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PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
HAZCo
ontrol
ontr
ol Tec
Tec
Te
echnology
www.thermatool.com
CONTENTS
FEATURES
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44
48
50
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40
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Weld Overlays
Various titanium-rich cladding materials and a
SEPTEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 3
DEPARTMENTS
6
8
10
16
18
20
26
32
62
70
Editorial
Press Time News
News of the Industry
Business Briefs
International Update
Stainless Q&A
RWMA Q&A
Product & Print Spotlight
Coming Events
Certification Schedule
72
75
76
88
90
106
110
112
114
Conferences
Society News
Tech Topics
Guide to AWS Services
Personnel
The American Welder
Learning Track
Fact Sheet
Classifieds
Advertiser Index
On the cover: For orbital welding, digital machines
that offer greater control over arc parameters have
the capability to deliver faster travels speeds or
greater deposition while controlling distortion and
heat input levels. (Photo courtesy of The Lincoln
Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio.)
WELDING JOURNAL
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Officers
Editorial
Directors
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
D. J. Burgess (Dist. 8), University of Tennessee
N. C. Cole (Past President), NCC Engineering
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
K. Fogleman (Dist. 16), Olsson Associates
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Sandia National Laboratories
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (At Large), The Harris Products Group
J. Knapp (Dist. 17), Gas and Supply
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), K. A. Phy Services, Inc.
W. R. Polanin (At Large), Illinois Central College
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Airgas USA, LLC, NorthCentral Region
R. W. Roth (At Large), RoMan Manufacturing, Inc.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), NS Inspection and Consulting
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
J. Stoll (Dist. 18), Bohler Welding Group U.S.
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), Ford Motor Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
Advertising
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tmoore@aws.org
American Welding Society
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GLOBAL PRESENCE.
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EDITORIAL
Thom Burns
Chair, AWS D1G
Subcommittee on Aluminum Structures
We adjusted the
scope of the code
to allow the
engineer to take a
more significant
role.
Fax 1-905-356-6025
Email info@hcrsteel.com
1-800-263-2547
www.hcrsteel.com
TransCanada Corp., Calgary, Alberta, Canada, recently acknowledged that the Alberta Energy Regulator approved its
application to construct and operate the Northern Courier
Pipeline Project. The company was chosen by Fort Hills Energy LP to design, build, own, and operate this $800 million
pipeline project.
The approximately 56-mile pipeline system will transport
bitumen as well as diluent products between the Fort Hills
mine and bitumen extraction facility and Suncors East Tank
Farm located north of Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada.
It will consist of a 24-in.-diameter insulated steel pipeline
to transport the bitumen, and a 12-in.-diameter steel
pipeline to transport the diluent.
We currently expect construction on Northern Courier
to begin in the third quarter of 2014 with it being ready for
service by 2017, said Russ Girling, TransCanadas president
and CEO.
In addition, the United Association of Journeymen and
Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of
the United States and Canada (UA) in collaboration with
TransCanada unveiled a new pipeline training program
across Canada to enable welders, pipefitters, and
apprentices to continue obtaining advanced training and to
upgrade their skills in pipe welding and cutting.
The UA is working with TransCanada and its Energy East
Pipeline Project to provide sections of large-diameter steel
pipe for welder training.
10 WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014
WEDNESDAY
This Halloweenworthy Victor Man sculpture won one of three
team awards in the 2013 Victor Technologies A Cut Above con
test. This year, entries are accepted through October 31.
Media Sponsors:
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post a job, view rsums, and look at the products/pricing
recruitment options.
In addition, the AME Adopt-a-School Program provides
high school and college students with access to educational
resources and hands-on learning experiences. Manufacturers can participate in activities such as hosting tours, visiting schools to give talks, mentoring, and promoting internships. Schools in the program provide their students a look
at careers in manufacturing industries across the country.
For more details, contact AME Education and Training
Director Nancy Wajler at nwajler@ame.org.
Industry Notes
Micro Air Clean Air Systems, Wichita, Kan., has a new
program to benefit welding schools. Its based on the
Extreme Air downdraft table and includes a free on-site
continued on page 111
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ESAB provides a full line of welding and cutting products that work as hard as you do.
BUSINESS BRIEFS
AECOM to Acquire URS, Creating Major
Integrated Infrastructure Provider
The new World Trade Center in New York is one of many projects
in which both AECOM and URS have been active. (Photo courtesy
of AECOM.)
INTERNATIONAL UPDATE
FIRJAN and ITW Partner to Conduct
Research and Train Brazilian Welders
Sistema FIRJAN (The FIRJAN System Federation of
Industries of the State of Rio de Janeiro) and Illinois Tool
Works, Inc. (ITW), a producer of engineered fasteners and
components, equipment and consumable systems, and specialty products, recently entered into a partnership to
conduct welding research and implement training of Brazilian professionals in Houston, Tex.
Pursuant to the agreement, the ITH group, a provider of
welding, cutting, raw materials, accessories, and automation
products, will donate the latest generation cutting and welding
equipment to SENAI Rio and provide the opportunity for
SENAI specialists in Houston to develop technologies associated with welding processes using a collaborative approach.
ITW has clients in Brazil who are demanding this equipment, as well as professionals who have mastered these
technologies, said Mauricio Ogawa, manager of the SENAI
Welding Technology Center. FIRJAN will also be collaborating in the development of processes associated with the use
of these new technologies in the context of training or
methods in the welding environment.
The partnership is the culmination of contact that first
began at last years edition of OTC, and it will also include a
room for SENAI professionals inside a research center ITW
inaugurated in Houston. There, Brazilian professionals will
be trained in the new technologies that are being used in
Brazil, in keeping with the local content policy.
STAINLESS Q&A
BY DAMIAN J. KOTECKI
Q: We have built space frame structures from carbon steels and lowalloy
steels for many years, all according to AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code
Steel. Some of the space frames were built from tubular members. The
D1.1/D1.1M: 2008 code, Paragraph 3.13.3 (2), prohibits prequalified complete
joint penetration (CJP) welds made from one side without backing. So we
qualified a number of welding procedures to make CJP welds without backing
using gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) for the root pass. Now we are prepar
ing to build a space frame from 316L stainless steel tubular members, again
using the D1.1 code. Table 4.6 of D1.1 considers that a change in base metal
Group Number is an essential variable, and 316L is not a listed base metal in
D1.1, so our engineering department is insisting that we have to qualify proce
dures for CJP welds made from one side without backing in 316L tubular mem
bers. This will take some time and cost quite a bit. Is there any alternative?
Fig. 1 Prequalified CJP oneside groove welds without backing from AWS
D1.6/D1.6M:2007, Structural Welding Code Stainless Steel.
IBSC 2015
APRIL 19 22, 2015 / LONG BEACH, CA
www.aws.org/conferences
Head to WEMCOs
annual meeting
or be left behind.
Non-member executives are encouraged to participate.
Chris Mapes
Chairman, President, and CEO
Lincoln Electric
Chris Mapes was appointed chairman of Lincoln Electric in
December 2013, and president and chief executive officer in
December 2012. Previously, Chris was Lincolns chief operating
officer, the position he was appointed to when he joined the
company in 2011. He was elected to the Lincoln Board in 2010
while serving as executive vice president of A.O. Smith Corporation
and president of its electrical products unit. Prior to his career at
A.O. Smith, Chris was president, motor sales and marketing of
Regal Beloit Corporation and had also served as president of the
Global OEM Business Group of Superior Essex, Inc.
Jack Keough
KEYNOTE SPEAKER
Alan Beaulieu
Economist and President
Institute for Trend Research
RWMA Q&A
Q: Reducing energy consumption is
a constant theme in our
production facility. Our industrial
engineering staff look at the
instantaneous power demands of
our resistance welding systems and
see this as an area where
improvements can be made.
How is energy consumed during
resistance welding, and how do
system changes affect these
energy requirements?
BY JERRY GOULD
www.binzel-abicor.com
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Simply the Best Tool
for Welding Small Pipe
(+45/30 deg) welds. Software tracking into the welding parameters also
allows operators to recall what
versions were used for each weld. The
unit can be adapted to weld flux cored,
Innershield, surface tension transfer,
and GMAW with minimal mechanical
changes. Additionally, it offers
position-based welding around the
pipes circumference.
CRCEvans Pipeline International, Inc.
www.crcevans.com
(800) 6649224
Pendant
A manufacturer of semiautomatic
and robotic GMAW guns and peripherals has launched a redesigned website
to provide easier navigation and
increased functionality. Visitors to the
site can access owners manuals and
technical documents, products and
news updates, career opportunities,
continued on page 35
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Fig. 3 The automated torch requires very little operator involvement after entering the
program. Here, the operator makes a small manual adjustment to correctly position the
preheat flames.
A Quality Cut
Mechanized cutting speed varies
with thickness, but, as an example, a
24-in.-diameter pipe with a wall thickness of 0.375 in. takes approximately
three minutes to cut. This equates to a
travel speed of about 25 in./min using
a size 0, general-purpose 101 style
cutting tip.
With a machine, you get a straight
cut with a well-prepared finish. Theres
no grinding involved and a minimal
amount of buffing Fig. 4. Cleanup
42 WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014
Rolling Induction
Technology Provides
Steady Heating
Induction is a safer and more efficient method for preheating pipe. There is no open flame
involved, and there is no element to transfer heat because it is generated within the part.
BY JOE RYAN
magnetic field passes through the conductive workpiece, it creates eddy currents within the part. The resistance
of the metal fights against the flow of
the eddy currents, generating heat in
the part. The part becomes its own
heating element, heating from within,
which makes induction efficient
because little heat is lost in the
process.
This method offers safety,
efficiency, and quality benefits for preheating pipe in roll-welding
applications.
Additional Preheating
Techniques
An open flame from a torch is commonly used for preheating because
many shops already have a torch on
hand, and it can be simple and quick
to set up.
Open-flame preheating requires
use of consumables, such as propane
or propylene for the torch, and it heats
the area of the workpiece directly
below the flame. Safety is a consideration with this method, given that
workers are handling an open flame,
and the method produces carbonmonoxide fumes.
Another method used by some fabrication shops is resistance heating, an
Consistency in Heating
Maintaining consistent
temperatures is especially critical,
when welding todays high-strength
steels. Rolling induction technology
provides steady heat output as the
pipe rolls to provide consistent
temperatures throughout the part and
reduce hot and cold spots.
Rolling induction offers a
maximum preheat temperature of
600F in rolled applications, and can
preheat pipe 8 in. and greater in diameter. Multiple rolling induction
Cost Considerations
While rolling induction is exclusive
to the preheating process, the power
source is compatible with other accessories and tools. The power source can
be used for hydrogen bake out, shrink
fit, and postweld heat treatment to increase the investments versatility and
value.
The initial investment in rolling induction heating is higher, but the
return on investment grows over the
life of the equipment. The
technologys efficiency and resulting per-hour cost to operate the equipment is an issue to consider in
choosing a heating method, in
In Closing
Its important to consider the
safety, quality, and environmental issues associated with various preheating methods. As an increasing number
of jobs require electric preheat, the
ability to use induction heating while
welding rolled pipe can improve
productivity, quality, and safety as well
as provide fabrication shops a viable
alternative.
JOE RYAN is marketing segment
manager, Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
(www.millerwelds.com), Appleton, Wis.
web: watts-specialties.com
For info, go to www.aws.org/adindex
Experimental Procedure
Two samples were welded with
every effort made to ensure that the
parameters were identical. The same
pipe was used to represent the run
pipe or header while the branch pipes
were cut from the same pipe. The
same position was used for both samples and the cooling rates were within
5% deviation.
The welding parameters were
closely monitored to ensure
consistency, and it was found that the
maximum deviations were current 6%
or 5 A, voltage 9% or 2 V, travel speed
30% or 95 mm/min, and heat input
2% or 30 J/mm.
Two macrosections were cut from
each sample as shown in Fig. 2. These
samples were inspected for defects and
various locations were then hardness
tested. The locations tested included
the root and cap weld toe on both the
48 WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014
Results
The maximum hardness found in
the samples with buttering was 315
HV1 (298 HB), while the maximum
hardness found in the samples
without buttering was 395 HV1 (374
HB). A more detailed comparison of
the samples with the highest hardness
values is shown in Fig. 3.
Note that the sample without buttering has some areas with a reduction
in hardness up to 40 HV1. These areas
were typically in the coarse- and finegrain heat-affected zones and were
usually areas in the 260 to 280 HV1
range in the buttered sample.
The areas in which the positive effects of buttering were most apparent
were the coarse-grain heat-affected
zones in the weld toes on the run pipe
side. Here, a maximum decrease in
hardness was shown to be 156 HV1
just below the cap. The buttering technique reduced the hardness in these
locations significantly by ensuring
proper tempering of the heat-affected
zone on the in-service pipe.
Conclusions
The results of this study reveal that
although some areas can show a moderate decrease in hardness if buttering
is not used, a much more significant
decrease in hardness is apparent at the
weld toes on the in-service pipe side
when a buttering technique is utilized.
Digital
Systems
Deliver
Orbital
Welding
Consistency
Digitals advantages over
analog systems include
improved maintenance,
performance, and
lifecycle
BY STEPHEN COLE AND
KEVIN BEARDSLEY
Digital Communication
Is Key
Orbital welding systems benefit
from the digital nature of various system components. For example, teaming a digital motions system with a
Fig. 1 The rapid change to digital orbital systems allows fabricators to address increasing
requirements for application flexibility as well as quality and productivity enhancements.
Fig. 3 Updated processes or waveshapes resulting from new research or tailored specifically to a particular application can easily be updated to enhance performance.
52 WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014
Fig. 4 New glare-resistant interfaces feature multi-use controls to display relevant data required for any operation.
Apex 3000 orbital gas metal arc welding system employs multiuse buttons
and switches. This enables the operator to focus on accessing a very small
section of the pendant instead of having to memorize a large physical layout
and the location of every button and
knob Fig. 4. This new design brings
with it the intuitive feel and operability of a video game controller.
Easier control, combined with ease
of maintenance and consistency from
system to system as well as simple operator interfaces, show that the age of
digital, mechanized orbital welding is
here, and will continue to adapt to
the changing needs of the welding
industry. WJ
BY GAO HUI,
JIAO XIANG-DONG,
XU YA-GUO, AND
ZHOU CAN-FENG
Introduction
In the past few decades, offshore oil
and gas exploration has progressively
moved from shallow to deep water. In
South China Sea, the average water
depth is 1212 m (3975 ft); the depth is
increased to 5567 m (18,260 ft) on the
central abyssal plain. At present, there
are about ten oil and gas field groups
sited in this area. The Weizhou oilfield
is 30~40 m deep, and the Eastern gas
field is 63~70 m. The other ones are
close to or more than 100 m deep,
with the Liuhua oilfield (305 m) and
Liwan 3-1 gas field (1500 m) being the
deepest (Refs. 1, 2). The number of
underwater structures in deep ocean is
rapidly growing with the exploration,
and for some of them, the service time
is approaching the design life. The
Weizhou 10-3 oilfield, which entered
production in 1986, has been in use
for more than 20 years, thus the
importance of underwater structure
repair and sacrificial anode retrofit are
increasingly important.
Friction Welding
Underwater
Friction welding is a solid-state
connection technology with unique
technical advantages. It has recently
been introduced to underwater applications. Although there is some information about this technology in a few
articles, there are also some aspects
about the welding process and equipment that needed to be studied
further for the specific engineering applications (Refs. 310). Therefore, an
exploratory research program of
underwater friction welding technology was carried out in 20062010, and
54 WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014
Design of the
Underwater Friction
Welding System Based
on the ROV Platform
Overall Scheme Design
The welding system (Fig. 1) mainly
consists of an underwater welding de-
mined that they met the needs of underwater friction stud welding. In addition, the joint communication for
debugging between the electronic control module of the friction welding
system and the communication
control module of ROV were
completed successfully on site, and the
movement indexes of the weld head
also met the requirement of the welding process Fig. 13.
Fig. 12 Experiment data of the tensile
test.
Debugging on Site
Based on laboratory studies of the
welding process, the hydraulic system
parameters of the underwater friction
welding device were determined. By
comparing the parameters of the ROV
tooling hydraulic system, it was deter-
Summary
For the need of retrofitting sacrificial anodes on underwater pipelines
and other underwater structures, suitable welding parameters were
developed for an underwater friction
welding device using a ROV. Feasibility
of the process, as well as all key technical details of the system, were verified
through joint debugging between the
friction welding device and the ROV.
The technology can replace saturation
diving welding operations, which
reduces greatly the operating costs. It
has laid a good technical foundation
for the forthcoming work of
retrofitting sacrificial anodes in the
South China Sea. WJ
Fig. 13 Joint debugging between the friction welding device and the ROV.
SEPTEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 57
Acknowledgments
Support Project: The national high
technology research and development
program (863 Program)
(2011AA090302), National Natural
Science Foundation of China
(51109005), Beijing Natural Science
Foundation (3122016), Science and
technology program of Beijing Municipal Commission of Education
(KM201310017007).
References
1. Xi-zhao, J., et al. 2010. Study on
welding procedure and equipment applied in subsea pipeline laying. Ship
and Ocean Engineering (3): 128132.
2. Xiang-dong, J. et al. 2007. Challenges and countermeasures of
offshore engineering joining technology in 21st century. J. Electric Welding
Machine 37(06): 7580.
3. Meyer, A. 2001. Subsea robotic
friction welding repair system.
Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Tex.
4. Meyer, A., et al. 2001. Considera-
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The AWS Welding Handbooks are the must-have references for engineers, structural
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Unparalleled authoritychapters are
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COMING EVENTS
AWSSponsored Events
Additive Manufacturing Conference. Sept. 9, 10.
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include powder bed fusion, material extrusion, directedenergy deposition, and material jetting. Contact B. RiveronRaimundez, braimundez@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 234.
RWMA (Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance)
Meeting. Sept. 17, 18. Trump National Doral Miami, Miami,
Fla. www.aws.org/rwma.
4th Annual Women in ManufacturingTM 2014 Summit. Sept.
29Oct. 1. Hyatt Regency, Schaumburg, Ill. The event is
geared toward women who have chosen careers in manufacturing and want to share perspectives and network with
others in the industry. www.womeninmanufacturing.org/summit2014.
Welding Summit Workshop. Oct. 8, 9. AWS World
Headquarters, Miami, Fla. Designed to provide an
interactive open forum environment for professionals from
various areas of the welding industry to discuss issues and
propose solutions. ww.aws.org/conferences.
Sheet Metal Welding Conference XVI. Oct. 2224.
Schoolcraft College, Livonia, Mich. Sponsored by the AWS
Detroit Section. To highlight recent developments in welding and joining technologies for lightweight structures.
www.awsdetroit.org.
FABTECH 2014. Nov. 1113. Georgia World Congress Center,
Atlanta, Ga. This exhibition is the largest event in North
America dedicated to showcasing the full spectrum of metal
forming, fabricating, tube and pipe, welding equipment, and
myriad manufacturing technologies. (800/305) 443-9353,
ext. 264; www.fabtechexpo.com.
Thermal Spray Pavilion and Conference. Nov. 12. Georgia
World Congress Center, Atlanta, Ga., at FABTECH 2014.
Topics to include applications, processes, coatings,
equipment, automation, sensors and controls, and safety issues. Intl Thermal Spray Assn., an AWS Standing Committee. www.thermalspray.org; www.fabtechexpo.com.
6th Intl Brazing & Soldering Conference. April 1922, 2015.
Long Beach, Calif. Topics will include current research, practical and potential applications, and new developments in
these technologies. www.awo.aws.org/2015-ibsc.
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7th Offshore Energy Expo and Conference. Oct. 28, 29. Amsterdam RAI, The Netherlands. www.offshore-energy.biz.
Educational Opportunities
2
Sch. 40
Pipe Capacity
Modern Furnace Brazing School. Oct. 2123 (Aerobraze Engineered Technologies Brazing Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio). Contact Domenic Calagna, (248) 585-6400, ext.
221; brazingschool@wallcolmonoy.com.
Resistance Welding Seminars. Sept. 10, Huntsville, Ala.;
Sept. 24, Milwaukee, Wis.; Oct. 1, Evansville, Ind.; Oct. 15,
Columbus, Ohio; Nov. 20, Orlando, Fla. T. J. Snow Co.
www.tjsnow.com; welders@tjsnow.com.
Welder Training & Testing Institute Courses. API Endorsement: Nov. 1; D1.5 Endorsement: Nov. 37; D1.1 Endorsement: Nov. 7; Contact Tracy Wiswesser, WTTI, 1144 N.
continued on page 67
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consulting services throughout
the TX Gulf Coast.
INTEG Courses. Courses in NDE disciplines to meet certifications to Canadian General Standards Board or Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission. The Canadian Welding Bureau;
(800) 844-6790; www.cwbgroup.org.
Laser Safety Online Courses. Courses include Medical Laser
Safety Officer, Laser Safety Training for Physicians, Industrial Laser Safety, and Laser Safety in Educational Institutions. Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737;
www.lia.org.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Courses based on ANSI
Z136.1, Safe Use of Lasers, Orlando, Fla., or customers site.
Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tutorials, interactive e-learning courses, discussion forums, webinars, and blogs. Visit www.hypertherm.com,
www.hyperthermcuttinginstitute.com.
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Laser U Online Education Portal. Offers practical information to use on the job. Topics range from 3D printing to
drilling, welding, wireless and optical product requirements,
and many others. Visit website for complete information
and to sign up for modules. Laser Institute of America;
www.lia.org/laseru.
Laser Vision Seminars. Two-day classes, offered monthly
and on request, include tutorials and practical training. Presented at Servo-Robot, Inc., St. Bruno, QC, Canada. For
schedule, cost, and availability, send your request to
info@servorobot.com.
Machine Safeguarding Seminars. Rockford Systems, Inc.;
(800) 922-7533; www.rockfordsystems.com.
Machining and Grinding Courses. TechSolve, www.TechSolve.org.
NACE International Training and Certification Courses. National Assoc. of Corrosion Engineers; (281) 228-6223;
www.nace.org.
NDE and CWI/CWE Courses and Exams. Allentown, Pa., and
customers locations. Welder Training and Testing Institute;
(800) 223-9884; www.wtti.edu.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers locations. Level I and II and refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, radiation safety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT, LLC; (714)
255-1500; www.testndt.com. WJ
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www.derustit.com
CERTIFICATION SCHEDULE
Seminar Dates
Sept. 712
Sept. 712
Sept. 712
Sept. 712
Sept. 1419
Sept. 1419
Exam only
Sept. 28Oct. 3
Oct. 510
Oct. 510
Oct. 510
Oct. 510
Exam only
Oct. 1217
Oct. 1217
Oct. 1217
Oct. 1924
Oct. 1924
Oct. 1924
Oct. 1924
Oct. 1924
Oct. 2631
Oct. 2631
Exam only
Exam only
Nov. 1621
Nov. 1621
Nov. 1621
Nov. 1621
Exam only
Exam only
Dec. 712
Dec. 712
Dec. 712
Dec. 712
Exam only
For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education requirements without taking the exam. The exam can be
taken at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Location
Seminar Dates
Denver, CO
Sept. 712
Dallas, TX
Oct. 510
New Orleans, LA
Oct. 2631
Seattle, WA
Nov. 1621
Miami, FL
Dec. 712
CONFERENCES
Welding Summit Workshop
October 8, 9
AWS Headquarters, Miami, Fla.
The purpose of the Welding Summit Workshop is to provide an interactive open forum environment for profession-
Additive Manufacturing
November 13
Room C205
Additive manufacturing represents the realization of the
ideal of on-demand manufacturing. Without molds or dies,
additive manufacturing enables production of parts and
prototypes on demand. Design improvements can be made
For more information, please contact the AWS Conferences and Seminars Business Unit at (800) 4439353, ext. 234, or email
belkys@aws.org. You can also visit the Conference Department website at www.aws.org/conferences for upcoming conferences and
registration information.
72 WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014
SOCIETY NEWS
The Leadership Symposium participants are shown July 23 in the lobby of AWS World Headquarters in Miami, Fla.
SOCIETY NEWS
TECH TOPICS
New Standards Projects
Development work has begun on
the following two standards. Affected
individuals are invited to contribute
to their development. Participation
on all AWS Technical Committees is
open to all persons.
B5.1:2013-AMD1, Specification for
the Qualification of Welding Inspectors.
This revised standard defines the requirements for qualifying visual welding inspectors including exam,
experience, demonstrated capabilities, and proof of visual acuity. The
exam tests the inspectors knowledge
of welding processes, procedures, destructive and nondestructive examinations, terms, definitions, symbols,
reports, welding metallurgy, essential
mathematics, safety, quality assurance, and general responsibilities.
Stakeholders: Welding inspectors.
Contact S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
D20.1:20XX, Standard for Fabrication of Metal Components Using Additive Manufacturing. This new standard
will present the general contract requirements, process and operator
qualifications, and inspections necessary for fabricators using metal additive manufacturing processes to
produce product to customers' specifications. Stakeholders: Everyone involved in additive manufacturing.
Contact A. Alonso, aalonso@aws.org.
high-temperature superconductors.
Contact A. Davis, adavis@aws.org.
SOCIETY NEWS
Opportunities to Serve on
Technical Committees
www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm
The following committees have
openings for new members.
Joining of plastics and composites.
G1 Committee seeks educators, end
users, general interest, and
consultants. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
Methods of weld inspection. The
B1 Committee seeks educators, general interest, and end users. E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Safety and Health Committee
seeks educators, end users, general
interest, and consultants. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting,
C4 Committee seeks educators, general interest, and end users. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Friction welding, C6 Committee
seeks professionals. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Highenergy beam welding and
cutting, C7 Committee seeks professionals. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES
Candidates Sought for
WeldingRelated Awards
The deadline for nominating candidates for the following awards is
December 31 prior to the year of the
awards presentations. E-mail Wendy
Sue Reeve at wreeve@aws.org or call
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.
William Irrgang Memorial Award
This award includes a $2500
honorarium to recognize the individual who has done the most over
the past five years to advance the
science and technology of welding.
Honorary Membership Award
This award acknowledges
eminence in the welding
profession, or one who has made
exceptional developments in the
welding art.
National Meritorious Award
This award includes a $2500
honorarium to recognize an
individuals loyalty, good council,
dedication to AWS affairs, and pro-
SOCIETY NEWS
NEW AWS SUPPORTERS
Sustaining Companies
Affiliate Companies
Supporting Companies
American Power Connection
Systems, Inc.
2460 Midland Rd.
Bay City, MI 48706
Dryden Diving Co., Inc.
213 Russell Mill Rd.
Woolwich Township, NJ 08085
MEVACO S.A.
Thesi Pari Moustaki (NATO Ave.)
Aspropyrgos, Attica 19300, Greece
Welding Distributor
PacifiCorp Energy
Huntington Plant
PO Box 680
Huntington, UT 84528
Power Tech for Metal Fabrication
PO Box 11983, Jubail Ind. City, KSA
Al-Jubail 31961, Saudi Arabia
Rohn Products, LLC
6718 W. Plank Rd.
Peoria, IL 61604
SEABERY
176 West Ln.
Stamford, CT 06905
Liberty Alloys
25 Portland Rd.
West Conshohocken, PA 19428
Educational Institutions
Universidad Tecnolgica de
San Juan del Ro
Ave. La Palma No. 125
Col. Vista Hermosa, San Juan Del Rio
Queretaro 76800, Mexico
SOCIETY NEWS
MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES
Neitzel Membership
Awards Announced
The Houston Section, Dist. 18, and
the Wheeling Section, Dist. 7, have received top honors in the Neitzel National Membership Awards presented
for 20132014. Houston received the
award for achieving the greatest net
numerical increase in membership.
Wheeling earned recognition for
achieving the greatest net percentage
increase in members.
In the following list, the District
number is followed by the Section
that achieved the greatest percentage
increase in membership for the year.
1 Maine
2 Long Island
3 Central Pennsylvania
4 Triangle
5 Florida West Coast
6 Northern New York
7 Wheeling
8 West Tennessee
9 Morgan City
10 Stark Central
11 Saginaw Valley
12 Madison-Beloit
13 Blackhawk
14 Lexington
15 Arrowhead
16 Southeast Nebraska
17 North Texas
18 San Antonio
19 Spokane
20 Idaho/Montana
21 San Fernando Valley
22 Sacramento Valley
Student Chapter
Members Cited
MemberGetAMember
SOCIETY NEWS
AWS and China Celebrate Ten Years of Cooperation
Dean Wilson, AWS president, front rowcenter, poses June 9 with attendees at the AWS in China seminar in Shanghai, China.
Shown (from left) are Dennis Harwig, Baldev Raj, Roland Boecking, and Ernest Levert.
Online: www.aws.org/membership
CONTACT INFORMATION
q New Member q Renewal
q Mr. q Ms. q Mrs. q Dr.
Last Name:_______________________________________________________________________________
First Name:___________________________________________________________________ M.I:_______
Birthdate: _____________________________ E-Mail:____________________________________________
Cell Phone (
)______________________
Were you ever an AWS Member? q YES q NO If YES, give year________ and Member #:____________________
Company (if applicable):___________________________________________________________________
Address:________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
City:_____________________________________State/Province:__________________________________
Zip/PostalCode:_____________________Country:______________________________________________
q Check here if you learned of the Society through an AWS Member? Members name:_______________________Members # (if known):________
q Check here if you would prefer not to receive email updates on AWS programs, new Member benefits, savings opportunities and events.
INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP
Please check each box that applies to the Membership or service youd like, and then add the cost together to get your Total Payment.
q AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP (One Year)..................................................................................................$84
q AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP (Two Years) SAVE $25 New Members Only....................................$143
q New Member Initiation Fee ...........................................................................................................................................$12
ONLY ONE SELECTION PLEASE. For more book choices visit www.aws.org/membership
q Jeffersons Welding Encyclopedia (CD-ROM only) q Design & Planning Manual for Cost-Effective Welding q Welding Metallurgy
Welding Handbook Selections: q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 4) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 3) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 2) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 1)
Pocket Handbook Selections: q PHB-1 (Arc Welding Steel) q PHB-2 (Visual Inspection) q PHB-4 (GMAW / FCAW)
B.) OPTIONAL Welding Journal Hard Copy (for Members outside North America)
q Individual Members outside North America (note: digital delivery of WJ is standard)..............................................$50
INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP TOTAL PAYMENT..................................................................................$_____________
NOTE: Dues include $18.70 for Welding Journal subscription and $4.00 for the AWS Foundation.
STUDENT MEMBERSHIP
Please check each box that applies to the Membership or service youd like, and then add the cost together to get your Total Payment.
q AWS STUDENT MEMBERSHIP (One Year)...................................................................................................................$15
q OPTIONAL Welding Journal Hard Copy (Only available to students in the U.S., Canada and Mexico)...........................$20
Note: Hard copy option applies to students in U.S., Canada and Mexico. Digital delivery of magazine is standard benefit for all student members.
PAYMENT INFORMATION
Payment can be made (in U.S. dollars) by check or money order (international or foreign), payable to the American Welding Society, or by charge card.
q Check q Money Order q AMEX
q Visa
q Discover
q Other
SECTION NEWS
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
CONNECTICUT
June 28
Activity: The Section hosted a CWI
exam for 47 participants in Hartford,
Conn. Participating were Jim Shore,
Steve Goodrow, Tim Kinnaman, Rick
Monroe, and Joe McGloin.
District 1 Conference
CONNECTICUT Shown at the CWI exam site are (from left) Jim Shore, Steve
Goodrow, Tim Kinnaman, Rick Monroe, and Joe McGloin.
May 3
Activity: The Connecticut Section
hosted the meeting at the Marriott
Courtyard in Norwich, Conn.,
conducted by Tom Ferri, Dist. 1 director. Construction engineers Howard
I. Epstein and George Torello Jr. discussed their study into the causes for
the collapse of the Hartford Civic
Center roof just hours after a basketball game, and why it did not fail
sooner when the arena was occupied.
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
District 1 Conference From left are George Torello Jr., Dist. 1 Director Tom Ferri,
Howard Epstein, Connecticut Section Chair Steve Goodrow, and Rick Monroe.
NEW JERSEY
July 717
Activity: The Section joined the Morris County Vocational School District
to present a free welding workshop
for nine veterans. The intensive
eight-day course taught them basic,
job-specific skills using the SMA,
GTA, GMA, and FCA welding
processes. The presenters included
Dist. 2 Director Harland Thompson,
Herb Browne, Jim Dolan, Eric Dolan,
George Sheehan, Don Smith, Bob
Petrone, and Ken Stockton.
NEW JERSEY Participants are shown at the welding training class for veterans.
Pennsylvania College of Technology S.C. Participants are shown at the first annual welding merit badge training event.
SEPTEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 83
SECTION NEWS
Pennsylvania College of
Technology Student Chapter
April 12
Activity: Advisor Aaron Biddle and
Student Chapter members hosted a
Boy Scout welding merit badge
program at the colleges Metal Trade
Center for 14 Scouts representing six
troops. Student Chapter members
Matt Stahlnecker, Scott Hutton,
Tyler Grove, Alex Martenas, Josh
Marvin, Nick Choiniere, and Jason
Bimle assisted with the classroom
and hands-on training and
demonstrated CNC plasma cutting
equipment and robotic arc welding
cells for the Scouts.
PHILADELPHIA From left are Tom McCarthy, Chair Bill Mowbray, Bob Mezoo, and
Matt Watson.
PHILADELPHIA
May 21
Activity: The Section hosted a tour of
Delaware Technical and Community
College Innovation and Technology
Center in Newcastle, Del. Guides included Department Chair Tom
McCarthy, and welding instructor
Bob Mezoo. Matt Watson, an Oxicool
welding technician, discussed what
he learned at an AWS symposium on
welding stainless steel presented in
Philadelphia. Bruce Verbit and Jason
Crain, both AWS Certified Welding
Inspectors, participated in the event.
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
(610) 820-9551
mike@welderinstitute.com
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com
Central Piedmont C.C. Student Chapter Advisor Ray Sosko (front) is shown at the
Philip Simmons Foundation with (from left) Eric Gavalya, Rich Davis, Kirk Weese, Alex
Czochara, Jerome Patterson, Michael Scott, Tyler Adams, Joel Taylor, and Paige Hoose.
Central Piedmont C. C.
Student Chapter
Week of May 19
Activity: Advisor Ray Sosko led his
students on a service learning trip to
Charleston, S.C. At the Philip
Simmons Foundation they met with
Simmons, a master blacksmith, who
discussed how his organization bene-
Central Piedmont C.C. Student Chapter Shown at the International Diving Institute are (from left) Joel Taylor, Alex Czochara, Rich
Davis, Advisor Ray Sosko, Michael Scott, Jerome Patterson, Tyler Adams, Kirk Weese, and Eric Gavalya.
84 WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014
SECTION NEWS
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director
(786) 473-9540
uwe@miamidiver.com
PITTSBURGH
July 15
Activity: The executive board held a
planning meeting at Springfield Grill
in Mars, Pa. Chair John Menhart discussed the Dist. 7 conference topics
and introduced incoming Chair
George Kirk. Attendees included Don
Stoll, Carl Ott, Carl Spaeder, Jim
Sekely, John Foley, Tom White, and
Ray Knobbs.
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
ts@bellsouth.net
MOBILE
May 8
Speaker: Mike Skiles
Affiliation: Airgas
Topic: District 9 goals and initiatives
Activity: Chair Michael Zoghby introduced the incoming slate of officers at
District 8 Conference
June 14
Activity: Joshua Burgess, Dist. 8 director, conducted the event in Chattanooga, Tenn. Attending were David
Porter, Jonaaron Jones, Gary
Gammill, Robin Dykes, Robin Shull,
Joe Smith, Joe Livesay, Roger Miller,
Sam Davis, Conrad Young, and AWS
staff representative Efram Abrams.
District 8
D. Joshua Burgess, director
(931) 260-7039
djoshuaburgess@gmail.com
CHATTANOOGA
March
Activity: Dist. 8 Director Joshua
Burgess and Section members participated in the Tennessee SkillsUSA
welding competition held at the
Chattanooga Convention Center. The
CHATTANOOGA From left are Dist. 8 Director Joshua Burgess, Brent Cameron,
Logan Hensley, Teddy Riola, and Joe Livesay, a past Dist. 8 director.
PITTSBURGH Executive committee members are (from left) Don Stoll, Carl Ott, Carl Spaeder, Jim Sekely, John Foley, Tom White,
Chair John Menhart, Ray Knobbs, and incoming Chair George Kirk.
SEPTEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 85
SECTION NEWS
this last meeting of the season, held
at The Original Oyster House in
Spanish Fort, Ala.
District 10
MAHONING VALLEY
June 26
Activity: Chair Chuck Moore and
Treasurer Kenny Jones shared a
booth with Diamond Steel construction Co. personnel at the Safety and
Wellness Expo held at Vallourec Pipe
Mill. The Section provided visitors
with several brochures on safety in
welding and cutting.
District 11
CENTRAL MICHIGAN
May 29
Activity: The Section held its
students night program at Capitol
District 12
District 13
District 14
ST. LOUIS
June 16
Activity: The annual golf outing was
held at Tapawingo National Golf Club
in St. Louis, Mo. The winning
foursome was Bret Broadway, Dale
Knife, Larry Miller, and Zach Witt.
June 21
Activity: St. Louis Section members
Mike Kamp, Rick Suria, Tully Parker,
Mike Roach, Andrew Swyers, Pat
Cody, and Mike Matthews worked
with 12 Boy Scouts to help them earn
their welding merit badges. The
event was held at Cee Kay Supply,
Inc., in St. Louis, Mo.
District 15
NORTHWEST
June 9
Activity: The 35th annual golf outing
raised $5000 for Section
scholarships. Sponsors were Abicor
Binzel, Advantage Marketing, Chart
Industries, Fronius, Mace Harris,
Mike Hanson, Miller Electric,
Minneapolis Oxygen, Oxygen Service
Co., Production Engineering Corp.,
South St. Paul Steel Supply, Toll Gas
& Welding, United Surface Prep, and
Weld Safe Midwest. Chuck Allard
from Toll Gas & Welding, aced the
8th hole of the Signature Course.
District 8 Conference From left are David Porter, Jonaaron Jones, Gary Gammill, Robin Dykes, Robin Shull, Efram Abrams, Dist. 8 Director Joshua Burgess, Joe Smith, Joe Livesay, Roger Miller, Sam Davis, and Conrad Young.
CHATTANOOGA From left are Dist. 8 Director Joshua Burgess, Chris Renfro, Chris Bialczak, Austin Harris, Will Simmons, Timothy
Allen, and Lee Sisk.
86 WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014
District 16
SECTION NEWS
District 17
District 18
District 19
District 20
CENTRAL MICHIGAN From left are presenter Jeff Grossman, Christine Kellerman,
Catherine Lindquist, Jeff Seelye, Jeff Haynes, Bill Eggleston, and Scott Poe.
District 21
District 22
ST. LOUIS The winning golf team members are (from left) Bret Broadway, Dale Knife,
Larry Miller, and Zach Witt.
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(401)
INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director of North American Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities;
certification, publications, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society and Section News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . . . .(244)
Program Managers II
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals
and Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook, Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcommittees on Bridge Welding, Stainless Steel,
and Reinforcing Steel
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Lorena Cora.. lcora@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(417)
Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(307)
Automotive, Resistance Welding, Machinery
and Equipment, Methods of Inspection
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(456)
Section Web Editor
Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between members and
AWS headquarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273)
Managing Director
John Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Application processing, renewals, and exams.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . . .(303)
Director, Operations
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(299)
Technical Activities Committee, Welding
Qualification
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)
Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American
Council of the International Institute of Welding
Resistance Welding School Wed. (Nov. 12) & Thurs. (Nov. 13)
The Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance, a standing committee of AWS, offers a two-day program conducted
by industry specialists with extensive resistance welding experience. The basics of resistance welding and reallife application of the process are covered. Each participant may learn at their own pace, and discuss specific
welding concerns with the instructors. You are invited to bring your own samples for discussion.
PERSONNEL
Distribution segment. Most recently,
Warfield served as president, North
America commercial, for Gates Corp.
CM Industries Announces VP
Sales and Marketing
Ken Pratt has
joined CM
Industries, Lake
Zurich, Ill., as VP
sales and
marketing, responsible for the sales
team and robotic
torch sales
throughout the
United States,
Canada, and
Ken Pratt
Mexico. Pratt
previously served
Tregaskiss for more than 30 years,
most recently as VP of sales and
marketing for its robotic torch
product line.
Gary Norville
Bill Heller
Arcos Industries,
LLC, Mount
Carmel, Pa., a supplier of stainless
steel and highnickel alloy wires
and electrodes, has
appointed Harry
Wehr general manager. With the company for 35 years,
Wehr most recently
Harry Wehr
served as technical
director. Wehr also
serves as chair of the AWS A5
Committee on Filler Metals and Allied
Materials.
PERSONNEL
continued from page 90
Manufacturing Renaissance
Appoints VP Operations
organization that
promotes advanced
manufacturing as a
springboard for
sustainable development, has
appointed Dennis
Arouca vice
president
operations. Previously, Arouca
served as VP in
Dennis Arouca
labor and employee
relations positions
for Cliffs Natural Resources, an international mining company, and
ArcelorMittal, a steel producer, Americas region.
Manufacturing Renaissance,
Chicago, Ill., a nonpartisan, nonprofit
continued on page 94
Outstanding features
Fast, non-destructive measurement
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lab
Ferrite measurable either in Ferritepercentage %Fe or Ferritenumber
FN
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Coating Thickness
Material Analysis
Microhardness
Material Testing
AWS
AWS
W Confer
Conference:
ence:
WELDING ENGINEER
R
November 11-12
Georgia World Congress
Center in Atlanta
Are you
you outside your
your comf
comfort
mffor
o t zone
in dealing with w
elding in your
your operations?
welding
A gr
group
experienced
welding
engineerss will hold a tw
two-day
AWS
conference
oup of highly e
xperienced w
elding engineer
o-day A
WS conf
erence
for
professionals who have
welding
for manufacturing
manufacturing professionals
have to
to make
make decisions about w
elding that are
outside
comfort
comfor t zone.
e their comfo
If yyou
ou ffind
ind yourself
yourself facing
facing questions
questions in the welding
welding area that relate
relate to...
to...
Costt control
Cos
Quality
defects
uality issues and def
fects
e
Automation
A
utomation options and capital equipment
Requirements
R
equirements of codes and sstandards
tandards
conference
welding,
...this conf
erence will prepare yyou
ou to
to approach
approach the unique
unique challenges of w
elding,
provide
take-home
and pr
ovide yyou
ou with essential tak
e-home reference
reference books.
Ho
How
w tto
o ge
gett up tto
o spe
speed
ed quic
quickly.
kly. How
How to
to ask
a the right questions.
question
ns.
Ho
How
w to
to get
get the results you
you need,
need, sa
save
ve mone
money,
y, and sta
stayy out of tr
trouble!
ouble!
This two-day
two-day conf
or manager
s, engineer
others with
with welding
welding responsibility
responsibility but limited
limited
s, designers,
designers, and others
conference
onfference is ffor
managers,
engineers,
e
xposure tto
o or back
ground in w
elding. The con
elding applications, bu
nciples ha
ve
ference ffocuses
oc
o uses on ar
exposure
background
welding.
conference
arcc w
welding
butt the pri
principles
have
u
niversal applicabi
lity. Presentations
Presentations and discussion
discussion are based
based on the Application
Application Analysis
Analysis W
orksheet, whi
ch w
as
universal
applicability.
Worksheet,
which
was
d
eveloped tto
o tteach
each a senior col
lege cou
rse tto
oe
ngineers abou
oe
nter iindustry,
ndustry, wi
th the objectiv
e off he
lping the
m
developed
college
course
engineers
aboutt tto
enter
with
objective
helping
them
d
evelop a path tto
ou
nderstand and de
al wi
th the w
elding challe
nges the
ere abou
o fface.
ace.
develop
understand
deal
with
welding
challenges
theyy w
were
aboutt tto
PERSONNEL
continued from page 92
Obituaries
Alexander Lesnewich
Alexander Alex
Lesnewich, 91, died
August 1. An AWS
Fellow and AWS
president
19781979, he
served as an officer
during WW II in
the U.S. Army Air
Corps. After earning a PhD in metallurgy at Rensselaer
A. Lesnewich
Polytechnic
Institute, he joined
the Airco research staff where he
worked until 1985 as director of
research. He continued working as a
consultant and expert witness to the
welding industry until age 87, when
he retired to Tinton Falls, N.J. Dr.
Lesnewich was awarded ten weldingrelated patents and received
numerous awards during his career including the AWS Comfort A. Adams
Lecture, National Meritorious, and Silver Quill Award; Airco Safety and
Health; and Lincoln Gold Medal. He
enjoyed his work, sailing and tending
to his boats, and creating wood items
ranging from furniture to toys
for kids.
Charles E. Padden
Charles E. Chuck Padden, 83, died
July 9 in Livonia, Mich. An AWS Life
Member, he served as Detroit Section
chair for the 19941995 term. Padden
graduated from General Motors Institute then worked for Harrison Radiator and American Motors. He worked
Loren C. Smith
Loren Charles
Smith, 88, died
June 25 in
Gainesville, Ga.
Smith, whose engineering career
spanned 60 years,
served as a senior
project engineer at
The Harris
Products Group, a
Lincoln Electric
Loren Smith
company, in
Gainesville, from
1991 to 2012. At Harris, he was
awarded six U.S. patents. He played a
key role in developing the companys
signature Perfect FlameTM gas-regulation system for brazing. Earlier, Smith
served 20 years with the Compressed
Gas Association (CGA) where he contributed to the development of CGA
E-4, Standard for Gas Pressure Regulators. After attending the General Motors Institute and University of Michigan, he worked in engineering
positions at Wyandotte Chemicals,
Airco, and Concoa. WJ
limited.
SSpace
pace is limite
d. November 12-13, 2014
World Congress Center
This program Georgia World
GA
sold out Atlanta,
T
To
o register go to www.fabtechexpo.com
www.fabtechexpo.com
.fabtechex
.
in 2013
BY MELISSA GOMEZ
Fig. 1 Ivy Tech students volunteered 200240 hours of labor welding on the LST-325. Kneeling (from left) are Davey Brantley and
Breihan Fletcher. Standing in the middle row (from left) are Zack Cullison, CJ Brewer, David Elliott, and Nicole Tatum. Posing in the
back row (from left) are Ethan Lubbehusen, Miles Ingle, and Brad Burke.
Fig. 2 Student Breihan Fletcher uses SMAW to patch holes on the deck where steel has rusted through.
SEPTEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 97
Fig. 3 Ivy Tech Welding Instructor John Durbin and LST Ship Memorial VP John Engstrom pose with student volunteers. Kneeling
(from left) are Derek Baker, David Burch, and Rebecca Cleek. Standing (from left) are Durbin, Aaron Bayless, Roger Hughs, Rick
Miller, Paul McCammon, and John Engstrom.
Future Volunteering
Those who participated received
extra credit in their class and gave very
positive feedback about the project
Fig. 3. The students are loving this.
Many students signed up as members
of the LST-325 group. They can volunteer anytime they want, without me.
They liked being outside the lab and
they also commented on how they like
participating in the preservation of
history. It was a real-life experience for
them, as well as a feel good
experience.
It was such an educational experience, and there is still so much
welding to be done on the ship, that
98 WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014
A History Lesson
on the LST-325
Landing Ship, Tanks (LSTs)
were designed in 1942 to carry
battle tanks, vehicles, soldiers,
and supplies directly onto enemy
beaches. More than 1000 of these
ships were built for use during
World War II. Many were also
used in the Korean and Vietnam
Wars.
On October 27, 1942, the USS
LST-325 was launched, and commissioned on February 1, 1943.
The LST was sent as part of Operation HUSKY, the invasion of
Sicily, in 1943. It sailed as support
for the invasion of Salerno, Italy,
later that year. Among other operations, the ship participated in DDay at Omaha Beach, Normandy,
on June 6, 1944.
The ship has been part of 70
years of history and survived as
the last fully operational WWII
LST. Decomissioned for the third
time in December 1999, the ship
has been ported in Evansville,
Ind., since 2005.
Preventing Rust on
Stainless Steel Pipes
Focusing on storage and shipping methods, plus adhering to a governing specification, are important for not
only operating efficiently but to avoid costly rework
BY WILLIAM C. LAPLANTE
Fabrication Synopsis
The criticality of ensuring manufacturing readiness for a subcontracted
fabricator is best handled through analyzing consequences experienced by
an Engineering Authority for failing to
perform outsourcing due diligence.
Type 316L austenitic stainless steel
pipe spools pipe sizes 2- to 20-in.
outside diameter (OD), schedules 10
and 40 were subcontracted for fabrication in accordance with ASME
B31.3, Process Piping.
All pipe welds were visually and radiographically inspected. Upon fabrication completion, all pipe spools were
hydrostatically tested then
transported to a remote, seaside construction site and stored outdoors, un100 WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014
Fig. 1 A Type 316L stainless steel pipe spool with prominent rust signs.
Corrosion concerns: Free iron surface contamination leads to the development of rust on a stainless steel surface and pipe surface degradation. Pitting and crevice corrosion are the two most prevalent forms of localized
corrosion. Pipe surface rust sites serve as potential areas for pitting and
crevice corrosion development, which can lead to pipe wall perforations
and the loss of containment.
thority to fabricate the projects stainless steel pipe spools along with the
Engineering Authority.
Fabrication Practices
B
Fig. 2 Iron contamination via poor shipping practices. A A carbon-steel banding strap
in direct contact with a 316L stainless steel pipe; B the result a rust strip.
Iron Contamination
Mechanisms
The dissemination of pertinent
project documentation is an Engineering Authority responsibility for welded
product outsourcing. However, there
was no governing stainless steel material handling and control specification
for the project.
Fig. 3 Iron contamination via exposure of project stainless steel pipe spools to carbon-steel fabrication activities. Deposits of a corroded carbon-steel particulate are shown inside a hydrostatically tested, 316L stainless steel pipe spool.
Deficient In-Process
Weld Inspection
Visual in-process weld inspection is
a prudent, cost- and time-effective
function to perform throughout weldment production. This is used to eliminate the potential for costly rework
and repair activities resulting from
process malpractices, structural
discrepancies, and/or weld defects discovered during final inspection or
weldment service.
Failing to Perform
Outsourcing Due Diligence
In outsourcing the stainless steel
pipe spools for fabrication, the onus
was on the Engineering Authority to
proactively perform outsourcing due
diligence to ensure that the manufacturing readiness of the fabricator prior
to and throughout pipe-spool production was acceptable.
The foundation for a fabrication
failure was laid when Engineering Authority methods to accomplish due
diligence were not performed.
Multipass FCAW
carbon steel fillet
weld beads.
Fig. 5 Pipe support weld/spatter rust via iron contamination from an incorrect
welding filler metal. A carbon steel flux cored arc welding (E81T1-Ni1) filler metal
was utilized to weld 316L stainless steel pipe/plate.
Lessons Learned
Widespread rusting of these Type
LEARNING TRACK
Georgia Trade School (GTS), Kennesaw, Ga., in the greater Atlanta metropolitan area, acknowledges that its
greatest assets are its dynamic training program that captures the students interest from the start, its staff
of professional instructors who skillfully employ their industrial knowhow to motivate their students, and
class sizes kept to 12 members per instructor to ensure the students gets
the personal attention they need
Fig. 1.
The students begin welding immediately following their orientation and
safety training. Classroom time includes a focus on welding fundamentals including safety, equipment,
electrical principles, blueprint reading,
shop drawings, weld symbols, and the
essential math. Plate and pipe welding
processes are covered in depth using a
combination of textbooks, multimedia, and visual aids.
The program designates 83% of the
500-h course time for hands-on work
and students weld on their first day.
The course can be taken either fulltime for 14 weeks or as a 24-week program working part time.
Adding value to the booth assignments and classroom training, students have an opportunity to use their
new skills to fabricate useful products
for the community. Two recent projects were building water tanks for a
local distillery and a staircase for a
Smithsonian-affiliated museum. These
real-world projects give students a feel
for urgency to meet a contract deadline and experience working as a team
member to produce a useful product
for a customer.
BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
HOWARD M. WOODWARD is associate
editor for the Welding Journal.
Following Graduation
Upon successful completion of the
course and thequalification test, students can receive up to five welder
qualification records reflecting the parameters for which they are qualified
to weld. Students have the opportunity at the end of their training to test
in accordance with the appropriate industrial codes of the American Welding Society and American Society of
Mechanical Engineers.
To date, Georgia Trade School has
graduated 94 students, with 91 currently working in the field. Ryan
Blythe, executive director of the
school, said, Those working as shipbuilders earn an average of $60,000 a
year, which is two thousand dollars
more than the average Harvard College graduate a statistic that surprises skeptical high school guidance
counselors.
Lab Specifics
The job-oriented lab training includes torch cutting, fabrication techniques, tolerances, measurements,
machine operation, and routine main106 WELDING JOURNAL / SEPTEMBER 2014
Fig. 1 Georgia Trade School welding students are (from left) Mateus Maia, Amir
Alvarez, Jonathan Bervoets, Vincent Vecchio, John Scroggins, Seth Campbell, Harry
Cochran, Tyler Replogle, Tyler Blalock, and Zachary Darrow.
Fig. 2 The GTS welding booth area is a model of efficiency and cleanliness.
six months of enrolling he got the opportunity to begin his career at Caterpillar. Now, he said, I am financially
independent at age 19, work for a
Fortune 500 company where the sky
is the limit in terms of advancement,
and have the means to build my
future.
Well known in the community, GTS
regularly participates in charity projects, most recently welding benches
for Must Ministries and guard rails
around the floor scales and the sort tables for the Atlanta Community Food
Bank. In another project, GTS students filmed a segment for the popular ChuckE2009 YouTube welding
series with Lanse Edwards Fig. 5.
Jackson Safety co-brands with GTS,
providing students with logo-marked
bags, welding helmets, and personal
Fig. 5 From left are GTS graduates Zach Burgess and Quinton
Cychosz, Instructor James Spinner, YouTube cameraman Lanse
Edwards, and graduate Garrison Foster.
Register
ter TToday
oday
o
WELDING SUMMIT
WORKSHOP
www.aws.org/conferences
www.aws.org/conferences
Presented
Pr
esented by
by the AWS
AW
WS D10 Committee on Piping and Tubing
Tuubing
October 8th - 9th, 2014 / AWS
AWS
W Headquarters,
Headqua
Dor
Doral,
al, FL
FL
Mission Sta
Statement:
tement:
Create awareness
awareness of welding industr
Create
industryy issues and find pro-active solutions
while maintaining safety and quality as values.
The Welding
Welding Summit Workshop
Workshop purpose is to provide an interactive open forum environment for
professionals from various areas of the welding industr
industryy to discuss issues and propose solutions
solutions..
Each topic of the two day workshop will start with an introduction and a short
topics..
description of recommended topics
Attendees will be split into groups to discuss the topics and provide feedback.
FFeedback
eedback will be moderated to recognized issues and solutions.
solutions. The feedback
industry.
the industr
y.
FACT SHEET
Understanding Porosity
Porosity is a cavity-like discontinuity that forms when
gas is entrapped in solidifying weld metal or in a thermal
spray deposit. The discontinuity is generally spherical, but it
may be elongated. Porosity occurs on the surface or in the
subsurface of the weld. The following, along with Table 1,
discuss the types of porosity.
Scattered porosity. This type of porosity may be distributed throughout single-pass welds, contained in one pass of a
multipass weld, or spread throughout several passes of multiple-pass welds. Faulty welding technique, contaminated or incorrect shielding gases, contaminants on the surface of the
workpiece, or defective materials are the usual causes.
Cluster porosity. This type manifests itself as a
localized grouping of pores with a random geometric distribution. It frequently results from improper initiation or termination of the welding arc. The same conditions that cause
arc blow can contribute to the formation of cluster porosity.
Piping porosity. The term piping porosity denotes a
form of porosity that has a length greater than its width and
lies approximately perpendicular to the weld face. In fillet
welds, elongated porosity normally extends from the root of
the weld toward the face. When one or two pores are seen in
the surface of the weld, it is likely that many subsurface piping pores are interspersed among the exposed pores. Much
of the piping porosity found in welds does not extend to the
surface. In electroslag welds, piping porosity is generally
characterized by relatively long pores. Piping porosity is typically caused by rapid solidification.
Aligned porosity. Sometimes called linear porosity,
aligned porosity consists of a localized array of spherical or
elongated pores oriented in a line. It may be aligned along a
weld interface, at the root of a weld, or at a boundary
between weld beads. Gas evolution from contaminants at
the location where the discontinuity has formed is the cause
of aligned porosity.
Elongated porosity. This type of porosity resembles
piping porosity in that it has a length greater than its width.
However, in contrast to piping porosity, elongated porosity
lies approximately parallel to the weld axis.
Causes. The typical causes of porosity in weld metal are
related to the welding process and the welding procedure,
and in some instances, to the type and chemistry of the base
metal. The welding process, welding procedure, and type of
base metal (including the manufacturing method) directly
affect the quantities and types of gases present in the
molten weld pool. The welding process and welding
procedure control the solidification rate, which then affects
the amount of weld metal porosity. Proper welding
procedures for a given combination of welding process and
base metal should produce welds that are essentially free of
porosity.
Dissolved gases are usually present in molten weld metal.
Porosity forms as the weld metal solidifies if the dissolved
gases are present in amounts greater than their solid solubility limits. Gases that may be present in the molten weld
pool include hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, argon, and
helium. Of these, only hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are
soluble to any significant extent in a molten weld pool, and
the solubility of these gases in solidified metal is
significantly less than in liquid metal.
Hydrogen is the major cause of porosity. It may enter
the molten weld pool from many sources such as the gas
atmosphere surrounding the arc zone or in hydrogenforming constituents, the dissociation of water. Hydrogen
dissolved in the base metal itself or in surface oxides may
remain in the weld metal. Filler metals may also contain
dissolved hydrogen. WJ
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WELDING RESEARCH
ABSTRACT
Enhanced active metal transfer control is experimentally studied in the first part
of this investigation. Differing from the original active control, the enhanced active
metal transfer control uses a modified current waveform, which increases the ampli
tude of the excited droplet oscillation and the needed detaching current is thus much
more reduced. The experimental study reveals that strongest droplet oscillation and
maximum enhancement on the droplet detachment require optimal selections of
three waveform parameters: the exciting peak duration and exciting/detaching phase
delay. In this study, a numerical model on the dynamic droplet oscillation and detach
ment is developed based on the massspring system. The spring constant and damp
ing coefficient in the model are experimentally calibrated. Analysis on the effects of
the key waveform parameters on the droplet oscillation/detachment gives a compre
hensive understanding on the mechanism of the droplet excitation and detachment.
Given other waveform parameters, the optimal value of the three key parameters
can be calculated from the model. The accuracy of the model is verified by compar
ing the modeling results with the corresponding experimental ones. The modeling re
sults suggest that the exciting phase delay and exciting peak duration can be fixed as
long as the droplet size is controlled to be relatively small as desired by the drop
spray transfer. In addition, an analytical model has been established through approxi
mations, and its adequate accuracy in predicting the optimal detaching phase delay
has also been verified.
KEYWORDS
Enhanced Active Control Metal Transfer Droplet Oscillation
Theoretical Model MassSpring System
Introduction
As has been reviewed in the first
part of this paper (Ref. 1) and previous
studies, the detaching peak current in
conventional pulsed gas metal arc
welding (GMAW-P) needs to be higher
than the spray transition current to
from a peak level, referred to as the exciting peak, to the base. By applying
another peak current referred to as the
detaching peak at the moment when
the droplet is moving toward the weld
pool, the electromagnetic force and
the downward momentum of the oscillating droplet are effectively matched
in phase and the droplet can be
detached by their combined action. As
a result, the needed detaching current
is reduced, and unexpected droplet detachment or mass accumulation can be
avoided such that the metal transfer
robustness is improved (Refs. 6, 7).
As an evolution to the original active
control process, the enhanced active
droplet oscillation is proposed in Ref. 8
by using the current waveform shown
in Fig. 1 and denoted as Wave1. The
droplet growing and exciting pulses are
now divided by a base period, while they
are coupled together in the original active metal transfer control. It is this
modification that significantly increases
the amplitude of the excited droplet oscillation (Ref. 8). Active metal transfer
control, which utilizes such enhanced
oscillation, referred to as the enhanced
active metal transfer control, has been
experimentally studied in the first part
of this investigation (Ref. 1) by using
Wave2, which inherits from Wave1 by
inserting a relatively low detaching
pulse with a phase delay to the exciting
pulse, as shown in Fig. 2. The enhanced
droplet oscillation enables the needed
J. XIAO is with the State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology, China, and the Institute for Sustainable Manufactur
ing, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. G. J. ZHANG is with the State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology, China.
W. J. ZHANG and Y. M. ZHANG (yuming.zhang@uky.edu) are with the Institute for Sustainable Manufacturing and Department of Electrical and Computer En
gineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig 3 Typical metal transfer of enhanced active control, 1 ms per frame. ER70S6/0.8
mm wire, 15L/min argon gas ow, 6mm arc length, 6mm wire extension, beadon
plate welding.
then the droplet is accelerated and detached by the detaching pulse of only
125 A/4 ms (Frames 813).
To better depict the excited droplet
oscillation, the following concepts
defined in the experimental study are
repeated here. 1) The moment at which
the excited droplet reaches its
maximum elongation is referred to as
the elongation peak moment. 2) The
moment at which the droplet changes
its moving direction from upward
(toward the wire) into downward (away
from the wire) during the preoscillation
or the main oscillation is referred to as
the oscillation reversing moment. As
can be seen from Fig. 2, the following
current waveform parameters need to
be properly selected to first maximize
the droplet oscillation amplitude and
then maximize the consequent
enhancement on the droplet
WELDING RESEARCH
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 10 Modeling results of the dynamic droplet oscillation and detachment. A Droplet displacement; B resultant detaching force;
C droplet gravitational force; D electromagnetic force; E inertia force; F droplet radius.
(1)
F(t) = Fem + Fd + Fg
(2)
(3)
(4)
WELDING RESEARCH
(5)
+
ln
rw
(6)
1
1
= 1n( sin )
4 1 cos
2
2
ln
+
( 1 cos )2 1 + cos
(7)
Ap = rd2 rw2
(8)
(9)
where Cd is the aerodynamic drag coefficient, Ap is the area of the drop seen
from above, and rp and vp are the density and velocity of the arc plasma.
Since the plasma velocity in GMAW
is not available, the plasma velocity
was assumed to be 100 m/s, which is
the same as that in GTAW, and the
value of Cd was calculated to be 0.44
(Ref. 15). For a less-developed plasma
jet, 10 m/s plasma velocity was used,
and the value of Cd was also calculated
to be 0.44. The calculation in Ref. 15
shows that the equilibrium droplet
size of a steel electrode with plasma
velocity of 10 m/s and 100 m/s are almost the same. Thus, in this study,
100 m/s plasma velocity is used, and
the drag coefficient is thus 0.44.
According to the dynamic force balance theory on the metal transfer (Ref.
9), the droplet will be detached when
the following criteria are satisfied:
Fem + Fd + Fg + Fin > Fs
(10)
Fs = 2rw g
(11)
Calibration of Model
Coefficients
To solve Equation 1, the spring constant k and damping coefficient b need
to be determined first. It is the major
difficulty in our modeling effort
because the spring constant and
damping coefficient may change with
the droplet mass even if the wire (material, diameter) and shielding gas are
given. The theoretical models on the
spring constant and damping
coefficient are briefly reviewed here.
The spring force and spring constant
in the axial direction are expressed
using the potential energy generated
by the surface tension and surface area
of a droplet in Ref. 9
dU = gdS = Fsdx, k = dFs/dx
where U is the potential energy, Fs the
spring force, g the surface tension coefficient and S the drop surface area.
Given the droplet mass/volume, the
spring constant can be calculated. Unfortunately, the accuracy of this model
is not satisfactory (minimum 11%
error and 38% maximum in the
droplet oscillation frequency), and it is
thus not used in this paper. However,
it indicates that the droplet spring
constant is related to the droplet
mass/volume. Reference 9 also gives
SEPTEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 325-s
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Calibration Method
The calibration proceeds with the assumption that the droplet mass during
the first free oscillation period after the
exciting pulse is constant, since the wire
melting rate at the base current is sufficiently low and the concerned period,
the first oscillation cycle after the exciting pulse, is only a few milliseconds. As
a result, the droplet mass during the
first oscillation cycle can be considered
equal to the droplet mass m0 measured
(12)
b0
2m0
0 =
k0
02
m0
(13)
since the droplet mass, oscillation period, and amplitude all can be
measured from the experiments. By
adjusting the initial droplet mass m0,
the correlation between b/k and m can
be determined.
To perform the calibration,
experiments 14 are conducted by using
Wave1. The experimental system and
conditions are the same with that
described in the first part of this investigation: 0.8-mm ER70S-6 welding wire,
15 L/min pure argon shielding gas, 6mm wire extension, and bead-on-plate
welding of mild steel (Ref. 1). The initial
droplet mass/size is controlled by
adjusting the growing duration Tg . The
experimental parameters are listed in
Table 1. The remaining parameters are
fixed at Ig = 80 A, Ib = 30 A, Tp1 = 3 ms,
Ie = 120 A, Te = 3 ms, Tb = 30 ms, Ifd =
175 A, Tfd = 5 ms.
Damping Coefficient
According to Equation 13, the
damping coefficient can be calculated
as follows:
WELDING RESEARCH
b0 =
2m0 A1
ln
A2
T1
(14)
Spring Constant
Based on Equation 13, the droplet
oscillation period of the first
oscillation cycle T1 is given by
T1 =
4 m0
2
=
0
4k0 m0 b02
(15)
since the damping coefficient is only at
103 Ns/m, Equation 15 can be
simplified to
T1 = 2 m0 / k0
(16)
k = 7.74 + 127961.29m
(17)
No.
Tg (ms)
In order to fully utilize the preoscillation before the exciting pulse, the
1
2
3
4
10
20
30
40
Value
Unit
Description
C1
C2
rw
le
rr
r'
r
mo
g
2.885e10
5.22e10
0.0004
0.006
0.7836
6800
7860
1.25664e6
1.2
m3/(A s)
m3/(A W s)
m
m
W/m
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg m/A2s2
N/m
Melting constant
Melting constant
Wire radius
Wire extension
Resistivity of Wire
Density of liquid drop
Density of solid wire
Permeability of free space
Surface tension coecient
327-s
WELDING RESEARCH
WELDING RESEARCH
that the droplet displacement and velocity at the end moment of the exciting pulse is exactly the initial condition of the consequent free
oscillation. Since the forced
oscillation during the exciting peak
duration is damping, the maximum
amplitude of the free oscillation after
the exciting pulse can only be
achieved if the exciting pulse ends at
the elongation peak moment, i.e., the
optimal exciting peak duration T*e
corresponds to the elongation peak
moment. Figure 13 demonstrates the
effect of the exciting peak duration
on the magnitude of the free oscillation. The growing current is fixed at
80 A with 20 ms duration. The exciting peak current is fixed at 120 A,
while the exciting peak duration
changes from 25 ms. It can be seen
that the droplet oscillation
magnitudes under 3 and 4 ms
exciting peak durations are
approximately even at the maximum
level. The droplet oscillation under 2
ms exciting peak duration is a little
weaker, while that under 5 ms exciting peak duration is significantly
weaker. These results agree with
those of the experimental
examination in Ref. 8.
Through the model based on Equation 1, T*e can be obtained by
intentionally setting relatively long exciting peak duration. Figure 14 shows a
comparison between the experimenttested and model-predicted results
under different droplet masses
(controlled by the growing duration).
The figure demonstrates that the experimental results are all slightly larger
than the corresponding modelpredicted ones. The maximum absolute
error is up to 0.17 ms. This is caused by
the limited rising speed of the real
welding current when it is changed
from the base to peak. In general, the
rising time is approximately 1 ms such
that the oscillation peak time becomes
a little longer than that calculated from
the model. However, such a level of difference on the exciting peak duration
will not significantly affect the
amplitude of the free oscillation after
the exciting pulse. Here, the exciting
peak duration can also be fixed at 3 ms
as a quick set, as long as the growing
parameters are properly selected to
control the droplet size not exceeding
1.25 mm.
Analytical Model on
Droplet Oscillation
Model Derivation
From the above results and analysis, one can see that the established
model gives a comprehensive
understanding on the dynamic droplet
oscillation and detachment in the enhanced active metal transfer control.
The dynamic droplet size/mass,
droplet motion, and the forces exerted
on the droplet can be computed, and
the computation time is only several
seconds. However, if possible, a
simpler analytical model with acceptable accuracy would be more appreciated. Since the numerical modeling results imply that T*p1 and T*e can both
be quickly set as long as the initial
droplet size is controlled within 11.3
mm, the analytical model will only aim
at the prediction of T*p2,which determines the optimal synchronization of
the detaching pulse and the droplet
downward momentum. To this end,
the following approximations are applied to simplify the original model
and thus to avoid numerical computations as follows:
1. Set the damping coefficient b to
zero. Since the viscous damping in
droplet oscillation was found to have a
negligible effect on calculating the
droplet oscillation frequency
compared with other factors such as
surface tension and gravity (Ref. 9),
the damping coefficient can be set to
zero in predicting T*p2.
2. Use a constant droplet mass to
replace the time-varying droplet mass
during a short period. As the same assumption used for the coefficient calibration, the droplet mass during the
exciting peak period and the first free
oscillation cycle is considered to be
constant and equals the value measured at the end of exciting pulse, denoted as m0. Based on Equations 3
and 4, m0 can be calculated by
C I +C l I2 T
2 re g g
1 g
2
+ C1I b1 + C2 r le I b1 Tb1
m0 =
+ C I + C l I 2 T
1 e
2 re e e
2
+
+
C
I
C
l
I
T
1 d
2 r e d re
(
(
(
)
)
(18)
329-s
WELDING RESEARCH
where Tre represents the residual peak
duration of the forced detaching pulse.
For 5 ms forced detaching peak duration, Tre equals 0.5 ms approximately.
Finally, the model depicting the
droplets dynamic response to the exciting pulse can be expressed as:
m0
x + k0 x = F ( t )
Fem ( I e ) - Fem ( I b )
F (t ) =
(19)
0 t Te
t Te
(20)
Fem ( I e ) Fem ( I b )
k0
[ 1 cos t ] ,
0 < t Te
0
x (t ) =
Fem ( I e ) Fem ( I b )
k0
cos 0 ( t Te ) cos 0 t , t Te
(21)
From Equation 21, T*p2 under given
growing and exciting parameters is derived to be
3
1
Tp2
= T1 Te ,
4
2
T1 = 2 m0 / k0
(22)
Conclusions
1. A theoretical model on the
dynamic droplet oscillation and detachment in the enhanced active metal
transfer control is established based on
the mass-spring system. The critical coefficients, i.e., the spring constant and
damping coefficient, are experimentally
calibrated. It is found that the damping
coefficient is approximately independent of the droplet mass, but the spring
constant increases with the droplet
mass linearly.
2. The model is numerically
computed. The effects of the critical
waveform parameters on the droplet
4. Amin, M. 1983. Pulse current parameters for arc stability and controlled metal
transfer in arc welding. Metal Construction
15: 272278.
5. Jacobsen, N. 1992. Monopulse investigation of droplet detachment in pulsed
gas metal arc welding. Journal of Physics D:
Applied Physics 25: 783797.
6. Zhang, Y. M., Liguo, E., and Kovacevic, R. 1998. Active metal transfer control
by monitoring excited droplet oscillation.
Welding Journal 77(9): 388-s to 395-s.
7. Zhang, Y. M., and Liguo, E. 1999.
Method and system for gas metal arc welding. U.S. Patent #6,008,470.
8. Xiao, J., Zhang, G. J., Zhang, Y. M., et
al. 2013. Active droplet oscillation excited
by optimized waveform. Welding Journal
92(7): 205s to 217-s.
9. Choi, J. H., Lee, J., and Yoo, C. D.
2001. Dynamic force balance model for
metal transfer analysis in arc welding.
Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 34:
26582664.
10. Jones, L. A., Eagar, T. W., and Lang,
J. H. 1998. A dynamic model of drops detaching from a gas metal arc welding electrode. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
31: 107123.
11. Wu, C. S., Chen, M. A., and Li, S. K.
2004. Analysis of excited droplet
oscillation and detachment in active control of metal transfer. Computational Materials Science 31(1-2): 147154.
12. Chen, M. A., Wu, C. S., Li, S. K., and
Zhang, Y. M. 2007. Analysis of active control of metal transfer in modified pulsed
GMAW. Science and Technology of Welding
and Joining 12(1): 014.
13. Lesnewich, A. 1958. Control of
melting rate and metal transfer in gas
shielded metal arc welding, Part 1: Control
of electrode melting rate. Welding Journal
37(9): 343-s to 353-s.
14. Amson, J. C. 1965. Lorentz force in
the molten tip of an arc electrode. British
Journal of Applied Physics, 16: 11691179.
15. Kim , Y. S., and Eagar, T. W., 1993.
Analysis of metal transfer in gas metal arc
welding. Welding Journal 72(6): 269-s to
277-s.
16. Huang, Y., Shao, Y., and Zhang, Y.
M. 2012. Nonlinear modeling of dynamic
metal transfer in laser-enhanced GMAW.
Welding Journal 91(5): 140-s to 148-s.
17. Choi, S., Kim, Y. S., and Yoo, C. D.
1999. Dimensional analysis of metal transfer in GMA welding. Journal of Physics D:
Applied Physics 32: 326334.
18. Naidu, D. S., Moore, K. L., Yender,
R., and Tyler, J. 1997. Gas metal arc welding control: Part 1 Modeling and analysis. Nonlinear Analysis, Methods and Applications 30(5): 3101 3111.
WELDING RESEARCH
ABSTRACT
Because of their excellent corrosion resistance, zinccoated steels have been
widely used in the automotive industry. However, the generation of highly pressur
ized zinc vapor during the laser beam welding process presents unique challenges
for body manufacturing. In this study, a semicuttingassisted laser welding process
was developed to weld zinccoated steels in a zero root opening, lapjoint configu
ration using a specially designed nozzle for delivery of the shielding gas. Effects of
welding speed on the weld quality were investigated, resulting in highquality welds
being achieved at a relatively high welding speed of 4.8 m/min. The success in
achieving highquality, zinccoated steel welds by semicutting laser welding is
attributed to an improved drag force. This, in turn, is a result of the increased
shielding gas flow rate, which enlarges and stabilizes the keyhole, enabling the zinc
vapor to escape from the faying interface of the two metal sheets. Tensile shear and
microhardness tests were conducted to evaluate mechanical properties of the
welds. Optical microscopy was also used to examine the microstructure of the
welds. It was demonstrated the weld strength was comparable to the base metal.
KEYWORDS
Zinc-Coated Steels Lap-Joint Configuration with Zero Root Opening
High-Speed Welding Shielding Gas Flow Rate Weld Discrepancies
Keyhole
Introduction
Zinc-coated steels provide excellent
corrosion resistance for automotive
body structural and closure
components. In addition, zinc-coated
steels also enhance the production
stamping performance. These features
genuinely drive increased usage of
zinc-coated steels in the automotive
industry. However, one of the most
significant challenges for implementing zinc-coated steels is to weld the
zinc-coated steels, especially in a lapjoint configuration, without producing
S. YANG (david.s.yang@gm.com) is a senior researcher, W. TAO is an associate researcher, and J. WANG is a lab group manager with China Science Lab, General
Motors Global Research & Development Center, China. Z. CHEN is a master student and C. WANG is a professor with Huazhong University of Science and Tech
nology, China. B. e. Carlson is lab group manager with General Motors research & Development Center, Warren, Mich.
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 1 Chemical Composition of LowCarbon Steel (wt%)
Steel
C
0.006
Mn
0.2
P
0.025
Si
_
S
0.02
Al
0.015
Cr
_
Ca
Ti
_ 0.03/0.08
this method is the relatively low welding speed, which limits its application.
8. Laser welding assisted by vacuum
(Ref. 22).
This relatively new process uses a
suction device to create a negative pressure zone (relative to ambient) directly
above the molten pool. The purpose of
this negative pressure zone is twofold.
Firstly, a drag force is generated due to
the external suction device, which can
counterbalance the shear force induced
by the erupting zinc vapor. Secondly,
the negative pressure zone facilitates
the zinc vapor to escape along the suction direction. As a result, the molten
pool becomes more stable and the keyhole will remain open and allow the escape of zinc vapor. Defect-free, zinccoated welds were achieved using this
method, but it requires ancillary
vacuum equipment to be introduced
into the production cell.
Although the methods mentioned
above achieve technically acceptable
weld quality, there are constraints associated with each of these methods,
which inhibits the full implementation
in production. Furthermore, laser welding speeds of more than 3 m/min are
needed in order to meet typical productivity requirements. Currently, there is
limited published literature in the area
of laser welding of zinc-coated steels at
speeds greater than 3 m/min.
In this study, a semi-cutting-assisted
laser welding process was developed
(Patent Reference Number: GMC-338A-CN) to weld zinc-coated steels in a
zero root opening, lap-joint configuration. Here, the semi-cutting-assisted
laser welding is referred to as a defined
laser welding process where a gas jet
with relatively higher gas flow velocity
than that in the conventional laser
welding process is used to increase the
fluid flow transfer rate in the molten
pool. Instead of using a conventional
shielding gas with a relatively large
diameter equal to or larger than 6 mm,
a smaller shielding gas nozzle of 2 mm
diameter was used. To better
understand the effect of welding speed
on the weld quality, experiments were
carried out at welding speeds of 3, 4.2,
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 2 Typical characteristics of the welds obtained by a conventional laser welding process. A Top view; B bottom view; C
crosssectional view of porosity; D porosity produced inside the weld.
Experimental Procedures
Materials
Zinc-coated, low-carbon steel was
chosen for this research. The specimen
dimensions of the workpiece were 120
85 0.8 mm. The zinc coating was
hot-dip galvanized at a level of 60
g/m2 per side. Prior to welding, the
surfaces of the steel plates were
cleaned with alcohol in order to
remove any dirt on the surface of the
workpiece that may interfere with
clamping of the workpieces.
Table 1 lists the chemical composition of the low-carbon steel used in
this study.
Laser Welding Procedure
The laser beam welding
experiments were conducted using an
IPG YLS-4000 fiber laser (wavelength:
1070 nm; focal length: 250 mm; focal
spot diameter: 0.3 mm). Pure argon
was used as the side shielding gas. The
two steel plates were tightly clamped
together prior to laser welding, and it
flow rate
v=
0.75m 3 / h
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A
gv
2
(1)
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A
(2)
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A
B
C
Fig. 5 Comparison of weld quality at different welding speeds (top views of the ob
tained welds). A 3.0 m/min; B 4.8 m/min; C 5.4 m/min.
Microhardness Test
The microhardness was analyzed
along a profile from base metal through
the weld back to base metal at
increments of 0.1 mm and at a depth of
0.3 and 1.3 mm below the top surface of
the weld. Figure 6A, B are graphical representations of typical microhardness
distributions through the welds
produced at welding speeds of 3 and 4.8
m/min, respectively. As can be seen in
Fig. 6A, B, the base metal had a
hardenss of approximately 100 HV and
a maximum hardness of approximately
180 HV, which is located in the weld and
is explained by the formation of
martensite within the weld caused by
the melting and rapid cooling after laser
welding. No softening was found in the
HAZ, and no effect of increasing weld
speed was observed on the peak
hardness value.
For low-carbon steels used in this
study, there exist different types of ferrite in base metal, HAZ, and the weld
zone, which have various morphologies.
The variation in the ferrites morphology results in different hardnesses at
different zones. Base metal mainly contains the equiaxed ferrite. However,
weld zones and HAZ mainly contain
polygonal ferrite and the elongated
columnar ferrite, respectively.
Compared to equiaxed ferrite, there exists higher dislocation density and a
large amount of subboundaries within
the polygonal ferrite, thus exhibiting
pressure level and temperature, the resulting drag force exerted on the molten
pool and the keyhole stability is significantly enhanced by increasing the flow
rate of the shielding gas used.
2. When the keyhole is enlarged
and stabilized due to the increased
drag force, the release of zinc vapor is
improved. This improvement led to
defect-free welds being achieved in a
zero root opening, lap-joint configuration by use of the semi-cuttingassisted laser welding process at a
welding speed of up to 4.8 m/min and
a shielding gas nozzle cross section of
2 mm diameter.
3. The welding speed plays a significant role on the weldability of zinccoated steels. The higher the welding
speed, the more the instability of the
welding process. It is demonstrated
that the laser-induced plasma and
plume direction changes significantly
with the increased welding speed. The
depth of penetration decreased with
an increase in travel speed.
WELDING RESEARCH
A
WELDING RESEARCH
Characterization of CSCGMAW
TitaniumRich Weld Overlays
Several FeXTi weld overlay systems were deposited and their microstructure,
composition, and microhardness were characterized
BY J. E. RAMIREZ
ABSTRACT
Different Fe-X-Ti weld overlays were deposited using the controlled
short-circuit gas metal arc welding (CSC-GMAW) process alone or in combination with the pulsed gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW-P) process. The
overlays were characterized before and after postweld heat treatment
(PWHT) using optical and scanning electron microscopy, electron probe microanalysis, and microhardness testing. Commercially pure nickel (CPNi),
nickel-copper alloy (NiCu), nickel-chromium alloy (NiCr), vanadium, and
CPCu were selected as interlayers for the Fe-X-Ti overlays. The Fe-Ni-Ti, FeNiCu-Ti, and Fe-NiCr-Ti systems welded with the CSC-GMAW process
showed a high degree of intermixing resulting in wide X-Ti interfaces, the
presence of second phases at the X-Ti interface and in the first Ti layer, and
the formation of Widmansttten-a microstructure in the first two Ti layers.
Composition profiles indicate three Ti layers are required to achieve a CPTi
composition in the overlay surface. The maximum hardness in the Fe-Ni-Ti,
Fe-NiCu-Ti, and Fe-NiCr-Ti overlays were 607, 568, and 554 HV0.5,
respectively. On the other hand, the Fe-V-Ti and Fe-Cu-Ti overlays presented
a lower degree of intermixing resulting in narrow X-Ti interfaces, presence
of second phases only at the interface, and Ti weld deposits with microstructures similar to commercially pure a-Ti. Depending on the welding process,
one to three Ti layers are needed in the Fe-Cu-Ti overlay for Ti-clad steel applications. The maximum hardness in this overlay ranged from 300 to 350
HV0.5. and dropped to around 200 HV0.5 after PWHT. The primary second
phases identified in the Ti-rich weld overlays included Ni3Ti, NiTi, NiTi2,
CuNiTi, CuTi2, Cr2Ti, CuTi2, Cu3Ti, and b-Ti.
KEYWORDS
Ti-Clad Steels Surfacing Cladding Welding Metallurgy Overlays
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Introduction
Titanium (Ti) clad steels are widely
J. E. RAMIREZ (jose.ramirez@dnvgl.com) was a principal engineer with EWI, Columbus, Ohio, at the time this work was completed. Currently, he is a principal
engineer at DNV.GL, Columbus, Ohio.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 Schematic plot of current, voltage, and WFS waveform of a typical CSCGMAW
weld over 0.5 s.
Experimental Procedures
Selection of Interlayer Materials: An extensive literature search was
conducted to identify the different
technical approaches that have been
evaluated to date to avoid or control
the embrittlement normally found in
steel-to-Ti joints. The metallurgical
characteristics of different potential
interlayer materials as they relate to
the compatibility with the Ti-Fe
system were reviewed. Five interlayer
materials were selected for use in the
Fe-X-Ti weld overlays.
Efforts involving combinations of
joining processes and interlayer mate-
rials between the Ti and steel to control or completely avoid the intermixing of steel and Ti have resulted in limited success. These efforts include resistance welding with vanadium (V),
molybdenum (Mo), aluminum (Al), or
silver (Ag) interlayers (Ref. 10); arc
welding after the steel has been metallized or plasma sprayed with a layer of
Mo, tungsten (W), tantalum (Ta), or
refractory carbides (Refs. 1113); diffusion bonding with a Ni interlayer or
controlling the carbon level in the
steel plate (Refs. 14, 15); friction welding with and without a frictionweldable interlayer (Refs. 16, 17); instantaneous liquid phase bonding
(Ref. 18); and electron beam welding
using Ag insert metal (Ref. 19). Additionally, data on dissimilar-metal
joints involving a combination of Ti,
steel, and other alloys and their associated mechanical properties are
limited. Finally, despite previous
efforts, there is not a clear
understanding of the relative embrittlement effect of carbides and the different intermetallic compounds that
may form when Ti is joined to Fe, Ni,
or Cu.
Data available on theory of
alloying, binary and ternary phase diagrams, and the quasi-equilibrium behavior of these alloy systems during
solid-state bonding or roll bonding do
not include the effect of
nonequilibrium conditions induced
WELDING RESEARCH
A
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 3 General microstructure observed in the FeNiTi weld overlay system. A Macro, B Microstucture at the NiTi interface. C
Microstructure of the 2nd Ti layer, D Microstructure of the 3rd Ti layer.
tivity affects the energy available to locally melt the base metal. Reducing the
amount of melting of the base metal
reduces the amount of dilution of the
deposited weld metal. Cu has a
thermal conductivity that is about
eight times higher than steel and a
high preheat is normally required to
melt it into the weld joint. Therefore,
the use of a Cu interlayer may result in
an undiluted Ti weld deposit, which is
necessary to maintain the corrosion
resistance required for the different
applications of Ti-clad steels.
Additionally, the high ductility of
copper may accommodate the large
strain induced in the weld overlays
during cooling. Therefore,
commercially pure (CP) Cu was also selected as a potential interlayer for the
weld overlays.
In summary, based on a comprehensive literature review, potential
interlayer materials for the Ti-rich overlays were identified based on their metallurgical characteristics and compatibility with the Ti-Fe system. The selected
interlayer materials included:
Vanadium (V): This interlayer material was selected since it is
potentially compatible with, and has
a higher melting temperature than,
both Ti and Fe.
Copper (Cu): This interlayer material
was selected because it has a lower
melting temperature and a higher
thermal conductivity than both Ti
and steel. Therefore, it is expected to
minimize the amount of dilution and
interaction between them.
Nickel (Ni) based interlayers: These
interlayer materials were selected to
try to control the type of phases
formed at the interface and the
resulting degree of embrittlement of
the joint.
WELDING RESEARCH
A
C
Fig. 4 General microstructure observed in the FeVTi weld
overlay system. A Macro, B Microsturcture at the VFe inter
face, C Microstructure at the TiV interface.
promote consistent
droplet transfer at
low currents (Refs.
2529).
Welding
parameters of the
CSC-GMAW process
include up-wire feed
speed (Up WFS)
Table 1 Welding Conditions for Deposition of Different Layers of Materials in the Weld Overlays Using the CSCGMAW Process
Arc Current Sequence
Weld Layer
Shielding Gas
Ni on Steel
100% He
Ti on Ni
100% He
NiCu on Steel
100% He
Ti on NiCu
100% He
NiCr on Steel 50% Ar/50% He
Ti on NiCr
100% He
CPCu on Steel
100% He
CPCu on Steel
100% He
Ti on CpCu
100% He
Ti on Ti
100% He
Start
Current
(A)
Start
Current
Time (ms)
Pulse
Current
(A)
Pulse
Current
Time (ms)
End
Current
(A)
Start
Current
(A)
100
80
100
80
100
80
130
150
120
80
NA
5
NA
5
NA
5
NA
NA
5
5
100
60
100
60
100
60
130
150
100
60
NA
5
NA
5
NA
5
NA
NA
5
5
100
40
100
40
100
40
130
150
80
40
50
40
50
40
50
40
50
50
40
40
15
10
15
10
15
10
15
10
10
10
Start
Pulse
Current Current
Time (ms)
(A)
NA
2.5
NA
2.5
NA
2.5
NA
NA
2.5
2.5
Pulse
Current
Time (ms)
End
Current
(A)
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
50
60
50
60
50
60
50
50
60
60
50
60
50
60
50
60
50
50
60
60
Weaving Parameters
Initial
Oscillation Speed Dwell Time Oscillation
Arc Length
(in./min)
(s)
Amplitude
(mm)
(in.)
0.0
1.0
0.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.5
17.4
28.4
22.3
28.4
17.4
28.4
34.5
46.8
28.4
28.4
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.78
0.90
0.80
0.93
0.83
0.88
0.70
0.65
0.83
0.93
Forward Travel
Speed
(in./min)
65.1
27.9
65.1
27.9
74.4
27.9
26.0
26.0
29.7
27.9
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 5 General microstructure observed in the FeCuTi overlay system: A Macro; B Microstructure at the CuTi interface, C Mi
crostructure of the 1st Ti layer, D Microstructure of the 3rd Ti layer.
Table 2 General Characteristics of the Welding Consumables Used to Deposit the TiRich Weld
Overlays
Weld Overlay
System(a)
1. NiTi
2. NiCuTi
3. NiCrTi
4. VTi
5. CuTi
6. Ti
Interlayer
Material
Filler Metal
Designation
Welding
Process
Nickel
Nickelcopper
Nickelchromium
Vanadium
Copper
Titanium fill passes
ERNi1
ERNiCu7
ERNiCr4
ERCu
ERTi1
0.062
0.062
0.062
0.062/0.045
0.062
0.062/0.035
CSCGMAW
CSCGMAW
CSCGMAW
PGTAW
CSCGMAW
CSCGMAW PGTAW
(a) The designation of the weld overlay system indicates the sequence of deposition of the interlayer material and Ti
in the joint.
WELDING RESEARCH
A
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 7 Backscattered electron images showing fraction and distribution of phases (light regions are NiCrrich phases and dark regions
are Tirich phases) observed in the NiCrTi interface (A) and in the first, second, and third Ti layers (BD) of the weld overlay.
WELDING RESEARCH
FeVTi
FeCuTi
FeCuTi
(CSCGMAW +
GTAWP Processes)
Degree of Intermixing
InterlayerTi Interface
1st Ti Layer
Low
Continuous
Narrow (<250 m)
Presence of 2nd
phases (FeCuTi system)
Ti alloy
microstructure
Ti alloy
microstructure
Acicular ( + ) Ti
alloy microstructure
Ti alloy microstructure
NA
Characteristics
2nd Ti Layer
3rd Ti Layer
High
Continuous
Wide
Presence of 2nd
phases
Presence of 2nd
phases
Acicular ( + ) Ti
alloy microstructure
Second phases
(FeNiCrTi system)
Acicular ( + ) Ti
alloy microstructure
Second phases
(FeNiCrTi system)
Ti alloy microstructure
High
Continuous
Wide (1.0mm)
Presence of 2nd
phases
Acicular ( + ) Ti
alloy microstructure
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 4 Chemical Composition and Designation of Potential Phases Observed in TiRich Weld Over
lays
Phase
Ni
1
2
3
4
5
72.8 (68.6)
59.2 (54.0)
34.7 (30.2)
27.0 (23.0)
10.7 (8.9)
1
2
3
4
5
42.7 (38.7)
33.2 (28.5)
26.5 (23.1)
9.5 (7.7)
7.4 (6.2)
23.3 (19.6)
14.1 (11.2)
7.1 (5.7)
4.2 (3.2)
7.2 (5.6)
1
2
3
4
26.5 (22.8)
9.1 (7.6)
25.7 (22.2)
9.5 (8.0)
1
2
3
4
74.4 (68.6)
65.8 (55.8)
37.1 (30.8)
17.3 (13.7)
Ti
Designation of
Main Phases
27.1 (31.4)
39.7 (44.3)
64.4 (68.9)
72.7 (76.3)
89.1 (90.7)
Ni3Ti
NiTi
NiTi2
NiTi2
Ti
30.6 (34.0)
47.7 (50.3)
64.6 (69.1)
86.0 (88.4)
84.5 (87.0)
CuNiTi / Ni3Ti
NiTi
NiTi2 + CuTi2
Ti
Ti
69.3 (73.1)
81.3 (83.4)
64.2 (68.0)
75.0 (77.3)
NiTi2
NiTi2 + Cr2Ti
NiTi2
NiTi2 + Cr2Ti
25.6 (31.4)
30.2 (34.0)
62.9 (69.2)
81.9 (86.0)
CuTi2
Cu3Ti
CuTi2
Ti
GMAW process.
Table 3 presents a summary of the
general microstructural characteristics
observed in the different weld overlays
by using light microscopy.
Electron Microscopy Evaluation:
Figure 7 presents, as an example,
backscattered electron images
illustrating the change in area fraction
and distribution of different phases
present in the NiCr-Ti overlay. As expected, the area fraction or quantity of
phases rich in interlayer alloying
elements (light phases) decreases from
WELDING RESEARCH
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 5 Dilution of Major Alloying Elements in Different Layers of the TRich Weld Overlays
(Based on EPMA Analysis)
Overlay System
Alloying
Elements
Interlayer
FeNiTi
Fe
Ni
Ti
1.6 0.8
matrix
3.1 3.6
0.0
19.1 10.5
matrix
0.0
1.3 0.0
matrix
0.0
0.0
matrix
FeNiCuTi
Fe
Ni
Cu
Ti
6.5 0.8
matrix
matrix
1.9 2.5
0.35 0.33
16.3 13.7
7.5 6.2
matrix
0.0
0.4 3.4
1.5 0.0
matrix
0.0
0.0
0.0
matrix
FeNiCrTi
Fe
Ni
Cr
Ti
16.0 0.0
matrix
matrix
0.4 0.8
0.0
13.7 8.1
13.1 8.1
matrix
0.0
2.4 0.0
2.4 0.0
matrix
0.0
0.0
0.0
matrix
FeCuTi
(CSCGMAW +
GTAWP)
Fe
Cu
Ti
1.3 0.0
matrix
0.0
0.0
13.4 2.3
matrix
0.0
1.1 0.9
matrix
NA
NA
NA
FeCuTi
(CSCGMAW)
Fe
Cu
Ti
2.4 0.0
matrix
0.0
0.0
1.3 0.9
matrix
0.0
0.0
matrix
0.0
0.0
matrix
Conclusions
Based on their metallurgical characteristics, compatibility with the FeTi system, and their availability as
commercial welding wires, the
3rd Ti Layer
WELDING RESEARCH
to the new clads on the future. Stainless
Steel World, pp. 149154.
3. Banker, J. G. 1993. Bonded
titanium/steel components. U.S. Patent
5,190,831 (March).
4. Murayama, J., and Komizo, Y. 1991.
Titanium-clad steel and a method for the
manufacture thereof. European Patent 0
238 854 B1 (Feb.).
5. Hardwick, R. 1993. Method for producing clad metal plate. European Patent 0
535 817 A2 (April).
6. Suenaga, H., Ishikawa, M., and
Ninakawa, K. 1993. Method for manufacturing titanium clad steel plate. European
Patent 0 406 688 B1 (March).
7. Kawanami, T., Shirasuna, S.,
Shirogane, S., and Segawa, A. 1992. An investigation of the characteristic of bonding
strength in titanium clad steel. Titanium
92 Science and Technology, Vol. II, Proceedings of a Symposium sponsored by the
Titanium Committee on Minerals, Metals &
Materials, Structural Metals Division. Held
at Seventh World Titanium Conference,
San Diego, Calif., edited by F. H. Froes and
I. L. Caplan, pp. 16091617 (June-July).
8. Pinkovskii, I. V., et al. 1988. Special
features of resistance welding VT1-0 titanium to low carbon steel. Welding International No. 3, pp. 241, 242.
9. Ramirez, J. E. 2012. Development of
joining technology for titanium-clad steel
plates. Internal communication at EWI.
10. Mitchell, D. R., and Kessler, H. D.
1961. Welding of titanium to steel. Welding
Journal 40(12): 546-s to 552-s.
11. Feige, N. G. 1979. Method of joining titanium clad steel plates. U.S. Patent
4,142,664 (March).
12. Konyukhov, A. V., Sannikov, V. I.,
Ivanov, B. V., Semenov, V. G.,
Martemyanova, Z. S., and Rossokhin, B.
G. 1982. Welding titanium-clad steel. Avt.
Svarka, No. 11, pp. 4346.
13. Semenov, B. G., et al. 1983. Examination of the possibilities of using plasma
sprayed refractory carbides as the dividing
layer in welding titanium-steel bimetal.
Translation No. VR/2905/85, Theoretical
Examination Application of Wear
Resistant Plasma Coatings in Practice.
Sverdlovsk, pp. 2731.
14. Enjyo, T., Ikeuchi, K., Iida, T., Kanai,
M., and Arata, Y. 1976. Diffusion welding
of Ti-15%Mo-5%Zr alloy to mild steel
(0.06%C). Transactions of JWRI 5(1):
6775.
15. Momono, T., Enjo, T., and Ikeuchi,
K. 1990. Effects of carbon content on the
diffusion bonding of iron and steel to titanium. ISIJ International 30(11): 978984.
16. Hasui, A., and Kira, Y. 1985.
Friction welding of titanium and carbon
steel. Transactions of the Japan Welding Society 16(1): 6469.
17. Branko, B. 1992. Composite weldable stud and method for using same. European Patent 0 478 166 A2 (April).
18. Zhang, Y. C., Nakagawa, H., and Matsuda, F. 1987. Proposal of new bonding technique instantaneous liquid phase (ILP)
bonding. Transactions of JWRI 16(1): 1729.
19. Arata, Y., Matsuda, F., and Harada,
www.aws.org/wj/JOM-18-CallForPapers.pdf
Review the brochure for conference topics. E-mail a title and short abstract of your paper before Nov. 2, 2014.
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WELDING RESEARCH
ABSTRACT
K. D. LEE (kdlee@iae.re.kr) is director, Institute for Advanced Engineering, Younginsi, Gyeonggido, Republic of Korea. K. I. HO (kiho@suwon.ac.kr) is professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Suwon University, Hwaseongsi, Gyeonggido, Republic of Korea. K. Y. PARK (young@iae.re.kr) is senior researcher, In
stitute for Advanced Engineering, Younginsi, Gyeonggido, Republic of Korea.
WELDING RESEARCH
2gt1
0.0
0.1
0.2
t2t1
1.0
1.1
E1(A,B,C)
E5(A,B,C)
E9(A,B,C)
E2(A,B,C)
E6(A,B,C)
E10(A,B,C)
1.2
1.3
E3(A,B,C)
E7(A,B,C)
E11(A,B,C)
E4(A,B,C)
E8(A,B,C)
E12(A,B,C)
Joint
Thickness
(mm)
Cycles (x106)
butt
lap
3.0/3.0
3.0/3.0
5.0
5.0
38.4
9.0
4.3
butt
lap
1.5/1.5
1.5/1.5
5.0
5.0
43.1
9.0
4.8
(Ref. 11) had observed that the local stress effect at the weld
bead of a laser-welded lap joint cannot be neglected, even if
the flexural deformation from the gripping misalignment is
negligible. Both the geometric eccentricity at the lap joint and
the thickness ratio influence the local stress distribution
within or around the weld bead during the tensile-shear
fatigue loading. Numerical calculations were performed to obtain the detailed stress distribution within a weld bead by solving the two-dimensional problem using crosswise Fourier series for the stress functions. The boundary conditions of the
weld bead were derived by assuming a linear deformation
caused by a rotation of the lap-jointed weld bead in the form
of an explicit nondimensional equation. The distribution of
the ratios of the local stresses relative to the remote uniform
tensile stress [local stress factor (LSF)] in the weld bead was
obtained for 12 cases, where two parameters, the thickness
ratio and the root opening ratio, were varied (four thickness
ratios and three root opening ratios). The local maximum candidates of the LSF at three locations were compared to select
the maximum value of the LSF for each case; at these
locations, a failure was most likely to occur during the fatigue
testing (i.e., candidates for hot spots).
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Theoretical Analysis
Boundary Conditions
Because the high-cycle fatigue was to be considered, all
local stresses were calculated assuming elastic deformation.
Geometrical defects, including notches and thermal residual stresses, were not considered in this study. It was
assumed that the mechanical and metallurgical properties
of the base materials and the weld bead were within the
same tolerance. Superposition of the stresses was applicable within the weld bead.
The tensile-shear specimen was loaded in a two-step
process: gripping and tensile-shear loading. When a
specimen with a lap joint is gripped during a fatigue test, a
flexural deformation generally occurs due to the geometrical
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 5 The LSFs at three locations: A Sx; B Sy; C Sxy; D Sx, Sy, Sxy at A and C for the root opening ratio 0.2.
Vg 1 = Vg 2 = V
M g 1 + Fe1 = M 1 Vl
M g 2 + Fe2 = M2 Vl
(t + t )
M g 1 + M g 2 = F 1 2 e1 e2
2
(1)
(2)
Vl
M
Vl
M
+ 2
+ 1 =0
3EI 2 EI 2 3EI 1 EI 1
(3)
+ 2 =
+ 1
(4)
2EI 2 EI 2
2EI 1 EI 1
By solving the three equations, M1, M2, and V can be expressed by F and the geometric parameters.
1
g
t
1+ 2 + 2
2
t1
t1
t1 F
V=
5 1 I2 I1
w l
+ +2
l
6 12 I 1 I 2
1
t 2 g 5 1 I1
t1 1 + 2 +
2
t1 t1 12 12 I 2
M1 =
F
5 1 I2 I1
w
6 12 I + I + 2 l
1
2
1
t2 2 g 5 1 I 2
t1 1 + +
t1 t1 12 12 I 1
2
M2 =
F
5 1 I2 I1
w
6 12 I + I + 2 l
1
2
(5)
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 6 The LSF equivalents for the plane strain and plane stress conditions. A Seq,1; B Seq,2; C Seq,1 and Seq,2 at three locations
for a root opening ratio of 0.2; D Seq,2.
M1
( y + ( g + 0.5t1 )) + F
I1
12.5 t1
x2 =
M2
( y ( g + 0.5t2 )) + F
I2
12.5 t2
xy 1 =
(12.5 t1 )
xy 2 =
(12.5 t2 )
4
x 4
x =
(6)
2
y
+2
4
x 2 y2
y =
2
x
4
y4
=0
xy =
2
x y
(7)
(8)
WELDING RESEARCH
Sy = y /
)(
)(
S xy = xy /
2
Seq,1 = 1 + 2 S x2 + S 2y 1 + 2 2 2 S x S y + 3S xy
2
Seq,2 = 0.5 S x S y + S x2 + S 2y + 3S xy
(9)
0.5
WELDING RESEARCH
can be applied to the center sections of the weld bead
sections. For the plane strain condition in the center
section, Seq,1 had a local maximum at C, which was between
3.2 and 4.2; another local maximum occurred at A or B,
which was between 1.7 and 2.4.
Figure 6B shows Seq,2 for the various thicknesses and
root opening ratios from Table 1. The plane stress condition
can be applied to the edge side sections of the weld bead sections. For the plane stress condition in the edge-side
section, Seq,2 at A and C increased as the thickness ratio increased, but the value at A was always larger than at C. However, Seq,2 at B decreased as the thickness ratio increased.
For example, A0.2 increased from 4.0 to 5.6, C0.2 increased
from 3.7 to 4.3, and B0.2 decreased from 4.0 to 3.2.
Figure 6C gives Seq,1 and Seq,2 when the root opening
ratio was 0.2. Both A0.2Seq,2 and B0.2Seq,2 were much larger
than A0.2Seq,1 and B0.2Seq,1; however, C0.2Seq,1 and
C0.2Seq,2 were essentially equal and close to A0.2Seq,2, which
was the largest value. When the thickness ratio was one, the
difference between A0.2Seq,2 and C0.2Seq,2 (or C0.2Seq,1) was
less than 0.3. Therefore, fatigue failure would initiate at A in
the edge-side sections if it was assumed that no defect was
present in the weld bead. However, when the thickness ratio
is near one, the probability of fatigue failure in the shear
mode at C in all the sections should be checked.
For the plane stress condition in the edge-side sections,
Fig. 6D gives Seq,2 for all the thicknesses and root opening
ratios. As the thickness ratio or root opening ratio
increased, Seq,2 increased. At A, Seq,2 increased more rapidly
than Seq,2 at C. When the root opening ratio was 0 or 0.1
and the thickness ratio was one, the difference between Seq,2
at A and Seq,2 at C was so small that fatigue failure would initiate at both A and C in the edge-side sections. When the
thickness ratio was larger than one, fatigue failure would
initiate only at A in the edge-side sections because A0Seq,2,
A0.1Seq,2, and A0.2Seq,2 were larger than C0Seq,2, C0.1Seq,2,
and C0.2Seq,2, respectively.
If there are no additional stress concentrations due to a
root notch around the weld bead or other defects inside the
weld bead, then the local stress factors and the locations
where fatigue failure might initiate can be predicted, which
can then be used in predicting the fatigue life.
SN
max LSFeq
(10)
SN ,butt
max LSFeq
(11)
1.62Su N -0.08509
max LSFeq
(12)
WELDING RESEARCH
= 0 at 25~35 Hz using a 30-mm-wide specimen with TR =
3.0/3.0 and GR = 0.2 (Ref. 12). Although the welds of GDAlSi10Mg-T6 seem to have many defects or degradation, the
LSF result between FRs of a lap joint and a butt joint is
about 4.2~4.4, which exhibited a good correlation with
LSF4.1 at A0.2 of TR = 1 and the plane stress condition in
Fig. 6D.
In Eibl (Ref. 12), the fatigue strength results of the butt
and lap joints with complete penetration of two aluminum
sheets were obtained. Comparisons between the fatigue
strength of a laser-welded butt joint in Appendix A and a
laser-welded lap joint in Appendix B are shown in Table 2.
Calculated LSF results (LSF4.3 and LSF4.8) exhibited a good
correlation with LSF4.1 (at A0 of TR = 1 in Fig. 6B) of the
same thicknesses if a small root opening is assumed.
In Zhang et al. (Ref. 13), the discrepancy of the
experimental fatigue data between the different thickness
combinations and the same thickness combinations could be
explained by introducing the LSF before the fictitious root
notch radius because the notch effect was added by
introducing the mixed parameter, Pa, as the combined stress
intensity factor. Afterward, the notch effect due to welding
defects could be superimposed on the LSF results.
References
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International Journal of Fatigue (31): 211.
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welded lap joints. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 39(3): 575580.
3. Zhang, S. 2002. Stresses in laser-beam-welded lap joints determined by outer surface strains. Welding Journal 81(1): 14-s to
18-s.
4. Hobbacher, A. 1996. Fatigue design of welded joints and
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Appendix
List of Symbols
t1, t2: thickness of the thin and thick sheets, respectively
g: half of the root opening size
w: half of the width of the weld bead
l: distance between the end grip and the weld bead
F: applied remote load
WELDING RESEARCH
V: transverse load at the weld bead
M1, M2: moment at the weld bead
: rotation angle of the weld bead
I1, I2: moment of inertia at the cross section of the two
sheets,t1 and t2, respectively
x1, x1: local stresses in sections 1 and 2
: stress function
x, y, xy: normal and shear stresses in the twodimensional x-y space
LSF: local stress factor defined by the ratio of the local normal (or shear) stress to the remote uniform tensile stress
() for a thin thickness
Sx=x : LSF for the normal stress in the x axis
Sy=y : LSF for the normal stress in the y axis
Sxy=xy : LSF for the shear stress in the x-y plane
Seq,1: LSF for the equivalent stress for the plane strain
condition
Seq,2: LSF for the equivalent stress for the plane stress
condition
SN,lap: Fatigue strength at the number of cycles N for a lap
joint
Su: Ultimate tensile strength
TR: thickness ratio defined by t2 (thick sheet) divided by t1
(thin sheet)
GR: root opening ratio defined by 2g (root opening size) divided by t1 (thin sheet thickness)
LO: location where fatigue failure may occur
m: Poissons ratio
x ( w,y ) = x 1
=0
(A3)
for t1 g y g
for g < y g + t2
x ( w,y ) = x 2 for g y g + t 2
=0
for g t1 y < g
xy ( w,y ) = 0
for g t1 y g + t2
xy ( w,y ) = 0
for g t1 y g + t2
y ( x , p ) = 0 , xy ( x , p ) = 0 for w x w
x ( x ,p ) = 0 , xy ( x ,p ) = 0
Equations
=
for w x w
(A4)
A0 2
B
x + C0 xy + 0 y 2
2
2
+ cos(m x ) g 1m ( y ) + sin(m x ) g 1m ( y )
(A1)
m= 1
A0 2
B
x + C0 xy + 0 y 2
2
2
sin( an y )
K K
2n 2 5n ( cosh( n c ) + an c sinh( n c )) 2R1n c cosh( n c )
n
A2n =
sinh( 2 n c ) 2 n c
K2n K5n
A3n =
sinh( 2 n c ) 2 n c
K2n + K5n
2R5n sinh( n c )
2n
A4n =
sinh( 2 n c ) + 2 n c
+ sin(m x )
where an =
K2n + K5n
( sinh( n c ) + n c cosh( n c ))
2R5n
2n
A1n =
sinh( 2 n c ) + 2 n c
n
m
, m =
, and n and m are integers
p
p
2p = p1 + p2 = ( t1 + g ) + ( t2 + g )
(A2)
WELDING RESEARCH
K3n + K6n
2R6n
( sinh( n c ) + n c cosh( n c ))
2n
B1n =
sinh( 2 n c ) + 2 n c
K K
3n 2 6n ( cosh( n c ) + an c sinh( n c )) 2R2n c cosh( n c )
n
B2n =
sinh( 2 n c ) 2 n c
K3n K 6n
a1
n cos( n ( p + t1 )) cos( n ( p ) )
1 b
K3n = 1 ( p + t1 ) cos( n ( p + t1 )) ( p ) cos( n ( p ) )
n
p
b
1
+
2 sin( n ( p + t1 )) sin( n ( p ) )
n
K3n + K 6n
2R6n n sinh( n c )
2
n
B4n =
sinh( 2 n c ) + 2 n c
C1m =
2R9m p cosh(m p )
C2m =
sinh( 2m p ) 2m p
C3m =
2R9m sinh(m p )
sinh( 2m p ) 2m p
C4m =
2R14m sinh(m p )
sinh( 2m p ) + 2m p
a1
n sin( n ( p + t1 )) sin( n ( p ) )
1 b
K2n = + 1 ( p + t1 ) sin( n ( p + t1 )) ( p ) sin( n ( p ) )
n
p
b
1
+
2 cos ( n ( p + t1 )) cos ( n ( p ) )
n
a2
n sin( n p )) sin( n ( p t2 ))
1 b
K5n = + 2 p sin( n p ) ( p t2 ) sin( n ( p t2 ))
n
p
b
2
+
2 cos ( n p ) cos ( n ( p ) t2 )
n
a2
n cos( n p ) cos( n ( p t2 ))
1 b
K6n = 2 p sin( n p ) ( p t2 ) cos( n ( p t2 ))
n
p
b
2
+
2 sin( n p ) sin( n ( p t2 ))
n
R1n
D1m =
D2m =
2R10m p cosh(m p )
sinh( 2m p ) 2m p
D3m =
2R10m sinh(m p )
sinh( 2m p ) 2m p
4R13m tanh(m p )
2 2 1 + 2m p / sinh(m p )
m= 1 p 2
m + n
( 1)m+n m4
I
= f1n
(c )
R2n
m= 1
2
2m + 2n
I
= f2n
(c )
R5n
2R13m sinh(m p )
D4m =
sinh( 2m p ) + 2m p
4R13m tanh(m p )
2 2 1 + 2m p / sinh(m p )
m= 1 p 2
m + n
( 1)m+n m4
K
= f1 ( c ) + 25
n
R6n
( 1)m+n m
m= 1 p
2
2m + 2n
K
= f 2 ( c ) + 26
n
4R10m tanh(m p )
1 2m p / sinh(m p )
( 1)m+n 2m n
4R13m tanh(m p )
1 2m p / sinh(m p )
WELDING RESEARCH
R9m
Publish Your
Research in the
2 K 3n + K 6n
tanh( n c )
4 R6n n
2
=
1 + 2 n c / sinh( n c )
2 2
n= 1 c 2
m + n
( 1)m+n 2n
WELDING
Journal
= g I1m ( p )
K + K 5n
4 R 2 2n
tanh( n c )
1)
n 5n n
(
2
R14m
=
1 + 2 n c / sinh( n c )
2 2
n= 1 c 2
m + n
= g 1m ( p )
m+ n
R10m
= mC
n= 1
(2m + 2n )
No page charges
m+ n
( 1)
n
2
2 2
n= 1 m c m + n
R13m
( 1)m+n 2n
c
1
ctanh( n c ))
K3n K 6n tanh( n c ) n
2
2
2 + 2 + 2m
n m
+22 R tanh( c )
m 2n
n
2
= g I ( p)
2m
1 2 n c / sinh( n c )
c
1
ctanh( n c ))
K2n K 5n tanh ( n c ) n
2
2
2 + 2 + 2m
n m
n
2
2 +2m R1n tanh( n c )
= g ( p)
2m
1 2 n c / sinh( n c )
(A5)
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Welding
elding Journal
SEPTEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 361-s
WELDING RESEARCH
ABSTRACT
Maraging steels are iron-nickel alloys having an unusual combination of high
mechanical strength and high toughness. In this work, the effects of laser welding and
postweld heat treatments have been analyzed. The fusion zone showed a cellular-dendritic morphology with a relatively low hardness (450 HV) compared to the heat-affected zones (HAZs) and base material (500 HV). The segregation in the fusion zone
increases the tendency of austenite phase formation during aging. The solutionized
and aged coupons presented the highest yield strength values (1890 MPa). Homogenization treatment showed to be effective on eliminating the as-cast dendritic
structure of the fusion zone, but decreased the yield strength to about 1350 MPa,
showing that this treatment should be used carefully. The welded specimens presented
tensile strength close to the unwelded specimens, demonstrating that the ytterbiumfiber laser welding of 18Ni-type maraging steels could be considered.
KEYWORDS
Laser Beam Welding Maraging Steels High-Strength Steels
Precipitation Hardening
Introduction
Maraging steels are a special class of
ultrahigh-strength steels that differ
from ordinary steels because they can
be hardened by a carbon-free metallurgical reaction (Ref. 1). The maraging
18Ni steel family was first developed in
the 1960s by the International Nickel
Co., containing the following main components: Ni (18.9%), Co (7%), Mo
(3.8%), and Fe (balance) (Ref. 2). This
alloy presented a body-centered-cubic
martensitic structure following the quasibinary Fe-Ni system that is very ductile in the annealed condition. Its
martensite has a high dislocation density with a good response to
precipitation hardening (Ref. 3). Upon
reheating at about 480C for 3 h, this
steel undergoes age hardening and produces high yield strength, although having just a small decrease in toughness.
Another important characteristic of this
steel is that martensite is formed from
the austenite even at very low cooling
rates, making it possible to treat large
parts (Ref. 2).
Maraging steels have a wide range
of applications, but they are
particularly suitable for nuclear and
aerospace areas due to their excellent
combination of high yield strength
and toughness (Ref. 4). These steels do
not experience significant dimensional
changes after aging, and their low carbon content also provides excellent dimensional stability during the austenite-martensite transformation.
Many studies (Refs. 510) had
L. FANTON (leofanton@gmail.com) is with the Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio de Mesquita Filho (UNESP), Brazil. A. J. ABDALLA
and M. S. FERNANDES de LIMA are with the Instituto de Estudos Avanados (DCTAIEAv), Brazil.
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 1 Chemical Composition of the 18Ni
Maraging Steel
Element
Content (%)
(Alloy A)
C
Ni
Mo
Co
Al
Ti
Cu
Ca
Zr
S
P
Si
Mn
Cr
0.008
19.12
4.94
9.66
0.089
0.77
0.076
0.002
0.008
0.07
0.011
0.043
Content (%)
(Alloy B)
0.01
17.85
4.96
9.32
0.14
0.8
0.04
<0.01
0.007
0.002
0.05
0.01
0.04
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 (preaged)
9 (preaged)
10 (preaged)
11 (preaged)
Experimental Procedures
The current alloy was developed by
the Centre of Aeronautics Technology in
So Jos dos Campos, Brazil. Sheets
with thicknesses of 2.5 and 10 mm were
used in this work, and their
compositions are shown in Table 1.
Both sheets have the same origin and
should present similar composition.
The differences in the compositions are
probably due to chemical analyses resolution and/or manufacture. No further
information about the fabrication
process was given by the manufacturer.
300
300
120
120
120
180
240
120
180
240
300
Beam Power
(W)
1400
1600
1600
1400
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
WELDING RESEARCH
A
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 6 Fusion zone images. A The aged condition; B solutionized and aged condition. Alloy B, Etching: sodium metabisulfite solution.
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 8 Hardness distribution across weldment of an aswelded (white dots) and aged sample (black dots). Welding parameters are as
follows: A 1800 W and 180 cm/min; B 1800 W and 30 cm/min.
erties when
compared to the unwelded specimens,
indicating that the
material has good
weldability. The low
hardness of the fusion zone did not
have a noticeable influence on the tensile strength. The
welded specimens
presented inferior
elongation
compared to the unwelded specimens,
Fig. 9 Hardness distribution across the weldment of a homog
except for group B,
enized, solubilized, and aged sample welded with 1800 W laser
where the average
power and 60 cm/min scanning speed. The fusion zone still pres
value was higher.
ents lower values of hardness compared to the HAZ and base
Nevertheless, it is
material even after homogenization treatment.
important to
consider that the inhomogenization (Group A) was able to
ferior hardness of the fusion zone
recover some strength, compared to
could cause deformation to be
specimens that were only
restricted to this small area.
homogenized (Group B), but at still
Homogenization treatment was
lower values when compared to specidetrimental to mechanical properties
mens that were only solutionized
in all cases. One of the reasons,
(Group C).
pointed out by literature, is the grain
The detrimental effects of homogesize growth after homogenization
nization observed in this work, even
treatment (Refs. 12, 18, 19) since the
after solutionizing treatment, might
Hall-Petch relationship applies (Ref.
have been intensified by the oxidation
20). Moreover, Rack (Ref. 20) showed
layer present on the specimens
that 18Ni maraging steels with a large
surface. Even after grinding, an
grain size may fail catastrophically due
oxidized layer of about 100 mm could
to the propagation of intergranular
still be observed by optical
cracks. According to Venkateswara
microscope. Figure 12 shows a
(Ref. 12), solutionizing heat treatment
traverse cut image of the fractured
(in the same temperature and time
surface of a homogenized specimen,
used in this work) was able to reduce
where the oxidized layer is
grain size after homogenization treathighlighted. It is possible to see some
ment and restore some mechanical
oxidation points where the fracture
properties. For the alloy used in this
may have been originated.
work, solutionizing treatment after
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 11 Traverse cut images of the fractured surface for specimens of groups A to D.
The arrows indicate the fractured region. Etching: modified Frys reagent.
Conclusions
The stress strength values of the
welded specimens were close to that
obtained for sheet specimens, demonstrating that the alloy studied in this
work was successfully welded by the
ytterbium-fiber laser source.
It was observed there were two different HAZs an austenitized zone
and an aged zone. The transformation
thar occurred in the HAZ did not have
a significant influence on the tensile
strength since the fracture occurred
preferentially in the fusion zone.
Among all heat treatment
conditions used in this work, the solutionized and aged specimens showed
Fig. 12 Traverse cut image of the fractured surface of a homogenized specimen. The
arrow indicates where the fracture began. It is possible to observe some points where
the oxidation was more intense. Etching: modified Frys reagent.
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 13 Images of the fracture surface of a homogenized and aged specimen. A Transition between the fragile oxidized layer and the base
metal; B a highlighted region where an intergranular crack occurred. The oxidized region shows a fragile rupture while the base metal
shows the expected ductile fracture mode with a presence of dimples.