
INDEX TO RADIO TERMINOLOGY A - L

A.G.C. - Automatic Gain Control

A.C. - Alternating Current
A.M. - Amplitude Modulation
Amateur Radio
AMP or Ampere
Attenuator
Capacitance
Carrier
C.W. - Continuous Wave

D.C. - Direct Current

Decibel
Detector
Dipole - antenna
D.X. - Long Distance
F.M. - Frequency Modulation
H.F. - High Frequency
I.F. - Amplifier
L.F. - Low Frequency
L.S.B. - Lower Sideband

AGC (Automatic Gain Control )

Is the the automatic regulation (electronically) of the gain of a receiver in inverse proportion
to the received signal strength. This allows, within certain limits, the audio output of a
receiver to remain relatively constant over a range of fading signal conditions.
Back to index above OR Back to basics tutorials

AC ( Alternating Current )
Where the "phase" of the current amplitude varies with time. One complete
cycle occupies 360 degrees irrespective of amplitude (visualise a circle). The
number of these cycles-per-second is the frequency of the signal.

For mathematical reasons this is referred to as a sine wave. A signal may commence at 0
degrees then go to its most positive value at 90 degrees then recede back to zero value at
180 degrees and continue to its most negative value at 270 degrees and then turn back to
zero again at 360 degrees. This is then one complete cycle.
Perhaps the most common frequency around a home is our power mains. In Australia the
frequency used for power mains is 50 cycles per second or now referred to as 50 Hz. The

abbreviation is an acknowledgement to Heinrich Hertz. In the U.S.A. and other parts of the
world the mains frequency is 60 Hz.
With a 50 Hz mains frequency one cycle occupies 1 / 50th of a second or 20 milli-seconds.
Therefore the signal is most positive after 5 milliseconds, back to zero after another 5
milliseconds, down to its most negative after the next 5 milliseconds and finally back to zero
after a final 5 milliseconds. This whole cycle occupies 20 milliseconds or 20 mS and repeats
50 times a second.
With a 60 Hz mains frequency of course one cycle occupies 1 / 60th of a second or 16.67
milli-seconds.
A.C. at audio frequencies extends from 20 Hz to about 20,000 Hz or 20 Khz. Depending
upon your age you will not actually hear it beyond 15 Khz and older people are unable to
hear much beyond 10 Khz. Animals can hear much higher frequencies. The audio A.C.
frequencies are referred to as A.F.
Signals beyond those above are referred to as radio frequencies ( RF ) and generally cover
the spectrum:
L.F. - 30 Khz to 300 Khz although there are signals transmitted well below this region
principally the OMEGA navigation network.
M.F. - 300 Khz to 3 Mhz which mainly includes the A.M. radio band of about 530 Khz to
1650 Khz (varies between countries).
H.F. - 3 Mhz to 30 Mhz and comprises amateur radio, short wave broadcasters among a
host of others. Largely becoming superseded by satellite transmissions.
V.H.F. - 30 Mhz to 300 Mhz occupied by traditional T.V. stations, some amateur bands,
commercial two way radio, maritime and aircraft bands as well as the F.M. radio band of 88
- 108 Mhz.
U.H.F. - 300 Mhz to 3 Ghz this band is occupied by U.H.F. T.V., some radar installations,
mobile phones, two way radios and a heap of other stuff.
Beyond 3 Ghz is virtually satellite transmissions.
It is interesting to note by way of numerical comparison that firstly, each band is 10 times
the previous band. Secondly the L.F. band spanning 30 to 300 Khz could be duplicated
10,000 times over in the space occupied by the U.H.F. band.
Also at the bottom end of 30 Khz the signal cycle repeats 30,000 times a second. At the top
of the U.H.F. band the signal cycle repeats 3,000,000,000 times a second (mind boggling?).
A very important attribute of A.C. (e.g. 50 / 60 Hz) is that it is generally easy to convert
voltages with the aid of power transformers.

Back to index above OR Back to basics tutorials

AM (Amplitude Modulation)
Now we have learnt above about audio frequencies A.F. and also about radio frequencies
R.F.
In the early days of what is now known as early radio transmissions, say about 100 years
ago, signals were generated by various means but only up to the L.F. region.
Communication was by way of morse code much in the form that a short transmission
denoted a dot (dit) and a longer transmission was a dash (dah). This was the only form of
radio transmission until the 1920's and only of use to the military, commercial telegraph
companies and amateur experimenters.
Then it was discovered that if the amplitude (voltage levels - plus and minus about zero)
could be controlled or varied by a much lower frequency such as A.F. then real intelligence
could be conveyed e.g. speech and music. This process could be easily reversed by simple
means at the receiving end by using diode detectors. This is called modulation and
obviously in this case amplitude modulation or A.M.
This discovery spawned whole new industries and revolutionized the world of
communications. Industries grew up manufacturing radio parts, receiver manufacturers,
radio stations, news agencies, recording industries etc.
There are three distinct disadvantages to A.M. radio however.
Firstly because of the modulation process we generate at least two copies of the intelligence
plus the carrier. For example consider a local radio station transmitting on say 900 Khz. This
frequency will be very stable and held to a tight tolerance. To suit our discussion and keep it
as simple as possible we will have the transmission modulated by a 1000 Hz or 1Khz tone.
At the receiving end 3 frequencies will be available. 900 Khz, 901 Khz and 899 Khz i.e. the
original 900 Khz (the carrier) plus and minus the modulating frequency which are called
side bands. For very simple receivers such as a cheap transistor radio we only require the
original plus either one of the side bands. The other one is a total waste. For sophisticated
receivers one side band can be eliminated.
The net effect is A.M. radio stations are spaced 10 Khz apart (9 kHz in Australia) e.g. 530
Khz...540 Khz...550 Khz. This spacing could be reduced and nearly twice as many stations
accommodated by deleting one side band. Unfortunately the increased cost of receiver
complexity forbids this but it certainly is feasible - see Single Side Band.
The second disadvantage is half the transmitted power is in the carrier (900 Khz in our
example) and 25% is in each side band of which we only need one. For a commercial radio
station transmitting at say 20 Kw of power, about 15 Kw is wasted but for them this is no

great burden because availability of cheap and simple receivers for the listener is of far
greater importance.
The third disadvantage is that whilst the signal is amplitude modulated, common forms of
radio interference are also amplitude in nature. Examples of such interference to radio
reception are natural phenomena such as electrical storms etc. (QRN) as well as man made
noise (QRM) which can emanate from nearby electrical appliances, lights, electric drills or
even the humble electronic calculator and most probably your computer.
To get away from this amplitude affect by noise F.M. Radio was devised.
Back to index above OR Back to basics tutorials

AMATEUR RADIO
Ever since radio transmissions first began there were experimenters and tinkerers'. Indeed
even today a great many of the advances in radio science continue to come from this band of
people.
Most are now called Amateur Radio Operators and to prevent total chaos each would-be
operator sits for modest examinations set by the laws of his or her region to gain a licence.
You will find amateurs are courteous, helpful, constructive (in more ways than one) and
always have a warm welcome for newcomers. If you need help just politely ask.
Amateur Operators have assigned bands and modes of operation. They also observe certain
standards of etiquette and ethics. Amateurs play a significant role in providing
communication links when needed, particularly in times of natural disaster. It is a wonderful
fraternity which over-rides the boundaries of nationality, politics and religion.
Virtually every country in the world has an umbrella amateur radio organization. In the
U.S.A. it is the American Amateur Radio League (A.R.R.L.), Great Britain has the Radio
Society of Great Britain (R.S.G.B.) and Australia has the Wireless Institute of Australia
(W.I.A.).
If you are a newcomer to radio and are keen to pursue it as a hobby then contact the amateur
radio organization for your region. Help is available everywhere.
Back to index above OR Back to basics tutorials

AMP or AMPERE
This is the unit of electrical current flow. The rate at which current flows past a given
point. - see the tutorial or recognized texts.

Back to index above OR Back to basics tutorials

ATTENUATOR
An attenuator is a passive network comprising usually, but not always, resistors that reduce
the power or voltage level of a signal without introducing significant distortion. - see
the tutorial or recognized texts.
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CARRIER
See amplitude modulation.
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CW ( Continuous Wave ) OR MORSE

CODE
A generalized expression meaning morse code transmission.
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DECIBEL
This is a relative power unit. At audio frequencies a change of one decibel (abbreviated dB)
is just detectable as a change in loudness under ideal conditions.
For a given power ratio the decibel change is calculated as:
dB = 10 log P2/P1

If we used voltage or current ratios instead then our formula becomes:

dB = 20 log V2/V1

- see the tutorial or recognized texts.

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DC ( Direct Current )
Direct current is where at all times the voltage polarity remains constant. Unlike a.c. there is
no varying cycle.
D.C. may however, particularly where it is rectified from mains a.c., contain residual a.c.
superimposed or part of the voltage. This is often referred to as mains hum.
- see the tutorial or recognized texts.
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DETECTOR
A means or circuit designed to convert amplified R.F. energy into recovered audio which
contains the desired intelligence.
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DIPOLE
A dipole is an antenna. It is a fundamental form of antenna consisting of a single wire whose
length is approximately equal to half the transmitting wavelength.
The length of a half wave in space is approximately:
length (metres) = 150 / Freq (Mhz) or
(Mhz)

length (feet) = 492 / Freq

The actual physical length in practice is slightly different from this owing to other factors.
A most popular dipole known to almost everyone is the folded dipole which forms part of
most V.H.F. T.V. Antennas.
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DX or dx
D.X. is a short hand way of saying 'long distance'. In the early days of radio a lot of short
hand was devised to minimize morse code transmissions.
A dx'er is rather like an angler who has gone fishing. The angler seeks a catch of the biggest
fish whilst the avid dx'er seeks the elusive 'long distance' contact.

Whether he/she be an amateur radio operator, short wave listener (s.w.l.'er) or even an
a.m.b.c.b. dx'er (a.m. radio broadcast band dx'er}. Absolutely fascinating!.
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FM or fm ( Frequency Modulation )
Frequency modulation was devised to overcome the problem that A.M. reception was
susceptible to noise interference.
With F.M. instead of the carrier having its amplitude modulated the signal frequency is
varied or controlled by the modulating (audio) frequency.
In the receiver the signal undergoes a great deal of amplification where the tops and bottoms
are chopped of the signal - this is called 'limiting'. By limiting the amplitude of the signal all
a.m. components (including noise) are thereby removed. This is why F.M. is preferred for
quality music transmission. On the downside it tends to occupy greater bandwidth although
narrow band F.M. does exist for two-way communication.
Commercial F.M. broadcasts occupy 200 Khz channels throughout the 88 - 108 Mhz band.
This compares with the 10 Khz (or 9 Khz) channel spacing in the a.m. radio band or short
wave broadcasting.
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HF or hf
3 Mhz to 30 Mhz and comprises amateur radio, short wave broadcasters among a host of
others. Largely becoming superseded by satellite transmissions.
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IF AMPLIFIER
Tuned circuits in radios have one severe limitation - bandwidth. Without going into a
complex explanation let us assume that the best response can be about 2% of the signal
frequency. In the early days of a.m. radio, circuits simply tuned straight across the frequency
band of interest.
Applying our 2% rule we find at say 540 Khz, the bandwidth is 10.8 Khz. We would be able
to receive this signal without a great deal or little interference from adjacent channels. On
the downside if we wanted to receive a signal at say 1550 Khz our bandwidth becomes 31
Khz or spanning 3 channels. We would have little hope of satisfactorily receiving a signal
because our bandwidth also now includes both adjacent channels.

A method of receiving called the 'superhetrodyne' principle evolved.

Here as part of our receiver we have a 'local oscillator' or mini transmitter where the
incoming received signal is mixed with the local oscillator. As a result 4 frequencies become
available.
Firstly the original signal, (2) then the original local oscillator signal, (3) then the original
signal plus the local oscillator signal and then finally (4) the original signal minus the local
oscillator signal.
Confused?. Consider this practical example of your little transistor a.m. radio. It is designed
to receive about 540 - 1650 Khz. The local oscillator will always tune in tandem with the
input section to produce another signal at 995 - 2105 Khz.
At all times the difference frequency is a constant 455 Khz or what is called the intermediate
frequency or I.F. All other frequencies arising from this process are then filtered out.
When you tune your radio you are actually tuning the local oscillator which is more
correctly called the 'V.F.O.' or variable frequency oscillator.
Because we always have a constant difference frequency of 455 Khz it is relatively easy to
design and construct narrow band circuits to suit our requirements. It is in these circuits (I.F.
Amplifier) that the greatest amplification occurs.
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LF
30 Khz to 300 Khz, although there are signals transmitted well below this region, principally
the OMEGA naval navigation network.
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LSB ( Lower Side Band )

Assuming you had read the section on A.M. you would be aware that two of the
disadvantages of a.m. transmission are the twice the bandwidth to convey the same
information and only 25% of the power is used in each side band. The remaining 50% of
power is expended in the carrier.
It makes more sense in terms of economy of bandwidth as well as economy of power to
simply transmit only one side band. This is called S.S.B. or Single Side band.

Depending upon which side band is chosen to transmit one is called upper side band and the
other is called lower side band. In amateur radio, conventions exist as to which side band is
transmitted in a particular amateur band.
RADIO TERMINOLOGY M - Z

M.F. - Medium Frequency

Ohms Law
Oscillator
Q.R.P. - Low Power
Receiver
R.T.T.Y. - Teletype
S/N Ratio - Signal to Noise Ratio
S.S.B. - Single Sideband
S.W.R. - Standing Wave Ratio

S Meter
Transceiver
Transistor
Transmitter
U.H.F. - Ultra High Frequency
U.S.B. - Upper Side band
V.H.F. - Very High Frequency
Watt
Wavelength

MF
300 Khz to 3 Mhz which mainly includes the A.M. radio band of about 530 Khz to 1650
Khz (varies between countries).
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OHMS LAW
This is what I consider the first and most fundamental lesson in electronics.
I sob every time a licensed electrical contractor contacts me for help over some electronic
device and he doesn't know the basics. Do they sleep through the first semester?.
I will keep this dead simple. I won't introduce any complications. Everybody capable of
reading will understand it and hopefully never, ever, ever forget it. I will not give highly
technical definitions to confuse the newcomer. - see the tutorial or recognized texts.
There are four basic electrical units here. They are (1) Power - in watts - [P], (2) Voltage in volts - [E], (3) Current - in amperes or amps - [I] and (4) Resistance - in ohms - [R].
Now how basic can you get? Easy to remember!.
- again see the tutorial or recognized texts.
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OSCILLATOR
An oscillator is an electronic circuit where some of the amplified output is fed back to the
input to maintain a flywheel effect or oscillations. Circuit design, components and layout the
frequency of oscillation. For extreme accuracy we might use a crystal to maintain frequency.
At its most basic we could design one simple oscillator circuit to operate at 7050 Khz.
Although not recommended we could apply and remove power at a morse code rate and we
would have a simple yet extremely crude C.W. transmitter operating in the
40m amateur radio band as a Q.R.P. transmitter. Don't even think about it!.
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RECEIVER
A collection of circuits designed to receive signals over one or more bands of interest and
covering one or more modes of operation.
At its most simplest it could be a crystal set designed to receive the a.m. radio band. At its
most complex it could be a very sophisticated surveillance receiver designed to cover
anything and everything.
Typical receivers are a.m. / f.m. tuners, t.v. receivers or s.w. radio.
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RTTY or rtty
This stands for Radio Teletype where amateurs, amongst others, would transmit signals
generated by a keyboard device not unlike you sending email. Instead of an internet
connection you have a radio connection. I had only a passing interest in this aspect of the
hobby and that was about 25 years ago. As to what is happening today I don't know but I
suspect it's a fair bet that computers and packet radio (bit like the www) have overtaken it.
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QRP or qrp ( Low Power Transmission )

This is a very much reduced power mode of operation favoured by many
amateur radio operators because of the skill and challenges involved in making contacts.
Power is limited to 5 watts maximum on C.W. or 10 watts on S.S.B. although of course
often less is used. Because of the low power output the equipment can be battery operated
and is quite suitable for portable operation.

Frequently Q.R.P. activities are conducted in conjunction with other recreational pursuits
such as fishing, camping etc. Often the equipmentis home made (home brewed).
Personally I think it is the last frontier in any hobby in a world that has gone mad with "buy
the latest-greatest-all singing-all dancing ready made gizmo's". It takes real talent to be a
classy Q.R.P. operator. Unfortunately I wouldn't count in that category. "Those who can do!
- those who can't teach!" <grin>
If you are looking for a real challenge in one of the finest fraternities in the world then start
right here. But first go and get a license.
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S/N RATIO
Signal to Noise Ratio. Noise is the ultimate limiting factor in the reception of radio signals.
Noise is generally classified as either natural (QRN) or man made (QRM).
Natural noise emanates from galactic and atmospheric noise picked up by the antenna as
well as thermal noise generated in the antenna itself. Similarly man made noise such a
fluorescent lights, motors and a host of other appliances and tools is also picked up by the
antenna. These sources of noise are then amplified by the various stages in a receiver.
However these amplifying devices create noise of their own also.
The noise problem varies with the frequency of reception. Generally the noise figure of a
receiver (i.e. allowing for the noise generated by the receiver itself) is not of great
importance for frequencies somewhat below 30 Mhz because the external noise combined
i.e. natural and man made will always exceed the noise figure of the receiver.
Visualise if you can, an arbitrary noise level of 10 uV - these figures are for comparative or
illustrative purposes only and bear no resemblance to reality. Now that is 10 one millionths
of a volt.
If we wished to receive a certain signal that was received on our antenna and had a strength
of say 1000 uV or 100 times the noise voltage you can see such a signal would be copied
quite readily. On the other hand if a desired signal was only 1 uV (and many often are at this
level) then the noise level outweighs it by a ratio of 10:1.
Now that is a pretty rough explanation but you should get the general idea. Of importance to
reception, the narrower the bandwidth of the receiver, the bigger the improvement to your
prospects of recovering the desired signal.
Once a desired signal drops in level in comparison to noise in a particular location then all
hope of recovery is lost.
This is a highly technical topic which is almost a science in itself. I have attempted to do no
more than give you a general appreciation of the topic.

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SSB or ssb ( Single Side Band )

Assuming you have read the section on A.M. you would be aware that two of the
disadvantages of a.m. transmission are the twice the bandwidth to convey the same
information and only 25% of the power is used in each side band. The remaining 50% of
power is expended in the carrier.
It makes more sense in terms of economy of bandwidth as well as economy of power to
simply transmit only one side band. This is called S.S.B. or Single Side band.
If our carrier (initially) in the transmitter is say 9000 Khz or 9 Mhz and we modulate that
signal with useful voice frequencies of say 300 Hz to 2400 Hz (this spectrum contains all
useful information and indeed is roughly the bandwidth of your telephone system) then
dealing with the highest frequency of 2400 Hz (2.4 Khz) we get side bands (including
carrier) of 000 Khz to 9002.4 Khz as well as 9000 Khz down to 8997.6 Khz.
Fifty per cent of our power is in the 9000 Khz carrier and 25% in each of our side bands. At
high power levels this would be both wasteful and inefficient. In fact at this point in our
transmitter we are only dealing with very low power levels.
What if we introduce a highly specialized and highly accurate filter that will only accept
frequencies in the range of 9000.3 Khz to 9002.4 Khz and reject all others. Presto we have a
signal which occupies a bandwidth of only 2.1 Khz wide, therefore more channels then can
be accommodated in the same band. Further the power amplification formerly available to
us can now be devoted exclusively to our narrow band signal in a linear amplifier.
Unfortunately at the receiving end things get a lot more complicated and expensive. Firstly
our I.F. Amplifier must accept signals no wider than the 2.1 Khz. In practice you use a
similar crystal filter or if the receiver is part of a transceiver then you use the same filter as
was used in the transmit section. Secondly because no carrier is transmitted with the S.S.B.
signal we must provide one locally in the receiver. This is called a B.F.O. or Beat Frequency
Oscillator and 9000 Khz is typical but not the only frequency or method.
When mixed with the received signal the B.F.O. and Detector (sometimes called Product
Mixer) will put out our original audio of 300 Hz to 2400 Hz. All other frequencies are
filtered out.
In the transmit section the 9000.3 to 9002.4 signal is mixed with a local oscillator signal or
frequency to produce a signal at our final frequency of transmission.
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SWR or swr
This is called Standing Wave Ratio (or more correctly V.S.W.R.) and is much beloved by
many who like to become paranoid over something. For some unknown reason C.B.'ers
seem to excel at this.
Contrary to popular belief it is not the holy grail. Whilst everyone should strive for technical
excellence as well as efficiency there is absolutely no reason to slash your wrists because
you can't get an ideal S.W.R.
In fact I can personally 100% guarantee that the sky will not fall in on you. What is
acceptable depends on many things including your site, set up and circumstances. Efforts
and expense to achieve a perfect S.W.R. are frequently all totally out of proportion.
A transmitter requires a load to deliver power to. This is called an Antenna.
If some of the transmitted power is reflected back along the transmission line toward the
transmitter then we have a situation where voltage standing wave patterns exist.
"The ratio of the maximum voltage on the line to the minimum value (provided the line is
longer than a quarter wavelength) is defined as the voltage standing wave ratio or vwsr"
It is often mistakenly assumed that power reflected from a load is power lost. If there is
proper matching at the input end of the line this is only true if there is considerable loss in
the line itself.
Be technically efficient not paranoid.
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S METER
I assume you understand both I.F. amplifiers and automatic gain control (A.G.C.)
An S-meter is simply a meter set up to measure the current through the agc control line so
that on strong signals it shows say S9 + 20 dB while on weak signals it might be at the
bottom end of the scale on say S1 or S2.
Be aware, S-meters are notoriously inaccurate, can not be compared between various
receivers and are only useful for relative measurements applicable to your receiver, using
your current antenna, at your present location and on one particular band. They are widely
misunderstood and all too often given a level of importance they don't rightly deserve.
S-meters are as accurate as a group of people standing by the road and individually
estimating the speed of passing vehicles.

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TRANSCEIVER
A unit which contains both the transmitter and receiver. It has the advantage that common
electronic circuits are shared rather than duplicated if you operated the two units separately.
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TRANSISTOR
Firstly we had valves and then two bright sparks in Bell Labs. back in 1948 invented the
transistor. Almost similar to a valve (triode) the transistor has revolutionized the world.
Not only are there types which handle very high voltages there are types capable of very
large amounts of power. Because of transistors much equipment has shrunk to a fraction of
its former size while extending capabilities almost beyond imagination.
By the 1960's transistors began to become integrated together in single packages to perform
all sorts of logic blocks. The digital explosion had begun.
Today literally millions and millions of transistors are formed on the one thin wafer to
produce devices like the Pentium III processor at previously unheard of speeds and power.
I guess the only limit is man's / woman's imagination.
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TRANSMITTER
see Oscillator
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UHF or uhf
300 Mhz to 3 Ghz (that's 3,000 Mhz or 3,000,000,000 cycles per second) - this band is
occupied by U.H.F. T.V., some radar installations, mobile phones, two way radios and a
heap of other exciting stuff.
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USB or usb ( Upper Side Band )

Identical but the direct opposite to L.S.B. (Lower Side band) - see also A.M. and S.S.B.
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VHF or vhf
30 Mhz to 300 Mhz occupied by traditional T.V. stations, some amateur bands, commercial
two way radio, maritime and aircraft bands as well as the F.M. radio band of 88 - 108 Mhz.
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WATT
The fundamental unit of power consumed see Ohms Law
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WAVELENGTH
Originally in radio, the frequency of signals was not mentioned. The custom was to refer to
the 'wave length'.
This is easily computed from:
300,000,000 / Frequency (cycles) or 300 / Frequency (Mhz)

In reality this indicates, from a purely technical standpoint, that a wavelength is determined
by dividing the speed of light by the signal frequency in cycles per second. The underlying
reason here is that radio waves do travel at the speed of light. This is approximated as 300
million metres-per-second (and no correspondence will be entered into on that point).
Just how the custom of talking in wavelength originated I have never been able to establish.
I suspect it had a lot to do with transmitting antennas where the calculation is quite critical.
As frequencies increased by about the 1930's the wavelengths diminished in physical size to
the point the term 'short-wave' came into vogue.
To understand radio waves etc. visualise a pebble dropped into a pond. At the point where
the pebble hits the water the transmitting antenna is situated. Waves then radiate outward
from that antenna.

What is an attenuator circuit?

An attenuator circuit allows a known source of power to be reduced by a predetermined

factor usually expressed as decibels. A powerful advantage of an attenuator is since it is
made from non-inductive resistors, the attenuator is able to change a source or load, which
might be reactive, into one which is precisely known and resistive. This power reduction is
achieved by the attenuator without introducing distortion.
Shown in figure 1 below is the most common attenuator circuit known as the "pi attenuator
network". Included in this figure are the formulae for calculating the required resistances R1
and R2. An attenuator may be used in either audio or radio signal circuits.

Figure 1. - pi attenuator network schematic and formula for equal impedances

Note the above formulae are for equal source and load impedances of whatever value.
What is this "K" factor in the formula for a pi attenuator network
The factor K is called the ratio of current, voltage, or power corresponding to a given value
of attenuation "A" expressed in decibels. It is the more difficult calculation which proceeds
as follows:
"K" is the number 10 raised to the power of the value of attenuation "A" in dB, divided by
20.
K = 10 ("A" / 20)

As just one practical example, let's look at 3 dB attenuation and calculate our "K" factor.
K = 10 (3 dB / 20) = 10 (0.15) = 1.4125
On my calculator I entered 10 and pressed YX then entered .15

That's really the hardest part of designing a pi attenuator network.

Resistor values for a 50 ohm pi attenuator network - equal source and load
Perhaps the most common use of an attenuator is in 50 ohm radio circuits. To this end I have
included a small table in figure 2 below which depicts common power reduction values of 3

db, 6 dB, 10 dB and 20 dB. I suggest you review the topic decibels if you have difficulty
understanding the expression dB and the impact of the numerical values.

Figure 2. - Resistor values for a 50 ohm pi attenuator network - equal source and load

Under the columns of "actual" I have included resistors from the E24 series of resistor
values. For most practical purposes these values will suffice.
If, as I suggest you reviewed the topic decibels you would know that decibel
values add together.
A practical example of a pi attenuator at work
Assume we have a 50 ohm amateur transmitter with an output power of five watts. We want
to reduce that power down to 250 milli-watts. This means we must reduce the power by
4.75 watts.
This power reduction MUST be dissipated in our pi network attenuator. This is a very
important point to keep in the back of your mind, I will tell you later as to why.
By simple calculation we know that this is 4.75 / 5.0 = .95 or a 95% reduction in power.
Looked at in another way all we want is 5% of the original power or 1 /20th. On my
calculator 5% is expressed as .05 and log .05 = 1.301 which from our tutorial
on decibels we know to multiply by 10 because we are dealing in power levels. This means
we're looking for a power reduction of 13 dB.
Using the formula in figure 1 we will now construct a 13 dB "pi network attenuator"
designed for equal source and load impedances of 50 ohms.
Calculating a practical example of a 13 db pi network attenuator
We start by determining our "K" factor for 13 dB.
K = 10 (13 dB / 20) = 10 (0.65) = 4.4668

Determine R1 where (K + 1) = 4.4668 + 1 = 5.4668 and (K - 1) = 4.4668 - 1 = 3.4668 and

(K + 1) / (K - 1) = 5.4668 / 3.4668 = 1.5769
As you can see these mathematics are "real" hard. We multiply this answer 1.5769 by our
impedance "Z" which is, 1.5769 X 50 = 78.84 ohms for R1. This is depicted in figure 2
below.

Figure 3. - A practical example of a pi attenuator at work

Now we calculate R2 and again our "K" value for a 13 dB attenuator remains at 4.4668
First we take the square of "K" which of course is 19.95, subtract 1 = 18.95, then divide by
"K". This becomes 18.95 / 4.4668 = 4.24
This figure is then multiplied by our impedance "Z" which has been divided by two. In our
case we get 4.24 X (50 / 2) = 106 ohms. Now could I make anything simpler to follow?
What about power dissipation in our pi network attenuator?
I'm mighty glad you asked me that question. Overlooked it "meself" once until I noticed
smoke arising from my relatively expensive step attenuator box.
Yes..... don't ever forget your power calculations. All are based on ohms law which of
course you should know. You do know it don't you? Thought so.
Hokay, if we started with 5W of power into 50 ohms what was the initial RMS voltage at
point 1 in our figure above?
We know that P = E 2 / R so 5 = E 2 / 50

From simple high school algebra we are looking for the square root of 50 ohms X 5W or the
square root of 250 which is 15.81V RMS.
Now it tends to get a bit messy. I'll try the relatively simple way. If we start with the final
RMS voltage at point 2 in our figure above and doing the exact same calculations we know
we are looking for the square root of 50 X 0.25 which equals 3.54V RMS at point 2.

If we started out with 15.81V and ended up with 3.54V then we have lost 15.81 - 3.54 =
12.27V across a 106 ohm resistor. Ohms law again gives us [(12.27 X 12.27) / 106] =
1.42W
Using the same principles, at point 1 with 15.81V across R1 of 78.84 ohms we get, yet again
by ohms law, [(15.81 X 15.81) / 78.84] = 3.17W
Also using the same principles, at point 2 with 3.54V across the right hand R1 of 78.84
ohms we get, [(3.54 X 3.54) / 78.84] = 0.16W
Adding these wattages together we get 3.17 + 1.42 + 0.16 = 4.75W
The critical point here is, these non-inductive resistors MUST be able to safely dissipate
these amounts of power.
Because we have odd resistor values I find it more convenient to parallel higher wattage
(non-inductive) resistors together. Look out for 1 and 2 watt types. For example the left
hand R1 might comprise 5 X 390 ohm ohm 1W resistors in parallel. This is the equivalent of
a 78 ohm 5W resistor.
The 106 ohm resistor could be 2 X 220 ohm in parallel making a 110 ohm 2W resistor. In
the real world, depending on the tolerance type you buy, say 5% 2 X 220 ohms could equal
anything between 104.5 and 115.5 ohms.
If you parallel odd resistor values e.g. 220 ohm and 200 ohm to get a nominal 104.76 ohm
resistor (and you can) be aware the power dissipation will obviously be different across each
resistor. Nothing wrong with the idea, just be wary.
Wirewound types are NOT acceptable for RF because they are inductive, they have
reactances. In audio applications I wouldn't worry, but I could be wrong.
"T" network attenuator
This attenuator network is somewhat different obviously. Notice the different but somewhat
similar calculations. I've never used one of these and beyond that I can offer no other
comment.

Figure 4. - "T" network attenuator

To me the calculations are no more difficult or easier than the pi network attenuator.
Summarising attenuators
1. Complete your calculations of resistor values in a methodical manner and double check
them.
2.

Do take power dissipation into account. Allow a good safety margin.

3.

Use non-inductive resistors for RF applications.

4. If sufficient demand exists I will present a paper on designing attenuators for unequal
terminations.
5. We discussed the "pi" and "T" type attenuators here. Among others, there are the "H",
"L", "O" and "U", bridge types, balanced and unbalanced types, ladder types and even
attenuators using potentiometers(audio). Again if sufficient demand exists.........

What are baluns?

"A transmission line transformer for converting balanced input to unbalanced output or vice
versa. It may or may not provide wide frequency range impedance transformation
depending upon the configuration used."
An old typical usage of the balun was (and still is) with TV antennas. The folded dipole is
part of a yagi antenna which looks something like a pole with rods set across it at right
angles. The second last one is folded into an oblong or rectangular shape. A folded dipole
exhibits two important characteristics (a) its bandwidth is good for over an octave (e.g. 50
Mhz to 100 Mhz or say 120 Mhz to 240 Mhz) AND its characteristic impedance is a more or
less a constant 300 ohms.
In earlier days extensive use was made of 300 ohm twin lead ribbon cable to feed the signals
to the TV receiver. BTW you can use just a length of 300 ohm ribbon cable to make a folded
dipole.
When colour (or color if you prefer) TV was introduced the ribbon cable often created
problems which could be rectified by the use of co-axial cable. This is not strictly correct
because coax had earlier uses in TV because of other problems such as ghosting which
became intolerable with the introduction of colour.
Now 300 ohm coax can be and is made. However 50 and 75 ohm cable is preferred for a
variety of reasons. Our folded dipole also exhibits a "balanced" feed characteristic

whilst coaxial cable has an "unbalanced" characteristic. Two problems. Each solved by the
use of the balun.

Fig 1. - Schematic of a balun transformer

Perhaps we should have some clarification about this balanced versus unbalanced jazz.
Mentally visualise it this way. If we have a plus 12V D.C. supply with ground return. That
could be regarded for our illustrative purposes as the unbalanced 75 ohm input. On the other
hand we could a symmetrical power supply referenced to ground which provides a + 12V
D.C. AND a - 12V D.C. voltage. The only
difference is we are dealing with RF which of course
is very high A.C.
A practical 300 / 75 ohm balun could consist of four
pieces of 0.4mm wire wound 2 1/2 turns through a
balun core (look a bit like binoculars). In so doing we
have achieved our two goals, (a) the impedance
transformation and (b) gone from unbalanced to
balanced. Higher power levels require a different approach.
My good friend Glen Zook K9STH, has an excellent article on Improving "Boat Anchor"
Receiver Performance using TV Baluns.
Ready made 300 / 75 ohm baluns can be purchased from many outlets. Here's an affiliate
link to Amazon's Balun Page.
HERE ARE SOME USEFUL LINKS TO HIGHER POWER BALUNS

Southgate Amateur Radio Club - 1:6 Balun for the HF bands

Specs for T200-2 RF Toroids

Homebrew A 4 To 1 Balun - By N1HFX

MLB (magnetic longwire balun RE-ABU1HF) - By Guy, de ON6MU

R5 Matching Unit Rebuild by G0WCW using EI7BA method

Ocean Sate Electronics. Source of Iron Powder Toroids, Magnet Wire, & Q-Dope

The Wireman, Products for Amateur and Professional Radio - Baluns - Assembled, Kits,
Custom Designs

What are chokes?

Chokes are fixed inductors primarily intended to "choke" off alternating currents,
including rf from DC supply lines. The "rf choke" is designed to have a high
impedance over a large range of frequencies.
This is quite different to fixed inductors which are meant to be used for tuned circuits.
You could in some very casual applications substitute chokes for fixed inductors but as
a general rule and of course there are exceptions to this rule, I wouldn't.
One exception might be applications involving either non-critical high pass filters
or low pass filters.
On the other hand I certainly wouldn't consider using a choke in a fixed inductor
application such as a quality narrow band filter or in the frequency determining stages
of an LC oscillator.
My principal objection relates to the "Q" of the choke. Secondary objections would
relate to the thermal stability of the choke. Typical moulded chokes which can be
purchased fairly cheaply aren't exactly designed to be monuments to either high "Q",
thermal stability or high tolerances.
Further objections relate to self resonant frequency (SRF). A choke, as with any
inductor, also exhibits some degree of self-capacitance or "distributed capacitance".
This capacitance in conjunction with the design inductance are resonant at some
particular frequency.
Choke resonant frequencies
At low frequencies this capacitance has virtually no effect and the choke could be
depicted as in "A" below in Figure 1. The resistance is the inherent resistance in the
choke both at ac and dc. When the operating frequency is raised the "distributed
capacitance" starts to become significant at a point where L and C form a parallel
resonant circuit as in "B".

Figure 1. - choke resonant frequencies

Increasing the operating frequency further again we find the choke's reactance is
dominated by the capacitance to a point where it is now a series resonant circuit "C".
At this point the chokes performance becomes seriously impaired.
Moulded chokes
Typical of the economical chokes which tend to look like resistors and are color coded
in a similar fashion in the following figure 2 which is a choke color code chart.
Choke Color Code Chart

Figure 2. - choke color code chart

Generally speaking these chokes are designed for miniaturisation and whatever type
you intend to use always double check to ensure it can handle the expected current.
Most important!, you don't want it functioning as a "flash" fuse, pun intended.
Simple low value chokes can often be fashioned cheaply by winding turns of wire
capable of carrying sufficient current on to a suitably large body resistor. A plastic type
former could also be used by using a section cut off say a knitting needle. At higher
frequencies consider a small air wound choke. Cheap chokes too.
Home made chokes are often easily wound on high permeability ferrite toroids, ferrite
beads or even the binocular type cores used for baluns. Just remember to use a wire
gauge which will comfortably handle the expected current through your chokes. Also
remember the higher the permeability of the core the less turns required and the less
"distributed capacitance" appearing in your chokes.
Should your budget allow, consider building an LC meter kit to be able to measure
either the inductance of your chokes, inductors or even check the capacitance
of capacitors.
BOOK - Inductor Handbook by Cletus J. Kaiser
What are coil forms?
Coil forms are used to hold a specified number of turns on a specified diameter former.
The coil form may or may not be used in conjunction with a coil form "tuning slug". A
tuning slug in a coil form leads to greater inductance with fewer turns.
Very good examples of coil forms surrounded by metal shields are the I.F. cans in AM /
FM Radio Receivers as in figure 1 below.

Figure 1 - coil forms surrounded by metal shields

The shielded coil forms are indicated by "OSC" for the oscillator inductor and the
"IFT" cans are the IF transformers tuned to 455 Khz. These shielded coil forms used as
the IF transformers (IFT) probably have something like 140 turns wound on the
primary which is a relatively tiny coil form and would yield an inductance of around
680 uH at a reasonable "Q".
Some other examples of these coil forms with and without the metal shield are in
figure 2 below.

Figure 2 - coil forms with and without the metal shield

"photo courtesy of Coilcraft" with appreciation of their generous support.

These coil forms are numbered from 1 through 5. Number 1 is a coil form with a
tuning slug (often called a "screw core" or "threaded core") and surrounded by a "cup
core" to give increased inductance. By screwing the tuning slug in and out we are able
to get wide variations in inductance. One example of these type of coil forms,
sometimes also called "variable inductors" might be a former and cup core
combination which produces say a nominal inductance of 68 uH per 100 turns over the
frequency range of 1 to 10 Mhz.

If we wanted 12 uH at 5 Mhz we might select this combination of screw core and cup
core. To determine the number of turns required we take 90% of the AL / 100 turns
factor (i.e. 90% of the 68 uH = 61.2) To calculate the turns required we take the square
root of our desired inductance (12 uH) divided by the AL (61.2) or (SQRT [ 12 / 61.2])
= 0.4428 which is then multiplied by 100 to give us 44.28 turns. Therefore we would
wind 44 turns on our former. The tuning slug or "screw core", "threaded core" could
give us an inductance variation of as much as 1.5 : 1
Number 2 could simply be number 1 enclosed in a metal shield (copper) to prevent
interaction with adjacent components. Number 3 simply has a plastic cup core to
protect the windings, it would have a dramatically reduced value of inductance in the
absence of a magnetic cup core. Numbers 4 and 5 have no cup cores at all. I'm not even
certain number 5 has a screw core.
These are simply a few examples of the hundreds of sizes and possible variations
available.
What is a Decibel?
This is a relative power unit. At audio frequencies a change of one decibel (abbreviated
dB) is just detectable as a change in loudness under ideal conditions.
For a given power ratio the decibel change is calculated as:

dB = 10 log P2/P1

If we used voltage or current ratios instead then our formula becomes:

dB = 20 log V2/V1

Examples of using the Decibel

The decibel units add and subtract. For example, if we had an amplifier stage with a
voltage gain of 22 which from above is 26.85 dB gain, followed by a further amplifier
stage which has a voltage gain of 17 (24.6 dB) then the total overall voltage gain is 22
* 17 = 374 (51.46 dB).
Adding together the 26.85 dB plus the 24.6 dB = 51.45 dB, The minor difference was
caused by my rounding to the nearesting second decimal place.
What is dBm for example
I received this email question:
"could you please explain me the difference between db, dbmV and dbmicroV?"
My reply:
I assume you understand decibels, if not:
see http://www.electronics-tutorials.com/basics/decibel.htm [this page]
dBm for example simply is referenced to milli-watts where one milli-watt = 0dBm.
A very common dBm figure is +7dBm where following the decibel rules and dividing
+7 by 10 we get 0.7 and the anti-log of that is 5.0118 or five as the nearest whole
number.
So +7dBm is another way of saying 5 milli-watts.
The same applies to the other values you mentioned, just different reference levels.
Why use this system? Instead of saying +7dBm why not say 5 milli-watts? There are
several reasons:
a) In systems with gains and losses it is far easier to add and subtract the dBm's.

b) With different impedance's throughout circuits, power levels in dBm's

remain constant, only the rf voltages and impedance's change.

What are "Glowbugs"

The Glowbugs e-mailing list covers the hands-on use of vacuum tube technology in amateur
radio equipment of the bygone era. Home-built equipment from the early 1920's through the
1970's is within its scope.
The term "Glowbugs" is thought to have originated from the appearance of vacuum tubes
when the heater filament is giving the appearance of a Glowbug.
All aspects of design, building, testing, operating, and troubleshooting such equipment is
appropriate for this group.
A lot of the discussions center on homebrewing of tube amateur radio equipment.
What is a power supply?
A power supply could be something as simple as a 9v battery or it could be as complex as a
precision laboratory power supply. Here we deal in ac dc power supplies.
Below is the schematic of a very basic unregulated dc power supply. The ac from the
transformer secondary is rectified by a bridge rectifier D1 to D4 which may also be a block
rectifier such as WO4 or even four individual diodes such as 1N4004 types. (see later re
rectifier ratings).
The principal advantage of a bridge rectifier is you do not need a
centre tap on the secondary of the transformer. A further but
significant advantage is that the ripple frequency at the output is
twice the line frequency (i.e. 50 Hz or 60 Hz) and makes filtering
somewhat easier.

AT-M Ad

Figure 1 - schematic of basic power supply

As a design example consider we wanted a small unregulated bench supply for our projects.
Here we will go for a voltage of about 12 - 13V at a maximum output current (IL) of 500ma
(0.5A). Maximum ripple will be 2.5% and load regulation is 5%.
Now the rms secondary voltage (primary is whatever is consistent with your area) for
our power transformer T1 must be our desired output Vo PLUS the voltage drops across D2
and D4 ( 2 * 0.7V), all divided by 1.414.
This means that Vsec = [13V + 1.4V] / 1.414 which equals about 10.2V. Depending on the
VA rating of your transformer, the secondary voltage will vary considerably in accordance
with the applied load. The secondary voltage on a transformer advertised as say 20VA will
be much greater if the secondary is only lightly loaded.
If we accept the 2.5% ripple as adequate for our purposes then at 13V this becomes 13 *
0.025 = 0.325 Vrms. The peak to peak value is 2.828 times this value. Vrip = 0.325V X
2.828 = 0.92 V and this value is required to calculate the value of C1. Also required for this
calculation is the time interval for charging pulses. If you are on a 60Hz system it it 1 / (2 *
60 ) = 0.008333 which is 8.33 milliseconds. For a 50Hz system it is 0.01 sec or 10
milliseconds.
The formula for C1 is:
C1 (uF) = [ ( IL * t ) / Vrip ] X 10 6
C1 = [ ( 0.5A X 0.00833 ) / 0.92V ] X 10 6
C1 = 0.00453 X 10 6 = 4529 or 4700 uF

Remember the tolerance of the type of capacitor used here is very loose. The important
thing to be aware of is the voltage rating should be at least 13V X 1.414 or 18.33. Here you
would use at least the standard 25V or higher (absolutely not 16V).
Power Supply diode rectifier rating

With our rectifier diodes or bridge they should have a PIV rating of 2.828 times the Vsec or
at least 29V. Don't search for this rating because it doesn't exist. Use the next highest
standard or even higher. The current rating should be at least twice the load current
maximum i.e. 2 X 0.5A or 1A. A good type to use would be 1N4004, 1N4006 or 1N4008
types. These are rated 1 Amp at 400PIV, 600PIV and 1000PIV respectively. Always be on
the lookout for the higher voltage ones when they are on special.
Transformer Rating for Power Supply
In our example above we were taking 0.5A out of the Vsec of 10V. The VA required is 10 X
0.5A = 5VA. For our power supply this is a small PCB mount transformer available in
Australia and probably elsewhere. This would be an absolute minimum and if you
anticipated drawing the maximum current all the time then go to a higher VA rating.
The two capacitors in the primary side are small value types and if you don't know
precisely and I mean precisely what you are doing then OMIT them. Their loss won't cause
you heartache or terrible problems.

THEY MUST BE HIGH VOLTAGE TYPES SPECIFICALLY RATED FOR

A.C. USE
The fuse F1 must be able to carry the primary current but blow under excessive current, in
this case we use the formula from the diagram. Here N = 240V / 10V or perhaps 120V /
10V. The fuse calculates in the first instance to [ 2 X 0.5A ] / [240 / 10] or .04A or 40 ma. In
the second case .08A or 80 ma. The difficulty here is to find suitable fuses of that low a
current and voltage rating. In practice you use the closest you can get (often 100 ma ). Don't
take that too literal and use 1A or 5A fuses.
Construction of Power Supply
The whole power supply project MUST be enclosed in a suitable enclosure, preferably of
the insulated variety. The main switch, also preferably double pole, must be rated at least
240V or 120V at the current rating. All exposed parts within the power supply box MUST
be fully insulated, preferably with heatshrink tubing.
What is Q?
"Q" is a most important property of both capacitors and inductors although it is actually
dimensionless. The "Q" of capacitors is generally so high as to be ignored however it is the
"Q" of inductors we mainly concern ourselves with. All inductors exhibit some extra
resistance to ac or rf, "Q" is the reactance of the inductor divided by this ac or rf resistance
plus the dc resistance of the windings.
The formula for "Q" is Q = (2 * pi * f * L) / R
This factor "Q" largely determines the sharpness of resonant circuits. The actual resistance
of wire to ac or rf is often far greater than the dc resitance. At lower rf frequencies up to

about 1 Mhz this is due to the "skin effect" where the actual rf travels on the outside
perimeter of the wire.
At lower frequencies say at 500 Khz, the "Q" is materially improved by using Litz wire to
reduce rf resistance. Litz wire is "bunched" wire strands of almost minute wire size. One
extreme example I know of is 220 strands of #44 wire (each strand 2 mils or .002" dia)
wound on a T130-2 toroid to produce an extremely high "Q" of over 500 at 250 Khz. That's
unloaded Q or Qu.
Now #44 wire has a cross sectional area of 3.1416 mils squared. With 220 strands the total
cross sectional area is 691 mils squared or about 30 mils dia. The nearest equivalent wire
size for a similar cross sectional area is #20 wire. Had the toroid been wound with the same
number of turns of the #20 wire the inductance would probably have been about the same
but the "Q" would certainly been far, far less. Why? Skin effect!
Skin effect and Q
Consider this for the purposes of understanding "skin effect". The perimeter of a circle is pi
* dia. So for #20 wire which is 32 mils but the above equivalent was 30 mils (these are all
thousandths of an inch). That produces a total perimeter for the rf to travel on of pi * dia =
94 mils. On the other hand we said #44 has a dia. of just 2 mils and that's just 6.2832 mils of
perimeter but, multiplied 220 times it's 1382 mils instead of 94 mils. A 14 fold
improvement. That's why they use Litz wire to vastly improve "Q". Beyond 2 Mhz the effect
becomes much less noticeable to almost negligible.
The net result of skin effect is a net decrease in the cross sectional area of the conductor and
a consequent increase in the rf resistance. Consult the references I have suggested you read
for a more detailed and informed discussion on this very important topic.
In particular I would recommend RF Circuit Design - Chris Bowick - Sams.
Why is Q so important?
When and if you ever get to our popular tutorials on LC filters, you will learn that the
bandwidth of filters is determined principally by loaded Q. A limitation on the design Q is
the available inductor Q or unloaded Qu. Usually the design Q can not exceed about onefifth of the available inductor Q otherwise circuit losses become totally prohibitive.
If you have a typical inductor Q of say 100 then the loaded Q is going to be 20. The filter
bandwidth will be the centre frequency, Fo divided by 20. At 7.0 Mhz that's 350 Khz wide.
At lower frequencies such as 455 Khz it would be 22 Khz! although there we could use
active filtering for LC filters or more likely amplifier tuned circuit filtering. Also see IF
Amplifier Filters, that's how IF transformers were often designed in the days before crystal
filters and ceramic filters.
What is a S meter and what does it do?

An S-meter is simply a sensitive movement which measure current through an agc line to
give a relative indication of signal strength. The face of an S-meter is calibrated in units S1
to S9 plus levels of dB over S9. There is no real official standard for S-meters as such.
I assume you understand both I.F. amplifiers and automatic gain control (A.G.C.). The agc
works to maintain a relatively constant audio output consistent with the setting of your
volume control. It works on the principle if there is a strong signal at the final detector of the
receiver then a counter dc signal goes back to the if amplifiers to reduce the gain to a pre-set
level.
Alternatively with weak signals, this dc signal is almost absent allowing the if amplifier to
go full gain. For received signals which are somewhere in between weak and strong the dc
signal is proportional.
Ideally, under any received signal conditions the signal level at the detector should be a
constant 1V p/p, all controlled by the agc.
An S-meter is simply a meter set up to measure the current through the agc control line so
that on strong signals it shows say S9 + 20 dB while on weak signals it might be at the
bottom end of the scale on say S1 or S2.

Figure 1 - an S meter

Be aware, they are notoriously inaccurate, can not be compared between various receivers
and are only useful for relative measurements applicable to your receiver, using your current
antenna, at your present location and on one particular band.
They are widely misunderstood and all too often an S meter is given a level of importance
they don't rightly deserve.
S-meters are as accurate as a group of people standing by the road and individually
estimating the speed of passing vehicles.
How important is soldering?

Among the foremost of reasons an electronic project frequently fails to work properly is due
to "poor" soldering practices. This is usually caused by "dry joints" when soldering. Here I
discuss the correct procedures for soldering electronic projects.
Dry joints when soldering
At first glance many solder joints appear to be quite "O.K." but on closer examination many
are in fact defective. The insidious problem with dry joints in soldering is that the circuit
frequently performs alright for a period of time, even years before failure.
This problem even occurs with manufactured equipment. Ask any TV / Video repair
technician who has torn a lot of hair out over an elusive fault ultimately traced back to a dry
joint.
Good soldering practices for your electronic project
The cause of dry joints in soldering is mostly the improper application of heat. Both the
component leg and the PCB need to be both heated simultaneously to the correct
temperature to allow the solder to flow freely between BOTH surfaces. Obviously this
requires practice and most newcomers inevitably get it wrong.
Improper heating while soldering and its consequences can be seen below.

Figure 1 - correct soldering procedures to avoid dry joints

Here in figure 1 entitled "correct soldering procedures to avoid dry joints" we have three
examples of soldering depicted. The first example indicates the component lead was heated
while the PCB wasn't heated. As a consequence the solder only flowed onto the component
lead.
In the second example of soldering in figure 1 we find the PCB was correctly heated while
little or inadequate heat was applied to the component lead. This is the most treachorous
example because although I have made it very obvious in the diagram, in practice it is not
always particularly obvious. Often this type of dry joint "just" allows the solder to "touch"
the component lead while not actually being "soldered" to the lead. Of course it might work
for a period of time depending upon environmental conditions of heat and cold.
In the final example of "correct soldering procedures to avoid dry joints" I have depicted the
solder bridging both the PCB and the component lead. In this case the PCB and the
component lead were both heated"simultaneously" AND the solder was applied to either

the component lead or the PCB to "flow" freely from one to the other to provide a good
"electrical" joint. Such a joint is always "bright and shiny", dull looking joints are often
suspect.
You never apply the solder to the soldering iron "tip". Solder is always applied to the "job",
never the soldering iron. Allow the solder to "set" and cool before proceeding to the next
joint.
Other cases of soldering
We have discussed soldering components to a PCB yet this is not the only case of soldering.
Often we need to connect wires to switches and other components. A common
misconception is that soldering is designed to provide a good mechanical joint. - It isn't!
Any connection should have it's own mechanical strength perhaps by twisting wires together
or twisting the wire around a binding post or through a hole provided for the purpose. The
solder is only intended for a good "electrical" connection. Never provide a connection which
can't stand mechanically on it's own merits.
What's soldering flux?
Modern quality electronics solders contain a "flux" resin within the solder. This flux is
designed to flow over the job and prevent contact with the atmosphere. Metals, particularly
copper when heated tend to "oxidise" and prevent the alloying or good electrical bond
between the copper and the solder.
Good solder containing the resin will have resin flowing over the leads and prevent this
oxidisation process and as the solder flows the resin is displaced allowing the solder to form
an "atomic" bonding with the items being soldered together. A good resin helps to keep the
surfaces clean.
Rules for good soldering
Of course some of these rules might seem very obvious but are worth repeating.

Use
a
reasonable
quality
iron
of
the
correct
wattage
for
the
job.

Only
use
"electronic"
resin
cored
solder
of
fine
gauge.
 Make sure all surfaces to be soldered are "bright, shiny" and thoroughly clean.

If
a
mechanical
joint,
make
sure
it
can
"stand
alone"
before
soldering.

Make
sure
the
solder
tip
is
clean,
shiny
and
properly
"wetted".
 Remember the soldering iron tip is only to heat up the surfaces to be soldered.
 Apply the resin cored solder to the heated "job", not to the soldering iron tip.
 Remember to visually inspect ALL of your soldered joints, preferably with magnifying glasses.
 Consider using your multimeter to provide an "electrical continuity" check between various parts of the circuit.

Also see my page on tools for constructing electronic projects.

VHS Video - Electronic Soldering Techniques

The Consumer Electronics Association (CEA)
Edition Details: NTSC format (US and Canada only)
Description:
An important addition to any electronics curriculum or service facility, this step-by-step
video assists student and electronics technicians to develop soldering skills essential in
today's miniaturized and complex electronics products. Teaches proper soldering methods
and necessary equipment used on traditional electronics components and surface-mount
devices. Covers procedures and handling of electrostatic sensitive devices.
What are toroids?
These come in two types. Powdered Iron or Ferrites. Both introduce permeability, that
means an increased inductance for a given number of turns. Toroids look exactly like
doughnuts and come in various diameters, thicknesses, permeabilities and types depending
upon the frequency range of interest. Note the correct spelling, not torroids
Some of the advantages of toroids are:
1. High inductance for the physical space occupied.
2. No interaction or coupling with adjacent components (unlike air wound and other
inductors).
3. Various permeabilities are available.
4. Exceptional Q values when wound correctly and optimum core and windings selected.
5. Wide range of diameters and thicknesses.
6. Relatively low cost
7. Often simple to mount or secure mechanically.
Some of the disadvantages of toroids are:
1. Nearly impossible to introduce variable tuning of the inductance.
2. Subject to some thermal drift.

Fig 1. - Toroid Core

A typically popular type is made available by Micrometals and a representative example is

the T50-2. This core is lacquered red (so you know the type) and has the following main
properties.
Being T50 it's outside diameter is 0.5", the ID is 0.3" and the thickness is 0.19"
The permeabilities or in this case AL factors i.e. ( inductance per 100 turns ) are:
2

TYPE
T50-26
T50-3
T50-1
T50-2
T50-6
T50-10

COLOR
Yel-Wh
Gray
Blue
Red
Yellow
Black

AL
320uH
175
100
57
47
32

Freq. Range
power freq.
50 Khz to 500 Khz
500 Khz to 5 Mhz
2 Mhz to 30 Mhz
10 to 50 Mhz
30 to 100 Mhz

This is only a small sample to give you an idea. Your turns required to give a certain
inductance based on the above AL is as follows:
N = 100 * [ L / AL]
Therefore to obtain an inductance of 3.685 uH using a T50-6 toroid would require 28 turns
(of course I cheated again) but check it out on your calculator as I may have left in a
deliberate mistake to see if you're awake.
By the way don't get too paranoid about the exact number of turns because cores do vary in
value anyway and particularly with temperature changes.
I finally got around to photographing some coils and toroids.

Figure 2 - photograph of some coils and toroids

Sorry for the poor lighting. The top two toroids on the left are T68-2 types (red). Below that
is the yellow T50-6 type. To the right of the yellow toroid are two RFC (radio frequency
chokes) one is 1 mH and the other is 2.5 mH. Above the RFC, lying diagonally, is a 4.7 uH
(nominal) variable inductor from J.W. Miller. At the extreme left of the photo is the tip of a
similar variable inductor where the tuning screw is a little more clearer.
Finally to the middle right is a wound toroid I salvaged from somewhere.
Mike Czuhajewski WA8MCQ has produced a Toroid Chart
Mike Czuhajewski has this excellent chart for toroids, print it out.
See: Mike's Toroid Chart
Mounting Toroids
A considerable amount of work has been done by Roy Lewallen, W7EL on the important
topic of mounting toroids.
It is quite often important in applications such as LC filters to preserve "Q" as high as
possible. Roy has done quite a lot of research in this area.
In part, Roy says...
"Of the materials tested, both types of RTV stand out as having a negligible effect on
inductor Q. Hot melt glue and paraffin have a small enough effect that they should be
tolerable for many applications. Duco cement seriously degrades Q, even in a much thinner
layer than the other coatings. The "sealing tape", tested out of curiosity, shows just how
great a degradation can be caused by a poor coating........."
See: http://www.qrp.pops.net/w7el.asp
Micrometals RF Design Software

FREE Micrometals RF design software, RF-Toroid was written as a supplement to the

Micrometals RF Application catalog. Much emphasis was put into calculating the location
of the Self resonate frequencies for series and shunt inductors. RF-Toroid is for use DC to
300 MHz. Much research went in to the calculation and corrections from the standard
formulas for low perm & phenolic cores to better predict the RF style of winding and
application.
Some features include SRF for series and shunt cores, peak Q curve ranges and 200 & 360
degree coverage to achieve the best product possible for the microwave designer who needs
accurate and abundant information at the finger tips to compare one core to another
simultaneously. The custom core feature allows for custom shaped cores, stacking cores side
by side , ferrite cores and machining custom phenolic cores from plastic, wood, ect...
Micrometals hope this tool will serve you well.
Download Micrometals RF Design Software - 397Kb
Micrometals Inductor Design Software
Go to Micrometals Inductor Design Software for other inductor software.
PLEASE NOTE:The toroid part numbers mentioned herein and elsewhere on my sites are
copyright Micrometals, Inc.
Other Toroid Software
mini Ring Core Calculator - English Version
The easy way to calculate toroid cores. Mini Ringkern-Rechner V. 1.0 was first published in
German Amateur Radio Magazine "FUNKAMATEUR" 11/2000.
The program is homemade and free for use by radio amateurs. Version 1.0a running on
Windows 3.1 and up, but will not developed any longer. Version 1.1 is 32-bit, including
English.
Download http://www.qsl.net/dl5swb/minirk_e.htm - 624Kb
Inexpensive source of Toroids in USA
My very good friend Dieter (DIZ) Gentzow - W8DIZ - of Loveland, Ohio, tells me, "as far
as I know, my prices for Toroids are the best in town/county/world :)"
Diz goes on to say "the web page with the info is at... http://www.kitsandparts.com/
I'm sure Diz will look after you kindly.
What are wide band rf transformers?

Wideband rf transformers are simply transfomers designed to provide an impedance

transformation over a broad frequency range. In amateur radio applications we wind these
transformers on ferrite toroids. A common impedance transformation is 200 ohms to 50
ohms using a bi-filar winding. Here is an example from our broad band
amplifiers tutorial.

Figure 1. - wideband rf amplifier with shunt feedback and emitter degeneration

Transformer T1 is a broadband rf transformer.

Designing wide band rf transformers
In the design of these kinds of wide band rf transformers the primary reactance is usually
around 5 times the primary impedance. With a 200 ohms to 50 ohm transformer, we would
allow a reactance of 1,000 ohms at the lowest frequency of interest. Just as an example
consider we were building a broad band amplifier for the amateur bands and going down as
low as 1.8 Mhz.
For this example we would need bi-filar windings which have a reactance of 1,000 ohms at
1.8 Mhz, this means a required inductance of around 88 uH. A look through the
Amidon data book tells me that ferrite toroid FT-50-61 as one example can provide me with
an AL factor of 68mH / 1000 turns.
This means if 1,000 turns were wound on the toroid it would give us 68 mH. Yes that IS
milli-henries, these are ferrite toroids.
Calculating turns for wide band rf transformers

To wind a wide band rf transformer with an inductance of 88 uH (yes that's micro-henries)

which is in fact 0.088 mh we use the following formula:
Turns = 1,000 X SQRT (L in mH / AL factor) = 1,000 X SQRT (0.088 / 68) = 36 turns.
Our wide band rf transformer needs 36 turns to achieve an inductance of 88 uH.
Winding the wide band rf transformer
Because this is a bi-filar winding for our wide band rf transformer, we need two lengths of
wire which we will "twist" together at a "pitch" of 2.5 turns per inch or 1 turn per 10 mm. If
you anchor one end of the two wires together in a bench vise and fix the other ends securely
in a hand drill (a bent nail or fish hook helps here) you then gently "stretch" the wires first.
Then you slowly turn the hand drill and notice the two wires "twisting" together, as you
proceed you will notice more and more twists appearing. Stop when you have about 2.5
twists to the inch. Stretch the wires once more.
Wind 36 turns through the toroid and that is it! To use in an application such as figure 1
above you need to pay attention to the "phasing". Notice the two dots on T1 above? They
indicate the start of each wire. Use an ohmmeter to find the start and finish of one winding,
mark it in some convenient manner e.g. coloured pen. The other winding should then be
obvious.
Commercially manufactured wide band rf transformers
Coilcraft is one manufacturer of wide band transformers which provide reliable
performance.
The transformers are offered in tapped or untapped configurations and are packaged in a
low-profile DIP-style plastic case. All parts are available in either a surface mount version or
a through-hole version thats compatible with standard DIP sockets.
Applications include impedance matching, voltage or current transformation, DC isolation,
balanced / unbalanced mixing, matching, power splitting, coupling, and signal inversion.
Custom wide band transformers with special combinations of impedance ratio, insertion
loss, frequency response, and current handling are also available.
Designing wide band rf transformers for different impedances
Alright what if you need something other than a 200 ohm to 50 ohms transformer, how
would you go about it?
What I tell you here now is applicable from DC to daylight. What that means is, it is equally
applicable to an audio transformer with a bandwidth of 100 Hz to 3,000 Hz (for an audio
transformer) as it is to a broadband transformer designed to operate at say 7.00 to 7.50
Mhz. Read on.

Firstly you need to pick either a lower 1 dB or 3 dB bandwidth. Wozzat??? Look at figure 2
below where I present my usual scungy drawing - I'm no good at this graphic arts caper, not
the program, just my lack of artistic talent.

Figure 2. - band pass filter characteristics

Here I've crudely depicted a range of frequencies being passed by a filter and indicated the 1
dB and 3 db points. A 1 db point is where the power output is about 80% of the band pass
power or 90% of the voltage level. A 3 db point is where the power output is about 50% of
the band pass power or 70.7% of the voltage level. If you can't understand decibels then you
need to look at the decibel page
In your broad band transformer you need to determine the lowest point you can tolerate in
frequency. Entirely for discussion purposes I've selected 5 Mhz for both 1 dB and 3 dB to
demonstrate the formulas. Also I'm going to construct a broad band tranformer to operate
between 14.4 ohms and 50 ohms.
For the 1 db point to be 5 Mhz, I use the formula Lp = R / ( 2 X Pi X Fo) and for the 3 dB
point, I use the formula Lp = R / ( 4 X Pi X Fo). The general formula for any other dB level
is a bit difficult to reproduce here but contact me and I'll give it to anyone who wants it.
The first formula simply gives you an inductance equal the reactance of R or in our case
we're using 14.4 ohms at 5 Mhz. This results in an inductance of 0.458 uH. The second
formula simply produces half that inductance or, 0.229 uH.
Back to the result of 0.458 uH, that could easily be achieved with 10 turns on a T-50-2
toroid. Alright we have a T50-2 toroid with 10 turns on it, this is supposed to represent 14.4
ohms at 5 Mhz. To match to 50 ohms all we have to do is work out the turns ratio.
Impedance transforms as "the square of the ratio of turns". Then 50 / 14.4 = 3.472' and the
square root of this is 1.86 so we need on the secondary 1.86 times more turns or in our case
19 turns.
IF our output were terminated in a genuine 50 ohm load then the square of [19 /10] being
the turns ratio would be reflected back giving (if you work it out) a source of 13.85 ohms.

The CRITICAL aspects here are: a) turns ratio AND; b) final termination being a genuine
50 ohm load.
What is the upper frequency limit of our wide band rf transformer?
The high frequency limit is influenced by the leakage inductance Lk and distributed
capacitance of the inductor forming a second order low pass filter and is influenced by a
very wide range of factors. The higher the inductance, then the lower or flatter the lowfrequency end but, this comes at a price of higher Lk and distributed capacitance limiting
high frequency response. Often a compromise is needed for high ratios of frequencies.
Although I have never tested it, I would imagine at least one octave bandwidth could easily
be accomodated e.g. 2.5 Mhz to 5 Mhz or 5 Mhz to 10 Mhz.

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