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Patricia Dang
English 102
Professor Ray Korpi
3 September 2015
The Global Impact of the Human-Animal Relationship
Apex predator. Top of the food chain. Worldwide inhabitation. These phrases define
human society today. However, this was not always the case. Cave-dweller. Primate. Hominid.
These words described the early humans who were living in similar conditions to the great apes
in the past. Since our humble beginnings, we started out with the same chances as any other
organism while evolving together. With this in mind, how did we rise above any other species on
planet Earth by such a wide margin and in such a relatively short period of time? The answer is:
through the aid of these other species themselves. In this paper, the topics examined pertain to
the phenomenon known as human evolution, the developing relationships between humans and
animals, and the overall impact of these relationships on Earths future biodiversity. Through
understanding how we evolved to control our world today, humankind should maintain and share
the planets natural resources because the animals who have helped us grow as the most
prosperous species also need a place to thrive and exist alongside us.
To begin, Homo sapiens are not the largest, strongest, or the most dangerous organism on
this planet. In terms of what we are naturally born with, our bodies are much frailer in
comparison to the other apex predators because of the lack of natural-born weapons and even
effective coverage, such as dense fur or thick skin, to protect our vulnerable areas. To offset this

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inequality, there is was a need for a unique quality with the ability to bypass all other species on
Earth. This would turn out to be the mental capacity of the human brain. According to the
Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology, one might consider the most intelligent species the ones
that adapt to the broadest range of environments, or that are able to adapt most quickly to
environmental changes, or even those who can change the environment to suit their needs (Vonk
and Povinelli 106). Of all the types of animals in the world, none can manipulate its environment
as well as a human can. This translates to even more manipulation as we gain benefits from
adapting to new environments easily so we are able to leave our primitive lives behind to build
huts, then houses, and eventually skyscrapers in our ever-changing world.
Moreover, this ability to adapt is keenly supplemented by our one-of-a-kind intelligence.
Human intelligence is as defined by most psychologists,
They have tended to define intelligence as the ability of an individual to generalize
learning beyond the specific conditions under which an event or object was encountered
to events or objects that can only be imagined, or that might be encountered in the future,
thereby allowing an individual to exhibit a high degree of transfer of learning from one
situation to the next. . . . (107)
This description can explain how there is such a discrepancy between the mind of a human
compared to the mind of an animal. The ability to go beyond what problem is presently at hand
and to think far into the future is what sets us Homo sapiens apart from the rest. Because of this,
we have the mindpower to do accomplish amazing feats, but we should be mindful of the
consequences of our actions as they affect those around us.

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Weve established that one of our strong suits is the ability to manipulate and bring about
change. This skill has evolved so much that it has gotten to the point of being able to change the
dependence of the other kinds of animals around us in order to benefit humankind. This has been
a successful endeavor as a multitude of animals have been welcomed into human society for the
sole purpose of bettering the human population. We know this as domestication. According to
Juliet Clutton-Brock, In order to be domesticated, animals have to be incorporated into the
social structure of a human community and become objects of ownership, inheritance, purchase,
and exchange. . . .The process of taming a wild animal, whether it is a wolf or a wild goat, can be
seen as changing its culture (186). Here, we can understand that animals have to, in a sense,
leave their culture and join our human one. They change because they are cared for and their
basic needs are met when they follow the rules of the community set for them.
Expanding this idea, Clutton-Brock also explained that, The relationship between human
and animal is transformed from one of mutual trust, in which the environment and its resources
are shared, to total human control and domination (186). A key thought to understand why this
is, is that non-human organisms cannot comprehend what our intent for them are because they
lack reasoning. While we are aware that they are not aware, many become livestock and are
killed in great numbers to provide our families with food. In this regard, we, as the reasoning
species, should be in charge of reciprocating this sacrifice by preserving the environment and
respecting our bond to the animals.
In The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students, it was made known that the
beginnings of domestication reach back tens of thousands of years, even before attempting to

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domesticate sheep and cattle, and the first animal to be domesticated was the dog (41). Dogs
were used to help humans hunt prey and this increased the groups chances of taking down a
successful kill. After this triumphant domestication, there was more incentive for humans to
make animal allies. From this exerpt, At some point, the hunter stopped killing game animals
for immediate use by the community and began capturing and tending them. The most common
reason given by scholars to explain this change is that people wanted to ensure a reliable supply
of meat for the future (41). This need for preparation lead to the domestication of livestock such
as sheep, goats, and cattle. These animals provide meat, milk, and clothing for humans to
survive. Furthermore, cattle have the ability to aid human work by pulling plows for crops and
transporting carts because of their impressive strength (41). Its important to note that with the
aid of animals, people work less.
In our world today, people still rely heavily on animals for a multitude of jobs ever since
domestication began. Even now, animals are still hard at work by supplementing people with
food while also enriching their lives. Doctors Dana Casciotti and Diana Zuckerman from the
National Center for Health Research explained that, Companion animals may improve heart
health by lowering blood pressure and regulating the heart rate during stressful situations (Pets
and Health). There are so many benefits associated with having animals by our side, not just for
fulfilling basic survival needs, but our own prolonged health and longevity. In this instance,
Casciotti and Zuckerman recalls a study done that illustrates the difference in performance by
people who owned a dog or cat and people who did not. The subjects given a timed math test to
measure stress levels relating to heart rates and blood pressure. Those testers who owned a dog

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or a cat had lower resting rates compared to their non-animal counterparts. The testers who
owned a dog or a cat did even better and with less errors when their companion was in the room
with them.
To know why this is, we look at present day stress that comes from the demands of
society. Everyone has responsibilities such as school, work, and countless errands to run.
Nowadays, its not uncommon to hear of mental illnesses being present among ourselves. The
importance of animal companionship sheds light on the psychological benefits that are present in
having a furry friend. Froma Walsh argues that, In part, interactions with pets alter the tendency
of those with mental problems to focus negatively on themselves. They become more involved in
their environment in nonthreatening ways with a companionate animal (466). Walsh came to
this conclusion after explaining the studies that show schizophrenia patients showing less apathy
and more motivation to get through their day. This holds true with people with depression,
ADHD, and anxiety. Walsh agrees that having pets around is beneficial for the improvement of
mental disorders. The mental alleviations that come about from spending quality time with pets
are proof that even in a world that is supposedly better quality than its past, there are always new
battles to face and that the importance of animals in our lives cannot be overlooked.
An example of this mutual bond in action includes the first domesticated animal, the dog.
Dogs are highly trainable because of their time spent living side-by-side to humans. Since this is
the case, there are researched techniques in finding the best way to get a dog to do what a
humans wants. Melissa Bain explains that, As an overview, classical conditioning, the emotional
aspect of learning of behavior, consists essentially of bring internal reflexes under the control of

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a previously unconditioned stimulus (136). This is the cause and effect method of learning
and teaching. A dog sees a stimulus, processes what will happen as a result, and then reacts to it.
Melissa tells of Pavlovs dogs and how he trained his dogs to link the sound of a bell to food
which then conditions his dogs to salivate after hearing the bell. With this kind of control that can
be implemented through training, we are able to employ dogs as herding dogs, search and rescue
dogs, therapeutic dogs, and police dogs. Bains article describes this type of control over animals
being much more easily achieved with domesticated pets than with their wild counterparts. This
is possible because a symbiotic relationship requires effort and trust from both sides.
With the breakthroughs in all the different ways that people benefit from living with
animals, it is imperative to be aware about the future of the human-animal bond. In a recent
survey from the United Nations,
The urban population of the world has grown rapidly from 746 million in 1950 to 3.9
billion in 2014. . . . The worlds urban population is expected to surpass six billion by
2045. . . . As a result, these countries will face numerous challenges in meeting the needs
of their growing urban populations, including for housing, infrastructure, transportation,
energy and employment, as well as for basic services such as education and health care
(Worlds Population).
From this article, 54 percent of the worlds population lives in urban areas. It is projected that 2.5
billion people could be added by 2050. This shows that human populations are increasing in
more congested places. In urban environments, the pollution accumulates much faster while the
resources required to run the urban lifestyle is limited. Since the numbers of one species are

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increasing, the numbers of the other species must be decreasing to make room. All of these new
people will need a space of their own. Unfortunately, the land that once belonged to wild animals
will be taken over to expand the already bustling cities for the good of humankind. While this
shows the success of our modern human world in being able to increase our population numbers
so readily, it spells doom for both human civilization and Mother Nature if there is no remedy to
this epidemic.
A possible solution to feeding the worlds booming population would be to increase food
production through the work of hard-working honeybees. These tiny, domesticated animals
naturally pollinate crops in a way that humans cant do efficiently. Keith Delaplane from the
University of Georgia wrote this excerpt, But there is another mega-trend at work, and that is
that global demand for animal-pollinated crops is increasing faster than the demand for nonpollinated staples. The fraction of total production made up of animal-pollinated crops grew from
3.6% in 1961 to 6.1% in 2006, and even these statistics mask a huge jump in the years since
1990 (Delaplane). As evidenced here, all life is precious. Even tiny organisms have the ability
to aid humankind by providing its honey and helping plants reproduce to feed larger organisms
other than themselves. With this increase in crops, the number of bees must be kept in healthy
numbers so that the Earth can continue to provide for its inhabitants. Homo sapiens cannot do
that alone, but what they can do is to preserve the beehives and take care of the flowers and
plants that bees need to live. Planting more trees and flora is vital so that the natural processes of
bees and other animals can be maintained. Lastly, even though pollution cant be fully stopped, it

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would be in everyones best interest to minimize the amount of waste that is produced and to
dispose of all trash correctly.
Besides beekeeping, another solution that many people might be inclined to believe can
produce more food would be to increase the number of livestock in order to keep up with the
populations demand. This must be a careful topic though, as there are actually restrictions on
livestock production because of the effects of greenhouse gases that are produced as a byproduct.
As discussed in a 2014 research paper by Scholtz, . . .the responsibility of livestock production
is to limit the release of GHG (i.e. the carbon footprint) and the use of water (i.e. the water
footprint) in order to ensure future sustainability (Scholtz S3). This is the responsible thing to
do when the whole planet is heating up. For people to continually exist in the future, livestock
numbers need to be kept in check. It would be dangerous and irresponsible to use up all of the
resources that are available at once with nothing left to leave behind for future generations. To
help this issue, it is possible for humans to eat other protein-rich foods and limit the consumption
of meat. This is not a popular solution, but it is a stark and needed one.
Another alarming problem pertaining to greenhouse gasses that must be faced, is the rise
in sea levels around the world because of the heating planet. There is currently no solution to
reducing greenhouse gases and now the increasing temperature is continuing to decrease Earths
land mass and sustainability. This is a warning from Melissa Boland, the author of Adapting
Like The Animals: The Endangered Species Act As a Model For Human Adaptation To Climate
Change,

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According to the IPCC, sea level rise under global warming is inevitable. . . .In addition
to rising sea levels, climate change will result in a shift in rainfall patterns, an increase in
drought and flooding, the spread of infectious disease, an increase in the frequency and
intensity of tropical storms, destruction of ecosystems, melting of the polar ice caps, a
rise in malnutrition, crop failure and famine, and a decrease in access to potable water
(Boland 251).
These are the realities that both humans and animals are facing. Natural disasters are not
controlled by any entity so these challenges are real threats to the well-being of Earths
inhabitants. The thing is, people were able to rapidly increase their numbers and advance their
way of life at the expense other species. Now, as a result, these issues are irreversible and the
upcoming problems will have to be overcome for all of the species that are left to survive. Of
course, these matters will have to fall on our own shoulders since we have the knowledge and
capability to directly help and fix these problems.
In conclusion, both humans and animals have gone through many changes and learned
from their relationships with one another. It is undeniable that a bond exists between us as both
sides have benefitted from interacting together. It is valuable to remember that all species started
as simple cells. And through evolution and growth, each type of animal found its own strength.
In exploring the contrast of the human mind compared to its animal counterpart, analyzing the
intricate dependencies between man and animal, and building the foresight needed to ensure the
success of future generations, it is easy to see that the human-animal bond will not be broken
anytime soon. However far humankind manages to go into the future, it is assured that there will

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always be a non-human assistant lingering around somewhere close by. Finally, through
humankinds power, we see that its possible to exist together and with our influence we should
take care of our shared world because in the end, even us almighty humans cannot exist without
the aid of animals.

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Works Cited
Bain, Melissa. Companion Animals, Welfare, and the Human-Animal Bond. Encyclopedia of
Animal Rights and Animal Welfare. Ed. Marc Bekoff. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood
Press, 2010. 135-139. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Aug. 2015.
Boland, Meghan C. Adapting Like The Animals: The Endangered Species Act As A Model For
Human Adaptation To Climate Change. Brooklyn Journal Of International Law 40.1
(2014): 247-277. Academic Search Premier. Web. 1 Aug. 2015.
Casciotti, Dana, and Diana Zuckerman. Pets and Health: The Impact of Companion Animals.
Center4research. National Center for Health Research, June 2015. Web. 1 Aug. 2015.
Clutton-Brock, Juliet. "Domestication." Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and Animal Welfare. Ed.
Marc Bekoff. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press, 2010. 184-188. Gale
Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Aug. 2015.
Delaplane, Keith S. On Einstein, Bees, and Survival of the Human Race. University of
Georgia, College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences. University of Georgia, 29
May 2015. Web. 1 Aug. 2015.
"Domestication of Animals." The Ancient Near East: An Encyclopedia for Students. Ed. Ronald
Wallenfels and Jack M. Sasson. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2000. 41-45.
Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Aug. 2015.
Scholtz, M. M., et al. Research And Development On Climate Change And Greenhouse Gases
In Support Of Climate-Smart Livestock Production And A Vibrant Industry. South

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African Journal Of Animal Science 44.5 (2014): S1-S7. Academic Search Premier. Web.
1 Aug. 2015.
Vonk, Jennifer, and Daniel J. Povinelli. "Animal Intelligence." The Corsini Encyclopedia of
Psychology. Ed. Irving B. e and W. Edward Craighead. 4th ed. Vol. 1. Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley, 2010. 106-107. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Aug. 2015.
WALSH, FROMA. Human-Animal Bonds I: The Relational Significance Of Companion
Animals. Family Process 48.4 (2009): 462-480. Academic Search Premier. Web. 1 Aug.
2015.
Worlds Population Increasingly Urban with More than Half Living in Urban Areas. UN News
Center. United Nations, 10 July 2014. Web. 1 Aug. 2015.

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