Journal of the Transportation Research Board

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD

NO.

1712

Construction
2000
Materials and Construction
Click on article title to reach abstract; abstracts link to full textclick on Full Text icon.

CONTENTS
Foreword

Part 1Portland Cement Concrete Pavement

Top-Down Cracking of Rigid Pavements Constructed with Fast-Setting Hydraulic Cement Concrete
Andrew C. Heath and Jeffery R. Roesler

Construction Productivity and Constraints for Concrete Pavement Rehabilitation in Urban Corridors
Eul-Bum Lee, C. William Ibbs, John T. Harvey, and Jeff R. Roesler

Part 2Asphalt Concrete Pavement

Analysis of Quality Control and Quality Assurance Data for Superpave Mixes
Frazier Parker, Jr., M. Shabbir Hossain, and Jiansheng Song

Coarse Superpave Mixture Sensitivity

Amy L. Epps and Adam J. Hand

Comparative Analysis of Volumetric Properties for Superpave Gyratory Compactors

Yetkin Yildirim, Mansour Solaimanian, Robert B. McGennis, and Thomas W. Kennedy

Evaluation of Notched-Wedge Longitudinal Joint Construction

M. Shane Buchanan

Factors Affecting Overlay Ride Quality

Kevin K. McGhee

Study of Compaction Density in Closed Form

Jung D. Huh and Young K. Nam

Effect of Lime on Ignition Furnace Calibration

Brian D. Prowell and Jack Youtcheff

Alternative Solvent for Reducing Health and Environmental Hazards in Extracting Asphalt:
An Evaluation
Holly Collins-Garcia, Mang Tia, Reynaldo Roque, and Bouzid Choubane

Measuring Smoothness of Virginias Asphalt Overlays

Kevin K. McGhee

Construction-Related Temperature Differentials in Asphalt Concrete Pavement:

Identification and Assessment
Joe P. Mahoney, Stephen T. Muench, Linda M. Pierce, Steven A. Read, Herb Jakob, and Robyn Moore

Part 3Management of Quality Assurance

Development of Composite Quality Measures
Richard M. Weed

Nonparametric Approach to Managing Materials Quality

Paul E. Benson, Y. Sam Chong, and Francisco J. Samaniego

Method to Model Performance Relationships and Pay Schedules

Richard M. Weed

ILLISIM Program for End-Result Specification Development

William G. Buttlar and John J. Hausman

Part 4Bridges and Structures

Rapid Bridge Deck Replacement with Full-Depth Precast Concrete Slabs
Michael P. Culmo

Flexural Capacity of Compact and Noncompact High-Performance Steel Plate Girders

Atorod Azizinamini and Richard Sause

Cold-Weather Cast-in-Place Segmental Construction for Long-Span Bridges

Christopher J. Burgess

Methods for Controlling Stresses and Distortions in Stage-Constructed Steel Bridges

Geoffrey D. Swett, John F. Stanton, and Phillip S. Dunston

Part 5Construction Management

Quantified Checklists for Construction Inspection Examination
Allan F. Samuels

Kentucky Contract Time Determination System

Raymond F. Werkmeister, Becky L. Luscher, and Donn E. Hancher

Determining Minimum Contract Time for Highway Projects

Jin-Fang Shr, Benjamin P. Thompson, Jeffrey S. Russell, Bin Ran, and H. Ping Tserng

Partnering on a Design-Build Project: Making the Three-Way Love Affair Work

Jim Ernzen, Ginger Murdough, and Debra Drecksel

Transportation Research Record 1712

ISSN 0361-1981
ISBN 0-309-06691-3
Subscriber Category
IIIB materials and construction
Printed in the United States of America
Sponsorship of Transportation Research Record 1712
GROUP 2DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES
Raymond K. Moore, University of Nebraska at Lincoln (Chairman)
Construction Section
Cliff J. Schexnayder, Arizona State University (Chairman)
Committee on Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Construction
James D. Grove, Iowa Department of Transportation (Chairman), Ahmad A. Ardani, Curt A. Beckemeyer, Frieda R.
Brinskelle, Peter Capon, Archie F. Carter, Garry D. Chegwidden, Lawrence W. Cole, Michael I. Darter, Alan G.
Farrington, W. Charles Greer, Jr., Lon S. Ingram, Rodney N. Joel, Wolfgang Langheinrich, Kevin L. Maillard, John E.
McChord, Dennis A. Morian, Richard S. Norland, Carl W. Rapp, Robert J. Risser, Jr., Larry A. Scofield, Steven L. Tritsch,
Dan G. Zollinger
Committee on Flexible Pavement Construction and Rehabilitation
Maghsoud Tahmoressi, Texas Department of Transportation (Chairman), Christopher David Abadie, Timothy B.
Aschenbrener, Fouad M. S. Bayomy, E. Ray Brown, Wayne R. Byard, Bouzid Choubane, John A. DAngelo, Dale S.
Decker, Cindy K. Estakhri, Colin A. Franco, John E. Haddock, Gerald Huber, Peter F. Hueppi, Jerry Chris Jones, Kamyar
Cyrus Mahboub, Robert B. McGennis, Joseph E. Musil, Ali Regimand, Freddy L. Roberts, Jeffrey S. Russell, James A.
Scherocman, Robert M. Smith, Richard R. Stander, Sr., John J. Weigel, Jr., R. Christopher Williams
Committee on Management of Quality Assurance
Ronald J. Cominsky, Pennsylvania Asphalt Pavement Association (Chairman), Abdul Rahman A. Al-Azzam, Vince Aurilio,
Paul E. Benson, James L. Burati, Jr., Michael I. Darter, Dale S. Decker, John S. Dick, Robert P. Elliott, Foad Farid, Jim Gee,
Dimitrios Goulias, Charles S. Hughes, Peter A. Kopac, Khaled Ksaibati, Rita B. Leahy, Glen E. Miller, James S. Moulthrop,
John E. Naughton III, Dale Peabody, Orrin Riley, Gary L. Robson, Gerald J. Rohrbach, James M. Shilstone, Sr., Donald R.
Tuggle, Richard M. Weed

Committee on Construction of Bridges and Structures

Ralph D. Csogi, Greenman-Pedersen, Inc. (Chairman), James M. Barker, Patrick L. Barrett, Neal H. Bettigole, D. Stephen
Brown, Cosema E. Crawford, Larry G. Crowley, Parag C. Das, Jackson L. Durkee, Michael C. Forde, James J. Hill, J. Leroy
Hulsey, Rola L. Idriss, Ramankutty Kannankutty, Jai B. Kim, M. Myint Lwin, William J. Moreau, Franklin R. Muth,
Charles V. Slavis, Krishna K. Verma
Committee on Construction Management
Steven D. DeWitt, North Carolina Department of Transportation (Chairman), Stuart D. Anderson, David Arditi, Eric A.
Berger, Debra R. Brisk, John C. Collings, Brian P. Deery, Ralph D. Ellis, Jr., James J. Ernzen, Foad Farid, Donn E. Hancher,
Gregory G. Henk, G. John Kurgan, Hosin David Lee, David G. Manning, Robert B. Newman, M. Lee Powell III, Orrin
Riley, Arunprakash M. Shirole, H. Randolph Thomas, Jr., Thomas R. Warne, Paul T. Wells, Trefor P. Williams,
Gerald Yakowenko
Transportation Research Board Staff
Frederick D. Hejl, Engineer of Materials and Construction
Robert Summersgill, Administrative Assistant
Sponsorship is indicated by a footnote at the end of each paper. The organizational units, officers, and members are as of
December 31, 1999.

FOREWORD
The papers contained in this volume were among those presented at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board in January 2000. Nearly 1,600 papers were submitted by authors; more than 1,000 were presented at the meeting; and
approximately 600 were accepted for publication in the 2000 Transportation Research Record series. The published papers will
also be issued on CD-ROM, which will be available for purchase in late 2000. It should be noted that the preprint CD-ROM
distributed at the 2000 meeting contains unedited, draft versions of presented papers, whereas the papers published in the
2000 Records include author revisions made in response to review comments.
Starting with the 1999 volumes, the title of the Record series has included Journal of the Transportation Research Board to
reflect more accurately the nature of this publication series and the peer-review process conducted in the acceptance of papers
for publication. Each paper published in this volume was peer reviewed by the sponsoring committee acknowledged at the end
of the text; members of the sponsoring committees for the papers in this volume are identified on page ii. Additional information about the Transportation Research Record series and the peer-review process can be found on the inside front cover. The
Transportation Research Board appreciates the interest shown by authors in offering their papers and looks forward to future
submissions.

Top-Down Cracking of Rigid Pavements

Constructed with Fast-Setting
Hydraulic Cement Concrete
Andrew C. Heath and Jeffery R. Roesler
A. C. Heath, Transportek, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, P.O. Box 395, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
J. R. Roesler, Pavement Research Center, Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California at Berkeley,
1353 South 46th Street, Building 480, Richmond, CA 94804.

FULL
TEXT

Test sections of jointed plain concrete pavement were constructed with fast-setting hydraulic cement
concrete (FSHCC) as part of the California Department of Transportation accelerated pavement-testing
program. Many of the longer slabs cracked under environmental influences before any traffic load was
applied to them. Data from field instrumentation were recorded and analyzed along with laboratory test
data to determine the cause of the cracking. Cores drilled through the cracks indicated that cracking
began at the top of the slabs and propagated downward. This was confirmed with the ILLI-SLAB
(ILSL2) finite-element package in which high tensile stresses were predicted at the top of the slab as a
result of the differential drying shrinkage between the top and base of the slab and the nonlinear nature
of the negative temperature gradients through the slab. Laboratory free-shrinkage tests with the test
section concrete indicated significantly higher levels of shrinkage compared with that achieved with
ordinary Type II portland cement. Load plus environmental stress analysis with ILSL2 suggested that
the critical failure location for the FSHCC pavements would be near the corner of the slab and not at
the midslab edge.

Construction Productivity and

Constraints for Concrete Pavement
Rehabilitation in Urban Corridors
Eul-Bum Lee, C. William Ibbs, John T. Harvey, and Jeff R. Roesler
E.-B. Lee and C. W. Ibbs, University of California Berkeley, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Construction
Engineering and Management, 215 McLaughlin Hall, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720. J. T. Harvey and J. R. Roesler,
University of California at Berkeley Pavement Research Center, 1353 South 46th Street, Building 480, Richmond, CA 94804.

FULL
TEXT

A constructability analysis tool was developed to help the California Department of Transportation
(Caltrans) determine which rehabilitation and construction strategies were the most feasible in an urban
environment to maximize production and minimize traffic delay. With the assistance of California
concrete paving contractors, the constructability analysis explored the effects of the following parameters
on the construction production of concrete pavement rehabilitation in California: pavement thickness,
concrete material, curing time, number and capacity of resources, number of lanes to be paved, type of
construction scheduling, and alternative lane closure strategies. The constructability analyses indicated
that the proposed Caltrans strategy to rebuild 6 lane-km within a 55-h weekend closure period had a
low probability of success. The analyses showed that the concrete curing time was not the most critical
activity for the overall production. Material delivery resources, such as dump trucks for demolition and
concrete delivery trucks, were the major constraints that limited production. An increase in the concrete
slab thickness from 203 to 305 mm reduced the level of production by about 50 percent. A concurrentconstruction working method was more productive than a sequential-construction working method.
The number of lanes to be paved affected the production capability. Continuous closures were more
productive and less inconvenient to the public than weekend-only closures.

Analysis of Quality Control and Quality

Assurance Data for Superpave Mixes
Frazier Parker, Jr., M. Shabbir Hossain, and Jiansheng Song
F. Parker, Jr., Highway Research Center, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849. M. S. Hossain and J. Song,
Civil Engineering Department, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849.

FULL
TEXT

Asphalt content, voids, and mat density quality controlquality assurance data were collected for
selected Marshall and Superpave mixes during 1997 and for selected Superpave mixes during 1998
and 1999. Analyses indicate that the accuracies and variabilities of asphalt content measurements for
Marshall and Superpave mixes are comparable. However, analyses also indicate that the accuracies and
variabilities of voids and mat density measurements are not comparable. Moreover, variabilities for
Superpave mixes are much higher, and measurements for Superpave mixes are more off target than
those for Marshall mixes. The effects of gyratory compactor use, mix design range for an equivalent
single-axle load, and maximum aggregate size were investigated to explain the observed differences.
Although few consistent trends were observed, all these factors seem to affect the variabilities and
accuracies of air voids and mat densities of Superpave mixes.

Coarse Superpave Mixture Sensitivity

Amy L. Epps and Adam J. Hand
A. L. Epps, Texas A&M University, 503F CE/TTI Building, 3136 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-3136.
A. J. Hand, Purdue University, 1248 Civil Engineering Building, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1284.

FULL
TEXT

Asphalt-aggregate mixture sensitivity has long been recognized for its potential negative impact on
performance if variables including the asphalt content (AC) and the percent that passes the 0.075-mm
sieve (p0.075) are not carefully controlled during construction. Typical production standard deviations
for AC and p0.075 are 0.3 and 0.9 percent, respectively. This mixture sensitivity analysis shows that
variations of this magnitude can result in significant changes in coarse Superpave mixture volumetrics.
Three coarse mixtures designed for the WesTrack project were examined, including the original coarse
mixture and the replacement mixture. The coarse mixture was most sensitive to both AC and p0.075,
contradicting the relatively worse performance of the replacement mixture. The replacement mixture
was relatively insensitive to p0.075, and the third mixture was extremely sensitive to reductions in
p0.075. Results also suggest that mixture sensitivity may affect optimum AC by up to 1.0 percent. When
measured sensitivities were compared with those predicted from models calibrated in the field, the
potential for extreme sensitivity was demonstrated by errors in predicted changes in air voids that
ranged from 0 to 98 percent because of small changes in AC or p0.075. These findings are disturbing
when one considers the current industry trend toward the use of coarse Superpave mixtures. The
conclusions drawn warrant a recommendation that mixture sensitivity analyses are needed in the
Superpave volumetric mix design process. A mixture sensitivity analysis that is useful for identification
of sensitive mixtures and that serves as an excellent field quality management tool is presented.

Comparative Analysis of Volumetric

Properties for Superpave
Gyratory Compactors
Yetkin Yildirim, Mansour Solaimanian, Robert B. McGennis, and
Thomas W. Kennedy
Y. Yildirim, M. Solaimanian, and T. W. Kennedy, The University of Texas at Austin, ECJ 6.100 Mail Code C1761,
Austin, TX 78712. R. B. McGennis, Navajo Western Asphalt Co., P.O. Box 2209, Peoria, AZ 85380.

FULL
TEXT

The experience with the original Superpave gyratory compactors (SGCs) introduced into the paving
industry in 1994 was very positive. Consequently, since 1995 several additional manufacturers have
developed SGCs to meet the growing demand for such devices. Although these units generally meet the
broad requirements of the original SGC specification developed by FHWA, their basic designs are
somewhat different. To ensure a systematic means for evaluation of the compactors, FHWA developed a
standard protocol, designated AASHTO PP35. This procedure was used to evaluate various gyratory
compactors. By using the discriminating value of 0.010 for difference in bulk specific gravity (Gmb), the
compactors were evaluated in terms of Gmb. The five gyratory compactors evaluated were the Rainhart,
Test Quip, Troxler Electronic Laboratories, Inc. (Troxler), Model 4141, Pine Instrument Company
(Pine) Model AFG1A, and Interlaken compactors. These compactors were compared with either Pine
Model AFGC125X (Pine 1) or Troxler Model 4140 (Troxler 1) SGCs, which were used as reference
compactors. In addition, the project included a comparison of two Pine compactors (Pine 1 and Pine 2)
of the same model (AFGC125XS) with each other. A total of 336 specimens (48 specimens for each
compactor) were prepared for all the compactors to fulfill the comparison. Eleven comparisons of
each candidate compactor and the reference compactor were made during a 12-month period. All of
the candidate compactors compared favorably with an existing SGC. It was found that all seven
compactors would provide the same results within the given tolerance range under the rigid
conditions of the AASHTO PP35 protocol.

Evaluation of Notched-Wedge
Longitudinal Joint Construction
M. Shane Buchanan
National Center for Asphalt Technology, 211 Ramsay Hall, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849.

FULL
TEXT

The proper construction of longitudinal joints is critical to the overall performance of a hot-mix asphalt
(HMA) pavement. Many times the in-place density at and across the longitudinal joint is substantially
lower than the density of the remainder of the HMA surface. This low in-place density increases the
potential for cracking and raveling to develop along the joint. Research has shown that the use of the
notched-wedge joint has the potential to increase the density at the longitudinal joint, which should
result in a longer-lasting pavement. The notched-wedge joint construction technique was compared
with conventional longitudinal joint construction techniques on projects in five states (Colorado,
Indiana, Alabama, Wisconsin, and Maryland). The evaluation consisted of comparing the in-place
densities obtained through pavement cores at five locations across the longitudinal joint of the
pavement: at the centerline and at 150 mm (6 in.) and 450 mm (18 in.) on either side of the centerline.
The results of the study indicate that the notched-wedge joint can be successfully used to increase
the in-place density at the longitudinal joint. Some decrease in the in-place density was observed at
the 150-mm (6-in.) location in the second lane (hot side) when the notched-wedge joint was used.

Factors Affecting Overlay Ride Quality

Kevin K. McGhee
Virginia Transportation Research Council, 530 Edgemont Road, Charlottesville, VA 22903.

FULL
TEXT

A study was conducted to identify the predominant factors that affect the achievable smoothness of
asphalt overlays. The subject was approached from the perspective of a contracting entity (state highway
agency). The basis of the study was a roughness survey that incorporated 4270 lane-km (2,650 lane-mi)
and two full construction seasons with hot-mix asphalt concrete paving. Among the variables found to be
related to the achievable smoothness were the functional classification (highway system), original surface
roughness, and a special provision for smoothness. Variables that were found to be not significantly
related to the smoothness achieved included surface mix type, the application of additional structural
layers, the use of milling, and time-of-day restrictions on construction activities (i.e., nighttime paving).

Study of Compaction Density in

Closed Form
Jung D. Huh and Young K. Nam
University of Inchon, Civil Engineering Department, 177 Dowha-dong, Nam-gu, Inchon City, Republic of Korea.

FULL
TEXT

As a common description of the compaction process, density versus number of roller passes (coverage)
is often found in the literature and is subsequently used in the field. The closed formula is introduced to
quantify such a relationship. Variables considered are compaction density, mix viscosity, temperature,
frequency, and amplitude, in addition to the number of roller passes. Their effects are included in the
proposed formula. The experimental data found in the literature are used to verify the equation. Excellent
prediction of the data confirms the success of the formulation. As the result of this mathematical modeling,
the minimum number of passes required to finish a certain compaction job and the maximum compaction
density achievable by a certain compaction operation are suggested. The equation and its features will be
an effective tool for using rolling compaction in an effort to construct better roadway pavements.

Effect of Lime on Ignition

Furnace Calibration
Brian D. Prowell and Jack Youtcheff
B. D. Prowell, Virginia Transportation Research Council, 530 Edgemont Road, Charlottesville, VA 22903.
J. Youtcheff, SaLUT-FHWA, Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center, 6300 Georgetown Pike, HRDI-11, McLean, VA 22101.

FULL
TEXT

This study investigated mix components, other than aggregate source, that were perceived to affect the
ignition furnace mixture calibration. Four sets of experiments with one aggregate were designed and
run to evaluate the effects of the amounts of lime, sulfur, calcium carboxylates, and fines. Five asphalt
binders with different chemistries were evaluated. Two binders had high and low sulfur contents,
respectively; two other binders contained relatively high concentrations of carboxylates. Various
concentrations of hydrated lime (0 to 3 percent by weight) were added to mixtures and were found to
have a significant effect on the ignition furnace correction factor for all five binders. The magnitude of
the effect was large enough to cause the quality control tests to fail the tolerances established by the
Virginia Department of Transportation. The lime appears to react with the sulfur dioxide (SO2) formed
from the combustion of organic sulfur to generate calcium sulfate. The amount of sulfur present in the
asphalt can significantly affect the ignition furnace correction factor. Initial thoughts that calcium
carboxylates are reacting with carbon dioxide (CO2 ) to produce some form of calcium carbonate were
not substantiated. The influence of carboxylic acid groups, however, does come into effect in the
presence of lime. This suggests that lime reacts with the combustion gases to produce some form of
carbonate. Basalt fines and portland cement did not have a significant effect on the ignition furnace
correction factor. Additional testing should be conducted to assess the effects of fines representing other
aggregates, particularly carbonates.

Alternative Solvent for Reducing

Health and Environmental Hazards in
Extracting Asphalt
An Evaluation
Holly Collins-Garcia, Mang Tia, Reynaldo Roque, and Bouzid Choubane
H. Collins-Garcia, PSI, 5801 Benjamin Center Drive, Suite 112, Tampa, FL 33634. M. Tia and R. Roque, Department of
Civil Engineering, P.O. Box 116580, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. B. Choubane, Florida Department of
Transportation, 2006 N. E. Waldo Road, Gainesville, FL 32609.

FULL
TEXT

Trichloroethylene is a solvent currently used by the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) and
many state highway agencies for separation of asphalt binders from asphalt paving mixtures in their
quality control programs. However, it has been proved that trichloroethylene contributes to ozone
depletion, and it is also known to be a carcinogen. The goal of the present study was to determine
whether a more environmentally sound and less hazardous solvent could be used for this purpose. The
solvent investigated is an n-propyl bromide with the trade name EnSolv. Preliminary studies show that
it is safer than many other solvents available today. The study was performed to determine whether
EnSolv could be a substitute for trichloroethylene without changing current testing methods. The tests
performed included the asphalt solubility test, extraction and recovery of asphalt binders from
mixtures, and penetration and viscosity tests with the recovered binders. The results of the study
showed that EnSolv could be a suitable replacement for trichloroethylene. In addition, EnSolv could
also be recycled and reused in the extraction and recovery procedures.

Measuring Smoothness of
Virginias Asphalt Overlays
Kevin K. McGhee
Virginia Transportation Research Council, 530 Edgemont Road, Charlottesville, VA 22903.

FULL
TEXT

In the summer of 1996 the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) initiated the pilot of a new
special provision regarding the smoothness of asphalt pavement surfaces. This special provision is based
on the international roughness index (IRI) and is administered with a laser-equipped South Dakota
style inertial road profiler. A critical assessment of the nontraditional equipment and methods used
to administer the special provision is provided. Issues addressed in the critique include provision
exemptions, the ability to identify and contend with construction variability, and peculiarities of the
equipment that affect the ability of VDOT to administer a modern acceptance provision.

Construction-Related
Temperature Differentials in
Asphalt Concrete Pavement
Identification and Assessment
Joe P. Mahoney, Stephen T. Muench, Linda M. Pierce, Steven A. Read,
Herb Jakob, and Robyn Moore
J. P. Mahoney, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Box 352700,
Seattle, WA 98195-2700. S. T. Muench, Perteet Engineering, 2707 Colby Avenue, Suite 700, Everett, WA 98201.
L. M. Pierce and J. S. Uhlmeyer, Washington State Department of Transportation, Materials Laboratory, P.O. Box 47365,
Olympia, WA 98504-7365. S. A. Read, Pavement Consultants Inc., 7530 Roosevelt Way NE, Seattle, WA 98115.
H. Jakob, Astec Industries, P.O. Box 72787, Chattanooga, TN 37407. R. Moore, Sverdrup Civil, Inc., 711 Capitol Way South,
No. 700, Olympia, WA 98501.

FULL
TEXT

Numerous Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) paving projects have

experienced a cyclic occurrence of premature failure of open-textured asphalt concrete (AC) pavement
sections by fatigue cracking, raveling, or both, generally called cyclic segregation or end-of-load
segregation. This resulted in an initial study in which mat temperature differentials were observed
during laydown. In turn, this led to the current study and the reported results. Pavement temperature
differentials result from placement of a cooler portion of the hot-mix mass into the mat. This cooler
mass generally constitutes the crust, which can develop during hot-mix transport from the mixing plant
to the job site. Placement of this cooler hot mix can create pavement areas near cessation temperature
that tend to resist proper compaction (they may also exhibit tearing or roughness or appear to be open
textured). These areas were observed to have decreased densities and a higher percentage of air voids
(higher air voids). Four 1998 WSDOT paving projects were examined to determine the existence and
extent of mat temperature differentials and associated material characteristics. An infrared camera was
used to identify cooler portions of the mat, which were then sampled along with normal-temperature
pavement sections. Gradation and asphalt content analysis showed no significant aggregate segregation
within the cooler areas. However, these cooler portions of the mat consistently showed higher air voids
than the surrounding pavement. On the basis of numerous studies that have related AC deterioration
and high air voids in a mix, it is known that the areas of a mat with higher air voids may experience
premature failure compared with the time to failure of the mat as a whole.

Development of Composite
Quality Measures
Richard M. Weed
New Jersey Department of Transportation, P.O. Box 600, 1035 Parkway Avenue, Trenton, NJ 08625.

FULL
TEXT

Statistical construction specifications based on multiple quality characteristics frequently use pay
equations that include a separate term for each of the quality characteristics so that the resultant pay
adjustment is a function of the combined effect of all quality measures. An alternate method that can be
used to accomplish the same purpose is to base the pay equation on a single quality measure that is a
composite of the individual quality measures. The latter approach, because it keys the various decisionmaking steps to a single performance indicator, simplifies the procedure and offers several practical
advantages. It is believed that this approach makes significant strides toward the ultimate goal of
developing quality assurance procedures that are at the same time technically sound, fair and effective,
and easy to understand and apply. Examples of a two-variable case for hot-mix asphalt pavement and a
general three-variable case are presented.

Nonparametric Approach to
Managing Materials Quality
Paul E. Benson, Y. Sam Chong, and Francisco J. Samaniego
P. E. Benson, California Department of Transportation, 5900 Folsom Boulevard, MS-5, Sacramento, CA 95819.
Y. S. Chong, Division of Statistics, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616. Present address: Wecker and
Associates, 505 San Marin Drive, Suite B-200, Novato, CA 94945. F. J. Samaniego, Division of Statistics,
University of California at Davis, CA 95616.

FULL
TEXT

The normal distribution was tested for its goodness of fit to quality control data from 25 California
Department of Transportation projects. The binder content and relative compaction of asphalt concrete
were studied. In a significant number of cases, the assumption of normality was rejected. Closer
examination of the observed distributions revealed instances of skewed, truncated, and bimodal
distributions. Indications of nonnormality were found for a third of the asphalt content cases and nearly
half of the relative compaction cases. An alternative nonparametric procedure for estimation of the
percentage of material outside specification limits (POL) is proposed. Comparisons with the current
methodology, which assumes that the data are normally distributed, indicated that somewhat lower, but
arguably more accurate, estimates of POL are obtained by the nonparametric approach. Issues of
accuracy and precision were addressed through a simulation study. The nonparametric method offers
considerably greater statistical accuracy and power than the parametric approach when the data are not
distributed normally and a performance comparable to that of the parametric approach when they are.

Method to Model Performance

Relationships and Pay Schedules
Richard M. Weed
New Jersey Department of Transportation, P.O. Box 600, 1035 Parkway Avenue, Trenton, NJ 08625.

FULL
TEXT

Performance-related specifications require mathematical models to link construction quality to expected

life and, ultimately, to value expressed in the form of pay schedules. Although ongoing research efforts
continue to advance the state of the art, the type of data needed to develop accurate and precise models
may not become available for several years. In the interim, present engineering and mathematical
knowledge can be used to create rational and practical models that will perform effectively until better
models are available. Several examples are presented to illustrate how both analytical data and survey
data can be used to develop realistic performance models and pay schedules useful for statistical
construction specifications. The issue of the proper method that can be used to combine the effects of
multiple deficiencies is also addressed.

ILLISIM Program for End-Result

Specification Development
William G. Buttlar and John J. Hausman
W. G. Buttlar, 1212 Newmark Laboratory, and J. J. Hausman, 3220 Newmark Laboratory, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, 205 North Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801.

FULL
TEXT

A new computer simulation program, called ILLISIM, is presented. ILLISIM allows the user to
conduct a comprehensive assessment of agency and contractor risks over a wide variety of endresult specification (ERS) parameters. ILLISIM was created to assist the Illinois Department of
Transportation (IDOT) in developing an ERS for asphalt pavement construction. The focus is on the
use of ILLISIM to explore the possibility of using the nuclear density gauge as a basis for acceptance
testing of as-constructed pavement density. Preliminary simulation results from ILLISIM suggest that
it may be feasible to use the nuclear gauge for acceptance if stratified random sampling techniques and
adequate test replications are used. However, this is true only if test bias is kept under control, for
example, if a representative nuclear gauge-to-core correlation is maintained throughout the project.
ILLISIM can be used to study the effects of changing device bias, which should be investigated in future
work. The results also indicate that a larger sample size will be necessary to increase accuracy and
minimize disputes when marginal quality levels are detected.

Rapid Bridge Deck Replacement with

Full-Depth Precast Concrete Slabs
Michael P. Culmo
CME Associates, Inc., P.O. Box 149, Woodstock, CT 06281.

FULL
TEXT

In an attempt to expedite the construction process for deck replacement projects, the Connecticut
Department of Transportation investigated a design that would use full-depth precast concrete deck
slabs. The idea was to limit the amount of form work and casting of concrete done in the field. There
were no standard details or methods for a precast slab bridge deck, so the department researched the
subject to develop a knowledge base. The process that the Connecticut Department of Transportation
underwent to research past studies with precast bridge elements is outlined. The research included
laboratory studies as well as actual construction projects in several states. Using the results of the
research, the Connecticut Department of Transportation developed a system that met the objective.
This was a case in which information from several research efforts in the past was compiled into a
working system that was structurally sound and practical. The system was tried on two distinctly
different bridges with different approaches to rapid deck replacements. The first involved a fast-tracked
full closure of a ramp with a one-lane bridge, while the second included a long viaduct that could be
closed only on weekends. Both projects were a success and have been in service for several years
without any problems.

Flexural Capacity of Compact and

Noncompact High-Performance
Steel Plate Girders
Atorod Azizinamini and Richard Sause
A. Azizinamini, Department of Civil Engineering, W 348 Nebraska Hall, Lincoln, NE 68588-0531. R. Sause, Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Center for Advanced Technology for Large Structural Systems, Lehigh University, 117 ATLSS
Drive, Bethlehem, PA 18015.

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TEXT

As a result of a cooperative research program between FHWA, the U.S. Navy, and the American Iron
and Steel Institute, high-performance steels (HPSs) with yield strengths of 485 MPa [70 kips/in.2 (ksi)]
(HPS-70W) and 690 MPa (100 ksi) (HPS-100W) were developed. During the past 2 years, several
bridges in the United States have used these new grades of steel. Because of a lack of test data,
AASHTO specifications placed several limitations that prevent bridge designers from taking full
advantage of HPSs. In response to AASHTO limitations, which preclude full use of the advantages
that the HPS-70W and HPS-100W steels have to offer, research investigations were initiated at the
University of NebraskaLincoln, Lehigh University, and the Georgia Institute of Technology. Partial
results of research activities under way at the University of NebraskaLincoln and Lehigh University
to remove design limitations related to the use of HPSs are presented.

Cold-Weather Cast-in-Place Segmental

Construction for Long-Span Bridges
Christopher J. Burgess
Figg Bridge Engineers, Inc., 1873 South Bellaire Street, Suite 1025, Denver, CO 80222.

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TEXT

An innovative heating and monitoring method was developed and used for wintertime casting of the
Wabasha Street Bridge in Saint Paul, Minnesota. The bridges twin 384-m (1,260-ft) box-girder
structures slope 5 percent from atop Saint Pauls bluffs on the Mississippi Rivers north side down to
the lower portion of Saint Paul. Each box girder is composed of two 122-m-long (400-ft-long) center
spans and two 70-m (230-ft) approach spans. The deck width of 14.54 m (47 ft 8 in.) contains two 3.66-m
(12-ft) travel lanes, two shoulders of 0.92 m (3 ft) and 1.83 m (6 ft) with a 3.36-m (11-ft) sidewalk, and
1.11 m (3 ft 8 in.) to account for the barriers. The superstructure consists of 4.88-m (16-ft) typical-length
segments that are 6.10 m (20 ft) deep over the piers and 2.44 m (8 ft) deep at midspan and the
abutments. The bridge was constructed in balanced cantilever fashion with form travelers. The
contractor, the local concrete supplier, the city, and the Minnesota Department of Transportation
worked together to develop an innovative mix that would withstand the frigid temperatures and also
achieve 24 115 kPa (3,500 lb/in.2) compressive strength in less than 24 h to allow the stressing of the
post-tensioning. To insulate and protect the curing concrete, reinforced plastic enclosures surrounding
the form travelers housed three 316 761-kJ (300,000-Btu) propane heaters. A layer of plastic and a
double layer of insulating blankets covered the top slab. Thermocouples in the segments provided
temperature readings, which the contractor used to monitor the effectiveness of the cold-weather
procedures. The forms, reinforcing steel, and previous concrete were heated above 10C (50F) by using
plastic enclosures, propane heaters, and insulating blankets. The concrete arrived from the batch plant
at approximately 21C (70F) and was still above 13C (55F) when it was pumped into the segments.
Multiple thermocouples indicated that the top slab cured above 38C (100F) for several days, whereas
the bottom slab and webs were about 11C warmer. The contractor ran the propane heaters for 5 days
after each pour or until the segments reached a 28-day strength of 41,340 kPa (6,000 lb/in.2). The
segments reached the required 24 115 kPa (3,500 lb/in.2) strength for post-tensioning on the day after
each pour, including pours made on days as cold as 28C (19F). Only 3 working days were lost
because of the cold, and the bridge was completed on time. The method of heating and protection used
at the Wabasha Street Bridge proved that the segmental cast-in-place construction method is a viable
option in cold-weather climates on major long-span bridges.

Methods for Controlling Stresses and

Distortions in Stage-Constructed
Steel Bridges
Geoffrey D. Swett, John F. Stanton, and Phillip S. Dunston
G. D. Swett, Bridge and Structures Office, Washington State Department of Transportation, P.O Box 47340,
Olympia, WA 98504-7340. J. F. Stanton and P. S. Dunston, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Box 352700,
University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-2700.

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TEXT

Widening and staged construction of steel bridges are becoming more frequent with todays heavy
traffic demands, right-of-way restrictions, and environmental constraints. Both construction practices
require the addition of new girders to an existing structure. When new girders are added to an existing
structure, inherent constructibility problems arise. The completed structure requires that the new
girders, after placement of the new concrete deck, be aligned in both elevation and cross slope with the
existing structure. Problems occur when the loading over the new girders is unbalanced, causing a
torsional moment and twisting of the bridge. The twisting of the new girders may add undesirable
vertical and horizontal displacements. Six design and construction methodologies for staged
construction or widening of straight, steel girders are discussed. Research was initiated in response to
construction problems experienced by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT).
Several state highway agencies were surveyed, and the survey revealed that the problems experienced
by WSDOT were not unique. The six methods are presented and the advantages, disadvantages, and
applicable situations are discussed. A finite-element model was developed and used to compare
calculated deflections with actual WSDOT case study field measurements. The model was then used to
investigate the stresses and deformations for the six methods. A design paradigm is also presented for
use in determining the appropriate method to be used for each particular situation.

Quantified Checklists for Construction

Inspection Examination
Allan F. Samuels
Construction Operations Section, MD 134A, Arizona Department of Transportation, 206 South 17th Avenue,
Phoenix, AZ 85007.

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TEXT

Quantified checklists provide a generalized measure of the workmanship of a constructed product and
of processes. Checklists are developed by selecting important attributes from program standards such
as specifications, drawings, or manufacturers information. Inspectors examine each attribute and mark
it as either conforming (yes), nonconforming (no), or not applicable. The percentage of attributes that
conform to the requirements is determined by dividing the number of conforming events by the total
number of events inspected and converting the ratio to a percentage. Practical experience with the
development and management of checklists is described, and theory about inspection by the method
of attributes is provided. The Construction Operations Section of the Arizona Department of
Transportation is using the results to analyze specification effectiveness and manage inspection and
quality processes. There is also potential for the concept to be refined for use as a means of determining
payment of incentives or disincentives and for engineering analysis.

Kentucky Contract Time

Determination System
Raymond F. Werkmeister, Becky L. Luscher, and Donn E. Hancher
Civil Engineering Department, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0281.

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TEXT

The results of research funded by the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (KyTC) to develop a new
method for determining of construction contract time for its highway construction contracts are
reported. The current system in Kentucky was analyzed to determine how a new system could provide
better-estimated durations. Current methods of other departments of transportation were analyzed
to provide insight for a new system. It was predetermined that a computer system was best suited;
however, the development of the system needed input from KyTC engineers with construction
experience. A task force of the study advisory committee worked with Kentucky Transportation Center
research engineers to develop the basis for the new contract time determination system, called the
Kentucky Contract Time Determination System (KY-CTDS). The KY-CTDS program was developed
to provide a conceptual estimating tool for prediction of construction contract time for the Kentucky
Department of Highways. It makes use of predetermined project classifications and lists major activities
that are believed to control the project schedule. Production rates and activity relationships have also
been determined and are embedded in the program. Experienced KyTC engineers can make final
adjustments using the model. This program uses Microsoft Project 98 and Microsoft Excel, version 7.0,
software and operates on a personal computer. It outputs a graphical bar chart schedule to be used only
for estimation of contract time for bidding purposes. Program output should also help in resolving
construction disputes. The program is not suitable for detailed scheduling of construction operations.

Determining Minimum Contract Time for

Highway Projects
Jin-Fang Shr, Benjamin P. Thompson, Jeffrey S. Russell,
Bin Ran, and H. Ping Tserng
J.-F. Shr, Department of Construction Engineering, Chung Hua University, 30 Tung Shiang, Hsin Chu, Taiwan, 30067,
Republic of China. B. P. Thompson, J. S. Russell, and B. Ran, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
WisconsinMadison, 1415 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706. H. P. Tserng, Division of Construction Engineering and
Management, Department of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan University Taipei, Taiwan 10617, Republic of China.

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An increasing number of state highway agencies (SHAs) are using A (cost) + B (time cost) bidding
(A + B bidding) for highway construction. The A + B bidding concept is designed to shorten the total
contract time by allowing each contractor to bid the number of days in which the work can be
accomplished, in addition to the traditional cost bid. The SHA is then presented with the problem of
determining a reasonable range of contract time submitted by the bidders. Most SHAs do not currently
restrict the range of B. However, several problems may arise from an unrestricted range of B. First, if
no minimum is set for B, a bidder may inflate the cost bid and submit an unreasonably low B, using the
excess cost bid to cover the disincentives charged for exceeding the time bid. Second, if no maximum
is set for B, then a bidder with a high B and a low-cost bid may be awarded the job and make an
unreasonable amount of money from incentive payments. This study develops a quantified model of
the price-time bidding contract. A construction cost-versus-time curve is developed from Florida
Department of Transportation (DOT) data. The contractors price-versus-time curve is then combined
with the road-user cost to determine the optimum lower limit to be set on B. Finally, several projects
completed by the Florida DOT will be used to illustrate this model.

Partnering on a Design-Build Project

Making the Three-Way Love Affair Work
Jim Ernzen, Ginger Murdough, and Debra Drecksel
J. Ernzen, Del E. Webb School of Construction, Arizona State University, Box 870204, Tempe, AZ 85287-0204.
G. Murdough, Arizona Department of Transportation, 206 South 17th Avenue, 175A, Phoenix, AZ 85007-3213.
D. Drecksel, 2415 E. Camelback Road, Suite 700, Phoenix, AZ 85016.

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The partnering process used by the Arizona Department of Transportation in the execution of an $89
million design-build reconstruction of an urban freeway through a congested section of Phoenix is
described. The project is changing 6 lanes into 10 lanes by adding a high-occupancy vehicle lane, along
with auxiliary lanes, between the entrance and exit ramps over a 13-km (8-mi) stretch of freeway. It
involves the demolition and replacement of two bridges that carry major arterial roads over the freeway
by using single-point urban interchanges along with several kilometers (miles) of sound walls, new
freeway lighting, and an automated freeway management system. Design-build by its nature lends itself
to the partnering concept. The partnering concept ideas of increased communication, alignment of
goals, and development of a dispute resolution system fit perfectly with design-builds overarching
theme of single-point responsibility for the owner. Increased pressure because of schedule compression
typical of most design-build projects makes partnering a vital necessity. Several innovative partnering
ideas used on the design-build project to overcome the problems inherent in a complex, high-profile,
fast-paced construction project are described.