JAPANESE AIRCRAFT OF THE PACIFIC WAR R. J. FRANCILLON Ph. Technical Iuserations by J.B. ROBERTS. Marie aca big pare inthe Paifie War. Japanese . ‘Type 0 Reconabisunce Seaplane Model TTAS ate seen et (US Nave ‘Benim PUTNAM & COMPANY% we Le Founpanior® 10 1970. J. Francitlon SBN 370 00053 1 Prinisd and bound in Great Britain for Putnam & Company Limited 9'Bow Suect, London, WC? by Rictaed Cley (The Chaucer Press), Lid, Bungay, Suffolk ‘Set in Monotype Times First published 1970 CONTENTS Preface Japanese Aircraft Industry —A Brief History Japanese Army Air Force Brief History Japanese Navy Air Force ~A Brief History Japanese Aircraft Designation Systems Japanese Aircraft Camouflage and Markings Imperial Japanese Army Aireraft Kawasaki K-10 Ki32 Kied5 Toryu (Dragos Killer) Kis Kiso. Kio Kis61 Hien (Swallow) Kis Ki-66 Ki-78 : Ki-96 r Ki-100 Ki-102 Ki-108, : Kio ws Kayaba Ka-l and K-2 Kokusai Ki-s9 Ki-76 Mitsubishi 2» 37 46 86 90 93 102 108 110 12 11 123 125 7 129 134 138 141 3 las 147 149 135 64 168Kicst Kis? Ki-67 Hiryu (Flying Dragon) Kiss Ki-109 Nakajima Ki? Ki-sd Ki-43 Hayabusa (Peregrine Falzon) Ki-44 Shoki (Demon) Ki-49 Donryu (Storm Dragon) Kit Hasate (Gale) Kis, Ki-1T5 Toarugi Sabre) Rikugun Kiss Tachikawa Imperial Japanese Navy Aircraft Aichi DIA D3A ELBA HWA IGA Zaiun (Auspicious Clow’) BIA Ryuse Shooting Sar) MGA Seiran (Mountain Haze) SIA Dento (Bolt of Light) Kawanishi EK Hk, HSK, EISK Shive (Violet Cloud) NIK Kyofu (Mighty Wind) NIK 1 Shiden (Violet Lightning) and NIK2 Shiden Ket 18, ie 186 92 94 196 204 206 2s 23 20 238 Pa 246 250 254 21 239 262 265 268 a a7 28 24 Des 21 Ds 27 301 307 314 317 320 Kyushu KILW Shiragiku (White Chrysanthemum) QUW Tokai Eastern Sea) AW Shinden (Magnificent Lightning) Mitsubishi GM ASM GM FIM ‘AGM Reisen (Zero Fighter) Gam AIM Reppu (Hurricane) JBM Shusui (Swinging Sword) Nakajima ESN BSN JIN Gekko (Moonlight) GSN Shinzan (Mountain Recess) AGMIN BON Tenzan (Heavenly Mountain) CON Saiun (Painted Cloud) GN Renzan (Mountain Range) Kika (Orange Blossom) Yokosuka KSY Bay BMY. DAY Suisei (Comet) PLY Ginga (Milky Way) D3Y Myojo (Venus) RQY Kelun (Beautiful Cloud) MXY7 Ohika (Chetry Blossom) Appendix A—Lesser Types; Imperial Japanese Army Kawasaki Kiss Kil Kokusai Kus Ku-7 Manazuru (Crane) Ki-108 Ohtori (Phoenix) 30 a2 3s 339 3a 350 358 382 378 388 37 399 os au ai 43 36 49 a4 440 43 46 449 431 434 462 469 an 476 483 488 as 485 485Mansy Kin Kiss Nakajima Kil Ki62 Ki201 Karyu (Fire Dragon) ‘Tokyo Koku Kil07 Appendix B—Lesser Types: Aichi EMAL Kawanishi J3KI/J6KILJinpu (Squall [Beka (Plunt Blossom) Mitsubishi BMT HMI Senden (Flashing Lightning) imperial Japanese Navy Nalajima JENL Tenrai (Heavenly Thunder) GIONI Fugaku (Mount Fuji) ‘Yokosuka ROYI/K2V2 Kay HSYL Appendix C—Foreign-designed Aireraft Dovglas DC Douglas L2D Kyushu K9W Momiji (Maple) and Kokusai Ki-86 Kyushu KIOW Loccheed Type LO Apperdix D—Aircralt Carriers, ‘Seaplane and Flying-boat Tenders, and Aiteraftcarrying Submarines Apperdix E-—Japanese Aero-engines Appendix F—Japanese Aireraft Armament ‘nd Guided Missiles 486 486 487 487 488 488 489 490 490 491 491 492 493 493 44 495 496 498 499 503 506 S07 310 sis 326 Designation Index Imperial Japanese Army ‘Kitai numbers Guraida rumbers Kazaguruma numbers Sundry designation numbers ‘Type numbers Popular mmes Imperial Japanese Nevy Shi numbers Short designation system ‘Type numbers Foreign airerat Popular names Miscellancous and Unofficial names Service Aeroplane Development Programme numbers Allied Code name system 54 335 535 339 340 340 340 543 344 544 9 357 360 ‘S61 364 365 366PREFACE During the 1930s, while their armed forces were involved inseveral fighting incidents on the Asiatic mainland, the Japanese, guided by the slogan ‘Every forcigner is’ sps", crtablithed a strong’ egourty syetem which successfully hid the qualitative and quantitative buildup of their ait {ores So effective was this system that in 1941, shortly before the Japanese attacks against the Allics, it was commonly believed even among military {neligence circles in the Western Hemisphere—that Japar possessed only ‘a motley collection of obsolete airralt copied from imported types. It is true that Japan cannot claim a place among the leading nations contributing tothe intial development of aviation but, by the late thities, the country had created an eficient sieraft industry which designed and ‘produced several formidable types which surprised the Allies when the Tapenese forces overran the Southeast Asia and Southwest Pacific areas, Threughout the war, despite the inteeduetion ofthe effecive Allied cove nnanv system, identification of Japanese aircraft remained spotty at bes. [Nowvexisting types were reported while new aircraft were introduced by the Japanese without much advance data being available to Allied person- nel, Now, some twenty-five years after the end of the Pacific Wa, litle is remembered of the Japanese air forces and, with the exseption of such legendary aircraft as the Zero (Mitsubishi A6M series) and the netry (Mitsubishi G4M series), their aieraft have once again faded into oblivion. This book was conceived to prods, between the covers of a single volume, a compact history ofall aireraft types operated by or designed for the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Pacific War. AS little or no information regarding the Jepanese aieraft industry is readily availabe separate sections have been included to provide !more complete historical analysis of Japanese military aviation duting the Second World War. ‘The frst section is devoted (o a bye history of the Jepunese aireraft industsy and inchales a synopsis of major airframe and'engine manu- Facturers in Japan. Two brief sections, respectively devoted to the history of the air arms of the Imperial Tapinese Army and Navy, follow and Provide 2 record of unit structure during the Pacific War. These three historical sections are followed by enother desling with the numerous Japanese military aircraft designation systems. Finally, the lat intzo- dluctory section deals with the fundamental camoullage and marking systems adopted by both Japanese Services during the warThe main part of this work comprises descriptive text, techrical data, photographs and mul-view deawings* of the most important eperstion: Bireraft and of the most significant experin-ental types. These descriptions {are arranged in two main parts: Pact L covering the airerat designed for the Imperial Japanese Army and Part IL the aircraft designed for the Imperial Japanese Nevy. In each of thes: parts the manufacturers are listed alphabetically according to the best-known abbreviated rames (©. aireraft designed by the Daiichi Kaigun Koku Gijtsusho are found in Pare IL under the heading: Yokosuka) and the aircraft are listed chrono- logically under each manufacturer. It has not been pessible to give complete details of the nits with which each type of aircraft served but representative units tave been listed wherever possitle Six appendices complete the book and respectively deserite the less important types. designed for the Imperial Japanese Army; the less important aircraft designed for the Imperial Japanese Navy; the types of| foreign manufacture which contributed significantly to Japanese aieraft development immediately before World War IL or which were bail in Japan For use by Japanese military forces; the Japanese aerorngines: the “Japanese aircraft weapons: and the Japanese airraft carriers and tenders Finally a very detailed Designation Index is provided for ease of reference “The preparation of this book was only made possible by the under~ standing and help of my wife. Early in our marciage she realized the importance of this project in my life. Always I found her ready to help and advise and often, when the task appeared too heavy, she was ready (0 ‘encourage me. Throughout these years I 20 often deprived her and our children of much needed vacation, but not once did she voice her dis- Appointment. ‘Among those who helped materially inthe preparation of this Book 1 wish to single out my good friend Jim Roberts who prepared the line rovide yardsticks by which to evaluate her fon altrafl Fo lowing the swift Japanese advance in the first six months of the Pacilic War, the Alles painfully had to reappraise the potential of their new enemy and the previously prevailing feling of superiosty gave place fo a acalthy respect for the capabilites of Japan's airerafi industry and Still later, when the stupendous industrial power of the United States evabled the Allies to obtain ccmplete numerical and qualitative superiority over the Japanese airforces, the feeling changed again to one of supetioity and the Japanese aircraft and their manufacturers were once more belittle. To this day this attiude prevails and the Japanese aircraft industry is thought of by laymen as one with great ability to make poor copies oF obsolete Western aircraft and to produce original designs characterized by their extreme flimsiness and propensity to catch fre and explode when hit ‘The purpose ofthis brief h'story of the Japanese aireral industey is to preseat an objective historica analysis of its achievements and problems ‘and t> provide detail of the anulacturers which designed and built the Airereft described in the main body of the book Origin and Prewar Developmest As early as April $91 an enterprising Japanese, Chuhachi Ninomisa, sueceeded in fying a rubber-rowered model aeroplane. Later he designed larger model powered by a watch spring driving a pusher propeller and successfully demonstrated the lying abilities of his aircraft. However, the Imperial Japanese Army shoved litle intrest in these experiments and "Ninomiya gave up his aétemp: to develop a Japanese lying machine 1In 1910 two Army officers were sent to Europe to learn to fly and, on 19 December, 1910, respectively demonstrated their ability in Japan by flying their imported Herri Farman and Grade aeroplanes. The era of heavier-than-air had begun in Japan. Less than a year later one of these officers, Captain Tokugawa, designed an improved variant of the imported Henri Farman biplane which, built by the Army balloon unit at Naxano, near Tokyo, became the fist aireraft built in Japan. Following the purchase of several types of foreign-built aircraft ard the manufacture in Japan of modified versions of these airereft, the first ‘operational aircraft of Japanese design, the Type Yokosho float biplane, designed by First Lieutenant Chikuhei Nakajima and Second Lieutznant Kishichi Magoshi, was built in 1916. ‘The ‘Big Three’ of the Japanese aircraft industry, Mitsubiski, Nakajima and Kawasaki, began to operate in the late 1910s. The Misubishi and Kawasaki aircraft activities were started as departments of the neavy industries of the same name while Nakajima, independent of direct connection with other industry, was originally financed by the powerful Mitsui family. For the next fifteen yeers these manufacturers depended essentia ly on foreign technology and French, English and German technicians Felped toestablish a domestic aircraft industry. At the sume time young Japanese technicians were studying in American factories and top engineering schools. However, by the early 1930s Japanese Army and Navy officials ‘were determined that the Japanese aircraft industry stand on its own feet and they established a policy of self-sufficiency whereby only aircra’t and cergines of Japanese design would be considered. This, however, did not prevent Japanese technical missions from continuing fo buy foreign air- Graft and aircraft equipment which helped the Japanese industry to aequire new techniques. By 1936 this policy was vindicated and the Japanese were indepensiently The Mitsubishi MC-21, 2 modified Ki2I between Japa 2 ‘persed asa freight transport, ch 2e (Divine Wind the second prototype of the Mitsubishi Kit$ series, which ade a record hight tom Jape to Londot in APT I8s/- US any Departhent) preducing several types of military aireraft—among which were the Misubishi Ki-21 and G3ML twin-cngined bombers, Mitsubishi Ki-15 reconnaissance aircraft, Nekajima BSNI carriet-besed bomber and the Mitsubishi ASMI carrier-bused fighter--equal and often superior to con- temporary foreign aircraft. From 1937 onwards, following the outbreak of the second Sino-Japanese et, the Japanese aircra’t industry was shrouded in purposeful secrecy and production began fo increase sharply. In 1938 a new law went into effect requiring that all aircraft companies capitalized at three million yen for more be licensed by the government and controlled as to equipment, techniques and production plans. The law encouraged and protected such ‘companies by exempting them from income and dusiness taxes and export duties Th March of 1941 the industry was given a las: prewar expansion boost by she government, and the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy gave several cormpanies definite orders t> expand. The Japarese Government did not furnish the capital to cover the expense but did guarantee loans made through industrial banks. Furthermore, the Army and the Navy, which owned and controlled a pool of machine tools Isased or Joaned this ‘eqcipment to the different aircraft manufacturers in accordance with their needs. But Army machine tools could not be used for naval production and vice versa, During that period the Army and the Navy set up_nspection procedures anc developed standards for acceptance of al classes of aeronautical ‘malerial, Technical “epreseatatives and inspectors "were stationed in the factories to see that standards of quality were maintained. These officers also acted as adviser: to the plant managers. As a result of this system, the Services had a great éeal of power and virtually ccntrolled the management of the plants 3The eee of thse varios menue ty Be usd the Et ttatapanese ara preducion expericned a three-fold increase between TsSt and 1986 and again fourfold increase Pstween 1936 and 1940 Gee Table) TABLE: JAPANESE AIRCRATE #RODUCTION, 1930-45 Year Numberof Aircraft Year Number of Aircraft 1830 35 938 3201 roar 368 339 Is or 340 1933 66 a rosa 6s 98 193s 53 i983 1936 sist toa (07 usu Ioas Source: United States Strategic Bombing Survey HGURE 1: GROWTH OF JAPANESE AIRERAFT FRODUCTION, 1930-45 thovsands 30 ast ~ 3 xo} Ss mo 5 Harbor Eo —| g | sree 5 mal <> | Caso sr ses Sa 3s ce ay Sew) a0 a) ae aS oe 154s YEAR 4 The Japanese Aiterafi Indusity during the Pacific War With the outbreak of war the Services centinued on the same general procurement programme but on an expanded scale. The Imperial Japanese Army and Navy headquarters independently zontracted with the individual ‘manufacturers, and most of the time the interest of each Service conflicted, What they lacked was effective liaison. As might have been expected, difficulties appeared Acready in the latter part of 1941 certain materials became eritical, Even at this early date problems resulting from control and allocation became increasingly difficult. Asa result, the Army and Navy each organized their ‘own control of raw material within their own sphere of influence and set up two general categories for material allocation, (1) materials for produc- tion and (2) materials for expansion, Based on the schedule of aircraft desired for the coming fiscal year, headquarters then allotted the material available to the manufactuse’s on the basis of Ureie requivenents, Orders for rarts and components ((or spares and for production) were issued from air headquarters direct to the manufacturers, The material problem was further compleated by a persistent labour problem as neither the Army nor the Navy made any attempt to control or allocate labour, Manufacturers had to get along as Well as they could in recruiting and training people for their olants. With notable lack of foresight, the armed Services complicated the labour problem tremendously by making continual drafts against the civilian labour forces without regard to skills or to industry requirements ‘The euwiesthi K-32 light bomber resulted from a specification issued in May 1956, 10 TSU2 KSI were reeuated to taining duit. (US Tavs Department) 5In an attempt to unify and simplify the production of military goods and military raw materials and to expedite the production of aireraft, the Japanese Government set up in November 1943 a Munitions Ministry ‘designed to administer all matters dealing with production, including the control of labour and the allocation of raw materials In order to co-ordinate aircraft industrial capacity and needs, the Munitions Ministry set up 2 system for determining production require- ments. The Imperial General Stalf decided on the number of aircraft required for the tactical situation and sent a proposed programme to the Navy and War Ministers who in turn would approve and forward the plan to the Munitions Ministry and Army and Navy air headquarters for procurement, The Ministry then discussed the programme with the aircraft ‘manufacturers with reference to expansion, materials, employees, machine tools and equipment, The manufacturers would then review their capacity and send an ability report to the Munitions Ministry. The Ministry and the Navy and Army air headquarters then decided together on monthly production programmes for each company which were forwarded to them by the Munitions Ministry The first low.wing monoplane Seber to enter service wih the Japanese Navy wat Mitsubishi's ‘Navy Type 96 Carer Fighter. The example illustrated is an ASM4 with vinsage fl tank (US any Deparment) For production purposes aireraft parts were broken down by the Munitions Ministry into three classes: (I) controlled parts, (2) government- co-ordinated parts and (3) government-supplied parts. Controlled parts (bolts, nuts, springs, ete) were made under government supervision but were distributed as required by the manufacturers. For government: co-ordinated parts (coolers, pumps, carburettors, etc) production orders were issued to certain accessories companies for delivery to aircraft o: engine manufacturers for inclusion in final assemblies. Government supplied parts (wheels, sparking plugs, guns, radios, ete) were ordered directly by the government and delivered to the government for dist bution, 6 : th ‘The Mitsubishi A6M Navy Type 0 Carrer Fighter Relien (Zero Fighter) was bull in {greater numbers than any other Japanese type, and. served wth frontline Units throughout the war. Mhstated 2 Model 2 aieroft (USAF) At the time the Munitions Ministry was formed, an_ order was issued stopping any new expansion of aircraft plants. It was felt that there was plenty of plant space and that the big need was to increase efficiency in existing plants. In order to strengthen the control and administration of Factories, various officials attached to the Commerce and Industry Ministry, the Welfare Ministry and the plant supervisors from the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy were combined and administered by cistrict offices directly attached to the Munitions Ministry In spite of this elaborate system to control the industry by an impartial body, the Army and the Navy continued to exert undue influence, placing their own supervisors in the aireraft, engine and aircraft component factories and doing what they could to keep the more important factories under their control. Especially with respect to armament, parts and raw ‘materials for aireraft production, the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy set up theit own plans and did not even give any etails to the Munitions Ministry. Despite the feud between the Army and the Navy and the tremendous odds urder which the Munitions Ministry had to operate, the Japanese aireraft industry was able to increase its output steadily between 1941 and 1948 (see Table If and Figures 11 and 111). In particular in 1944, the only ‘A radarequipped Nakajima BSN2 undergoing evaluation tests at Anacostia ‘Naval Ale Staion. (OS Navy Department) 7“TABLE I: JAPAMESE AINCRAFY, ENOINE AND PROPELLER PRODUCTION URE UL: JAPANESE AEROWENGINE PRODUCTION, 19 ZasuaRy 1941-Av0Usr 1945 1941 1942 1943 1984 1945 thousands ca 33 ae, ee en ee 30 » x 3 asf — 3 os 2 |_| 8 z S x 2 ‘Bombers and 5 of N ranters, 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 year ° 1944 ioaz2 9488441945full eae during which the Munitions Ministry was at last nominally in Condol ofthe industry irtft prodsetion registred an increase of per Snover the previous years gure, and the comparable increases in engine Sind propeller production were respectively 63 percent and 70 per cent. en though these results were impressive they were far shart of what wa needed fo Keep Up with the tremendovs power of Japan's enemies Between 1941 and 1945 the United States alone bal! more siceraft than Japan and Germany combined as shown in Table I - TOTAL AIRCRAFT—1941-44 esa ys eh Tat ‘Source; United States Staterc Rombing Survey Allied Bombing and Japanese Plant Dispersal Programme ‘The sixteen B-25 bombers which, launched from the carrier USS Hornet and led by Lieut-Colonel Doolittle, had made on 18 April, 1942, the first bombing attack on the Japanese homeland, had done litte to perturb the Japanese aircraft industry. After this single raid Japan enjoyed a period of Light anc-personnel bom beneath the wings of a Misubichi AOM2 Reisen {ero Fine) (US Navy Department) 10 ‘more than two years during which no bomb fell on thehomeland. However, ‘on 15 June, 1944, the China-based B-29s made thei: historic raid on the ‘Yawate steel plant. Sill the Japanese aircraft industry, heavily co centrated in Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka areas—out of reach of the China based Superfortresses—escaped damage and enjoyed another four-month period of | On 24 November, 1944, Marianas-based B-29s began pounding the industrial heartland of Japan, and aircraft and engine manufacturing plants ranked high on the list of priovity targets for the 20th Air Free. From the standpeint of physical damage these attacks were extremely effective. With few exceptions the plants hit were made useless for continued production, but, nevertheless, some departments escaped direct hits of fire damage, and certain welkprotected heavy equipment was kept in operation by prodigious effort. Work, however, was generally disrupted and seatteres Radur-oquipped examples of te Yokotuka PLY1 Ginga (Milky Was) on the ‘nal assembly lines at Nakalima’s Koizumi fatory. (USAF) and operating efficiency dropped well below average level, The United States estimated after the war that the loss in engine production from December 1944 to July 1945 amounted to 43 per cent of estimated produ tion if dispersal and direct attacks had not taken place, The lossin airframe ‘output was estimated at 18 per cent. The bombing of populated areas also contributed to a dectine in air- frame and engine production. As food shortages bocame acute, workers stayed away from work to forage for supplies and absenteeism in the aircraft industry rose rapidly, direct attacks causing them to scatter into the countryside. As raids increased in Irequency and. severity, the first sound of any alert caused complete shutdowns. Attucks on urban areas wrecked many workers’ homes, disrupted family lif generally and kept people away from their jobs. All such factors combined to cause losses of productive man-hours of from 20 to 25 per cent in the aircrait industry by the spring of 1945. Furthermore, this situation was compounded by the fact that indiscriminate eall-ups by the Army and the Navy had necessitated the use of large numbers of women, high-school children and soldiers to replace skilled labour (Table 1V and Figure IV), "1OUR IV: JAPANESE AINCRAFT INDUSTRY AVIRAGE MONTALY LMPuoYaMENT, [941-45 900 200 700-4 ine manufacturers 600. 500: 400+ THOUSANDS OF EMPLOYEES 3007 frame manufacturers 200-fiee \00- ° 19a) (94219431944 1845 YEAR ° {ASUARY 1981 AUGUST 3945 fonts turers 14081 216,179 309655 499.348 Airframe Manuf sae hignutactaress ‘aise 112871 T3280 aI Propelit Manviactuers 107781983230, BRS Total ord 758256 Source: Unite States Stee Bombing Surey 2 [Nakajima Kisl3 Hayabusa (Peretine Falcon) Atmy Sights on the final assembly Hines at Nakajima’s Ota factory. (OS Nav Deparment) The Allied navies also contributed heavily to the downfall of the Japanese aircraft industry. By mid-1944 the blockade and loss of shipping had created a critical situation, and the effect was felt first on aircraft engine production. Shortages of cobalt, nickel, chromium, molybdenum and tungsten—alloying materials necessary to’ make high-strength steel required in aircraft engines—posed serious problems for the manu- facturers. Attempts to use substitute materials no: only slowed down production but raised the rate of rejections at inspection and increased the nurnber of failures on test stands and in flight. By October 1944 the supply of engines was scarcely adequate for installation in airframes and spares were disappearing rapidly. Engineless airframes began to pile up at factories, units in the field went without spares and production lines were slowed down, By the summer of 194 stocks of aluminium sheet were dwindling, but because of later dispersion and bomb damage, restricted aircraft produc~ tion prevented complete drainage of available stocks. If the planned programmes for aircraft had been met, however, all available supplies of aluminium would have been exhausted long before the ond of the war. As it was, the use of secondary metal was increasing rapidly at the war's end. Anticipating a progressively deteriorating situation, Japanese engi- neers were working on all-wood and all-steel designs for production late in 1945 and early 1946, During the course of the war, emphasis shifted from bombers to fighters 4s operations became more and more of a defensive eaaracter. In anticipa~ tion of Allied bombing operations against their homeland and, later, in a {utile attempt to ward off the Allied aircraft the Japanese accelerated even further the production of fighter aircraft. This trend is reflected by the share of total aireraft production devoted to fighter aircraft, which increased from 21 per cent in 1941 to 33 per cent in 1942, 10 43 per cent in 1943, to 49 per cent in 1944 and to almost $0 per cent in 1945. However, the increasing emphasis on fighter aircraft production did not ease the ‘manufacturers’ problems since, during the war, the fighters had increased in airframe weight and engine horsepower and sinze many of the dis continued bomber types were of the single-engined variety. 13sper of airerat plants was planned early in 1944, bat the constant prea Tar prodecton cased the government t thold permsion to Ufa fo gmrunderground and underground pants unl production Soni be alti expanded inte prs Althogh ay com sales ‘had amipated a goverment order and had actully started amante thir plants in he autumn of 194s, was not until November Sh Desember 1944, following the intial strikes by B-29s, that a panic Gispersal ofthe industry too plac. fisubihi 12M Raiden (Thunferbol fighers on an underaround asemby tne at ars it TOS Tie neat aera bras the ume 137 on sf. (USP ‘The initial haphazard dispersal was followed in February 1945 by an attempt to organize this activity under the mandatery “Urgent Dispersal of Plants Act’. This act ordered the general underground, semi-underground ‘and surface dispersal of industry, with aircraft naving first priority in onstruction, transport, building material and finance. It was April or May, however, before the movement became general and by then it had become too late By the time of the surrender there was scarcely a village oF town of an size that did not house sonie sort of aircraft manufacturing activity such fas disperscdl plants, stbeostractors and supplies of parts and materials Many such shops and subactories were housed in schools, textile mills, warehouses and even shrines, but they vlfered Fsavily from are. rai Early in 1945 a large number were being moved underground as Japan’s precipitous terrain was well suited for this type of construction. Abandoned nines, stone quarries, railway tunnels and viaducts, and department store basements were converted. New tunnels were dug in hills of sedimentary 4 and volcanic rock which were comparatively easy to excavate and which required little oF no shoring for overhead support. ‘AL the time of the Japanese surrender 100 underground aircraft plants were in various stages of completion, but most of the machinery was only in the process of alignment and testing and not yet ready for use. Cor sequently not more than 30 engines, 10 aircraft and a few thousand parts were actually produced in underground plants. During the dismantling of | plants and the moving and re-establishment of production lines, the loss in production was greater than that due to direct air attacks. Fear of ait attacks drove many factories to scatter and store their tools and supplies until adequate dispersal sites were built, However, it was confidently Forecast that the total underground plant programme would have been realized by December 1945. ‘Despite material shortage and labour problems, preduction kept increas: ing until September 1944 when the peak monthly production of 2,572 aireraft was reached. From then on bombing operitions by the Allies, the plant dispersal programme and employee absenteeism disrupted production and the 1,131 aireraft produced in July 1945 represented the lowest monthly figure since February 1943, The combined effects of these disruptive problems can be further evaluated by comparing the production of aircraft during the first and second half-year of 1944 (respectively “TANF Vs JAPANISE AIRCRAFT PRODUCTON—SIFARE BY MANUPACTURERS, 1961-45 lL Combat Aira (1) Percentage Alrrat(2) Percentage 380 19396 2 ins tan 30 Kawasail its i770 149 Taehikava 35 300 60 33 69 Nippon Hikoki 4 o Kye s 29 Mansy uM is Kowa uM : ‘Rawanishi 29 HI Hitech 26 iy 12 = 09 1 : Tokyo oa 4 Mis 5 : Matsushita ; Subsotal wea Navy Air Arcenals 2 128s 25 Rikveun 1 ey 15 Tot meee 1000 rs 1000 Source: United States Stratesie Bombing Survey * Less than onestenth of I per cet 4) Inclasing gers {@) Incaing ters, bombors and reconnaissance ateraf 15MASCEACTURERS, 1941-45 Number of ‘Engines Mitsubishi Nakajima Hinacht Kawataki hikari Mansyu Reh Rican Kokusai Tosoda Subsotal Navy Air Arsonals Rikugun Total 16377 Sounce: United States Strategie Bombing Survey. 14,088 and 14,092 aircraft) to the production of aircraft during the first six months of 1945 (9,439 aircraft), this representing a 33 per cent decrease. ‘When asked after the war to explain the reason for this situation, General Saburo Endo, Chief of the Air Ordnance Bureau of the Munitions Ministry, said! ‘Both the Army and the Navy had decisive battles to win. The Imperial Japanese Navy considered the decisive battle to be coming in June 1944 orth of New Guinea; the Imperial Japanese Army thought their ecisive battle would be in August 1944 in the Philippines. Unti this ‘was accomplished, dispersion was secondary. The Japanese disregarded, fall plans for the year and shoved everything towards production. After the peak was achieved (ard battles not won), the employees required rest, the machinery was worn out and had to te repaired, parts and supplies were exhausted, and readjustments had to be made. The drop in production was due to these factors, as well as dispersion, earthquake Built in Kawasaki's Kagamigahara factory, the K-61 Hien (Swallow) was the only sapanese Atmy wartine fighter fo be powered by a liguideooled engie. (Consiglio) 16 “SHARE mY MANUFACTURERS THLE 100. oo Other ant 4 f-Aesenaist. 80 owenieh ‘Techxawa. 20 10. 60: 5 iteusian. 8 sof — 40 30) so Q . 20. -Noxajime so \0. ‘oc ° . S ° 194 i842 ges gaa 94s Capulatve YEAR Teaini945 (0) nctte ali emy and Navy Bir Arenas (on 7 December, 1944, a msjor earthquake rocked the Tokai District, and ‘badly damaged Aichi plans, Mitsubishi's Nagoya plants and ‘akajima’s Handa plant—Author), bombing and the low mor Natalia’ pi ), bombing and the low morale ofSynopsis of Major Airframe and Engine Manufacturers The Japanese aircraft industries were domincted by four companies, Nakajima, Mitsubishi, Kawasaki and Tachikawe, which turned out Wo: thirds of all aircraft built between 1941 and 1945, and three companies, Nakajima, Mitsubishi and Kawasaki, produced three-fourths of all comtat types and almost 80 per cent of all aircraft engines during the same pericd, A brief history of these and other important Japanese airframe and engine manufacturers follows, arranged alphabetically AICH! KOKUKI K.X. (Aichi Aireraft Co Ltd) This company, the name of which was usually abbreviated to Aichi, ranked fourth in 'the indus.y. The Aichi Tokei Denki K.K. (Aichi Clock and Electric Co Ltd), forerunner of Aichi Kokuki K.K., entered the aircraft industry in 1920 when it began production of airframes at the Funakata plant in Nagoya. Production of engines was commenced there in 1927. In 1938, engine production was transferred to the newly com pleted Atsuta plant in south central Nagoya while a new airframe plart, the Eitoku plant, also in Nagoya, was added in 1941 In March 1943 a separate firm, Aichi Kokuki K.K., was formed ard took over the aircraft and aero-engine production from Aichi Tokei Denki K.K. In late 1944, Aichi began dispersing its airframe production to Ogaki in Gifu Prefecture and an underground plant in Seto, ten miles cast of Nagoya. The engine production was moved to the Tsu Naval Air Station and underground facilities southwest of Tsu, Principal aircraft built by Aichi included the D3A, D4Y, EL6A and BTA series, but the only type of engine produced during the war was the Atsuia inline series (icence-built Daimler-Benz DB 601). [Navy Experimental 16Shi Reconnaissance Seaplane (Aichi EL6AI). The light patches in the background are the wore of the Japanese hartime censor. (Chmiens USat ) 18 “The Aichi BTA! Ryusci (Shooting Star) was designed 382 torpedo-bomber, but {CoUll aso be wed as a dive bomber FUN HIKOKI K.x. (Fuji Aerophne Co Ltd) Fji,as the company was best known, with plantsin Tokyo, Osaka and ‘Taira, Was one of the smaller producers in the Japanese industry. Its only compieie aircraft was the Navy Type 93 Intermediate Trainer (KSY. WiLioW). In addition, the company engaged in fabrication of sub-assem- blies for Nakajima Hikoki K.K. and made the main wing and tail as- semblics for the Navy Suicide Attacker Ohka Model 11 (aKa), HITACHI KOKUKI K.K. (Hitachi Aircraft Co Ltd) Hitachi ranked third and eeventh respectively among Japanese engine and airframe producers. Most of the airframes and engines produced were for small training aircraft Hitachi Kokuki K.K. was formed in May 1939 when it began operation Of three plants purchased from Hitachi Seisakusho K.K. (Hitachi Manu facturing Co Ltd). Hitachi Seisakusho K.K. had acquired the three plants —Omori, Tachikawa and Haneda—through a merger previously made with Tokyo Gasu Denki Kogyo K.K. (Tokyo Gas and Flectric Co Ltd), In 1939 a new engine casting plant was built in Kavasaki and a new air frame plant —initially intended for the licence-manufacture of fighters and bombers designed by Ernst Heinkel Flugzeugwerke A.G.—was built in Chiba. This latter plant took aver most final assembly work in 1944. Aircraft built by Hitachi curing the war included the K2Y2, KSY1, K9WI and A6M2-K trainers, and engine produiction included the Ha-11, Ha-12, Ha-13, Ha-26, Ha-42, Ha-112 and Tempu series. ISHIKAWAJIMA KOKU KOGYO K.K. Ashikawajima Aireraft Industries Co Ltd) Ishikawajima wasa small engine manufacturer producingthe Ha-3S radial in their Tomioka plant. The company was founded in 1937 as a branch Of the Ishikavajima Zosenshe K.K. (Ishikawajima Shipbuilding Co Ltd), e 9Kawanishi H8K2 Nay Type 2 Flying Boat Model 12. ker.) KOKUKI K.K. (Kawanishi Aireraft Co Ltd) i Kokuki K.K. was founded in 1928 ane assumed all assets and activities of the Kawanishi Engineering Works which had started producing seaplanes in 1921, During the war Kawanishi was the sixth largest combat aircraft producer in the Japanese aircraft industry. The company manu factured only airframes and was exclusively a Navy contractor. The company had four primary plants, all of modern construction, three aircraft assembly plants and one aiteraft components plant. Of the three airframe assembly plants, the Naruo plant near Osaka was the largest, the Konan plant between Osaka and Kobe was the next largest and the Himeji plant forty miles northwest of Kobe was the smallest. The Takarazuka plant, the airecaft parts plant, was six miles north of the ‘Naruo plant. During the war Kawanishi manufactured float scaplanes, flying-boats and fighters of their own design as well as the Yokosuka PIY2 bomber. “The Kawanishi NIKI Kyofa (Mighty Wind) foatplane fighter had such a remarkable Perfomance that Kawah deslpe! om the andstaed NIKI Shien (0k ighinin) 20 en iy Nakajima Home engte developed its ful rated power the, Kavanish NURiA aiden (Voit Ligtming) vasa dangsrous adversary (U3 Navy Deparment) Kawasukt Koxuki Koovo K.K. (Kawasaki Aircraft Engineering Co Ltd) Kawasaki Kokuki Kogyo K.K. as a wholly-owned subsidiary of Kawasaki Jukogyo K.K. (Kawasaki Heavy Industriss Co Ltd). The air~ craft division of the parent company was organized in 1918 but in 1937 land 1939 respectively the iframe and engine manulucturing activites were ronoved from the pareat corporation, During the war Kawasaki ‘occupied the third place in Japan's airframe industry and the fourth place in Japan's engine industey. By far the greatest proportion of the company’s facilities was concen- trated in two large plants, one manufacturing aircraft and engines at ‘Akashi, near Kobe, and the ether airraft only at Kagamigahara (Gifu) near Nagoya. Smaligr plants producing complete airframes were at Tchi- nomiya, also near Nagoya, aad at Miyakonojo on Kyushu. Additional engine plants were at Futami and Takatsuki, both inthe Osaka-Kobe area ‘During the war Kawasaki produced the Ki-61 ane Ki-100 fighters, the Kie45, Kel02 and Ki-lO8 twinengined fighters, the Ki-i8 bomber, the Ki-36 and Ki-SS direct co-operation and training aieraft, and the Ki-S6 transport. Engine production included the Ha-13, 25, 40 and 115, Damaged Kawasahs Kis KAle Tors (Dragon Killer) of the 27th Senta (8 Navy Beporemens) 2Kyusny Hikoxt K.K. (Kyushr Aeroplane Co Ltd) Kyushu Hikoki K.K, was founded in 1943 to succeed K.K. Watanabe ‘Tekkosho (Watanabe Ironworks Co Ltd). Watanase began manufactur ing aircraft parts in the twenties and in 1931 began the manufacture of trainers, The company was located on the island of Kyushu, with three Small plants, of which the Zasshonokuma works was the largest, centred round the city of Fukuoka, a further three being added in 1944-45. ‘During the war the company produced the E13A and E14 seaplani the ASM and 17W fighters, the QIW anti-submarine patrol bomber and the KW, K1OW and KIIW trainers. In addition the company built ‘uter-wing panels for the Mitsubishi G4M series and was the second largest raft wheels manufacturer in Japan. Kyushu KIWI Navy Operajons Trainer Shiagiku (Whe Chrysanthemum) in su- Hue madings Ad amsuomarine petrol version was developed as the Q3W1 'Nankat (South Sea). MANSVU HIKOKISEIZ0 K.K. (Manchurian Aeroplane Manufacturing Co Ltd) “Mansyu was established in late 1938 under the supervision of the Japan- ese Government, The company had its plant in Harbin, Manchukuo. During the war the company built under licence from other Japanese manufacturers some fighter, ground support and training aircraft and ‘was responsible for a number of original designs. The Ki-79 trainer wes the only Mansyu-designed aircraft 10 reach production status. The com- pany ranked eighth and sith respectively among Japanese airframe and aero-engine manufacturers MITSUBISHI JEKOGYO K.K. (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Co Ltd) Mitsubishi ranked first emong Japanese industries in weight of aero- planes produced, because o! the large number of relatively heavy bombers Teassembled, but ranked second in number of aircraft produced. Mitsu~ bishi was also the largest engine producer, manufacturing 38 per cent ofall Japanese combat engines during the war. Memorial.) . Mitsubishi's interest in aircraft originated in 1918 when Dr Kumezo Ito was seat to France to study the role aircraft played in the first World War. In 1920 Mitsubishi Nainenki Seizo K.K. (Mitsubishi Internal Combus- tion Engine Co Ltd) was registered as an aircraft manufacturing company With its plant in Kobe. The nucleus for this company was separated from the shipbuilding and other engineering activities of the Mitsubishi holding company, In 1922, aircraft activites were shifted to Oe-macki on the southern out skirts of Nagoya. These activities grew, and in 1928 the company changed its name to the Mitsubishi Kokuki K-K. (Mitsubishi Aireraft Co Ltd). In 1934 a change in policy regrouped and amalgamated all Mitsubishi ‘The rocketpowered Mitsubish J8M1 Shs (Swinging Sword) inspted by th ‘Mesersehmite Me 163, “eras Bindustrial activities under a single company, the Mitsubishi Jukogyo K.K (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Co Ltd), ‘During the war the centre of Mitsubishi's activities was Nagoya where airframe and engine plants were located. Other airframe assembly plants were at Naguno, Takaoka, Suzuka, Kagamigahara, Inami, Obu, Tsu, Okayama, Yawata, Yokkaichi, Naruo, Mizushima end Kumamoto; other ccngine plants were at Kyoto, Shizuoka, Nagano, Hiroshima, Ogaki, Fukui, Koromo and Niigata, These various plants were organized in six airframe and eleven engine works. Plants Major Products Airframes 'No,_ | Plant (DaiIchi Kokuki Sesaknsho) Experimental Aira; Rea Kea, AIM: No. 3 Plant (Dar-San Kohut Selsakustoy san, AGM NS. 3 Plane (Dat-cio Roku Seibakusho) " No. 7 Plant (DacNana Kokult Sekakusho) Gin, NIK2I Nol 9 Plant (Dai-Ru Rokuki Sesakusho) NO, 11 lant (Dal-Suichi Kokuct Seisaktsho) Engines "No. 2 Plant (Dei-Ni Halsudobi Seisakusho) Ha-JO4, Hath, Ne230 No. 4 Plant tDal-Von Hatsud2ki Sesakusho) Hacion, Hats Noi Plant (Dar-Rots Hstifoki Sesakusho) Hacl12, Kinsel NOi_£ amt (Dacachi Hatsudoki Sesakusho} Kasei No‘ 16 Plant (Dai-Ju Hawsudobt Sesakusho) Components ‘NO. 12 Pant Dain Hatsodskt Sesakushoy ‘Components (NS: 14 Plan (Datduon Hatsedekt Seisakusho) ‘Components, No: [6 Plant (Daituroku Hatsudoki Sersakusho) Havi6s, Ha NSLS Plant (Dat-JuhaehiHasudoki Ssakusho) Had No; 20 Plant (Dat-Niju Hatsudoki Seisakusho) Hacl02 NS 32 lant (DacNijani Hatsadoks Sesakusho) Components Source: Unite States Strateuic Bombing Survey. In terms of productive flcor area, Mitsubishi tripled the size of its air- frame assembly works between 1941 and 1944, There was a slightly more efficient use of productive floor area in 1944 than in 1941 in that airframe production increased almost four-fold while productive floor area only {ripled. Engine production tripled in the same year while productive floor area increased only 2°5 times. In 1945 bombing and dispersal caused the fabandonment of some factory areas and a reduetion in productive floo area of about 20 per cent NAKAJIMA BIKOKI K.K, (Nakajima Aeroplane Co Lid) ‘Nakajima was Japan's oldest aireraft company and the largest produc of both airframes and engines in the last year of the war. In 1945 Naka- Jima produced 36 per cent of all Japanese aircraft, 47 per cent of all ‘combat aiteraft and 32 per cent of all engines. Over the five-year period from 1941 to 1945 it was the leading producer of airframes but was second by a narrow margin to Mitsubishi in the production of engines. 24 [A Nakajima Ki-t4tb Shoki (Demon) ofthe Akeno Fighter Training School ‘Nakajima Kita Hayate (Gale) Army Type 4 Fighter Model 1A with ‘attachments for underwing drop tanks. Ose IA wi oa Nakina JINI-Sa Gekko Model 11A with nose untied‘The company was founced on 6 December, 1917, by Lieutenant CChikuhei Nakajima, a young retired Navy engineer, and Seibei Kawanishi, fs the Nihon Hikoki Seisakusho K.K. (Japan Aeroplane Manufacturing, Work Co Ltd). In December 1919, following differences of opinion be- tween Nakajima and Kawanishi, the company was dissolved and Naka- jima obtained the financial backing of the powerful Mitsui Bussan K.K. (Mitsui Trading Co Ltd) to start the Nakajima Hikoki K.K. (Nakajima ‘Aeroplane Co Ltd). The company operated as such until | April, 1945 when it was nominally transferred to state management and called the First Munitions Arsenal ‘Nakajima was a highly integrated engine and airframe production complex. Together with its wholly-owned subsidiary, the Nakajima Koku Kinzoku K.K. (Nakajima Aero-Metals Co Ltd) it produced almost every part required in the assembly of engines and citirames. 1 included an Aircraft ordnance division snd even a pig-iron plant, The complex did hot, however, extend its operations to the manufacture ofits own machine tools and propellers. Phants Location Major Products Airframes No. Ota 14, Gamma Pret No.2 Koizumi Okawa, Gunma Pret No.3 Handa Handa. Aichi Pref No.4 Uisonomiya — Utsonemiya, Tochigi Pret. Fagines No. IL Musashi Musas, Tokyo Pref, Has1B, Hass, Has, Hace Hiads, Hil0d, Hails Hell, Kovobui, Hikar, Sakae, Mamoru, No. 12 Omiya Onviva, Satara Pre ‘components and Hoare NO Ramtmatsa Hamanats Shizvoka Pret, Components and Ha-45 No.4 Ore Shireyama, Toshi Pret. Components Soutce: United States Strateaic Bombing Survey NIPPON HIKOKI K.K. Japan Aeroplane Co Ltd) Nippon Hikoki K.K, was founded in October 1934 and consisted of ‘wo plants, located at Tomioka in Yokohama andat Yamagata in Yama sata Prefecture. The dispersal programme led to the partial completion of an underground plant at Yamagata, The company sas principally concerned in the manufacture of primary and intermediate trainers including the K4Y1, K2Y2. and KIOWL. The type built was the Nevy Type 93 Intermediate Trainer (KSYI and Tn 1943 and 1944 the company produced approximately 20 per cent of the trainers manufuctured in Japan; in 1945 its share had declined 6 to 12 per cent, The only combat type produced duting the war was the ‘Aichi-designed E16A1 Zuiun reconnaissance seaplane, NIPPON KOKUSAL KOKU KOGYO KK, (Japan International Air Industries Co Ltd) Formed in June 1941 by the amalgamation of Nippon Koku Kogyo K.K. (Japan Air Industries Co Ltd) and Kokusai Kokuki K.K. (Inter national Aircraft Co Ltd), Kokusai (to use the name by which the merged company was best known) was one of the smallest Japanese aireralt manufacturers. The company had two main plants-—one at Okubo in Kyoto Prefecture and one at Hiratsuka in Kanagaws Prefecture—as well as six smaller component-manufacturing plants. Th: main aireralt type produced was the Ki-86 primary trainer. NISSAN JIDOSHA K.K. (Nissan Automobile Co Ltd) ‘The company manufactured the 100 hp Hal! engine ja its Yokohama and Yoshiwara plants beginning in August 1943, In 1944 and 1943 it ranked sixth in unit engine production, Sowa kok! Kx. (Showa Aeroplane Co Lid) "The company sated prodicng naval craft n 1939 ina pant at showa gear Tokyo. During the war thre feeder plants were added, one ft sfatsmoto bull in 183 one a One bull inland one at Shinono Buitin 19d5. The cit produse were rhe L2D trmsport and the D3A2 divebonter, ere ences Doukls DC-3, powered by Misubists Kise 5} engines Mande winds ample son with Une Sats dings an wae pooograed in May 185 (CS Navy Department) TACHIKAWA KOKI K.K. (Tachikawa Aeroplane Co Ltd) ‘The company was founded in 1924 and delivered its first complete ai- craft but remained comparatively small until 1941 when the area of the Tachikawa plant increased almost thirteen-fold. New plants at Okayama, 7in southern Honshu, and Kofu were added in 1942 and 1944 respectively. Tachikawa produced approximately 9 per cent of all Japanese aircraft uring the war. Major combat types included the Kind3 fighter and Ki-36 irect co-operation aireraft but Tachikawa was also a major producer of trainers (Ki-9, Ki-I7, Ki-S4 and Ki-55) and transports (Kie34 and Lock: heed-designed Type LO) ARMY AND NAVY AIR DEFOTS ‘The Imperial Japanese Army and Navy Air depois were similar to those of other countries in that they handled repair. modification and distribu: tion of aireraft, One Japanese Army air arsenal and four naval air depots vere themselves producers of aircraft and accounted for 4-4 per cent of the total Japanese combat aircraft production and 5 per cent of the total engine production from 1941 to 1945, These arsenals and their major products are listed in Table IX. Name Major Products ahikava Daiichi Rkogun Kolusho (Fest erat K-30, KIS, Ki Teeny Ait Aan) at Facog gues. fics Hast ads DAMEN Raigun Rokusho (st Naval Air Aleraft: (IV, Obka Mode 11 Tascnal at Kesurmaaura Data! Katgin Rokisho (isa Naval Air Alert: 36N, DAY, MSY, EI3A pathijuedl Katgun Kokusho (2st Naval Air Aiferaft FIM, ASMeK, ABMEK, “arsenal at Saseb0 MAS Engines: Xotobuki Koza Kaigun Kokusho (Koza Naval Ai Alroraft: 2M ‘Arsenal at Koza Research work and design were also done for the Imperial Japanese Atmy by the Rikugur Kokopyultsu Kenkyujo (army Aevotechnical Research Institute) at Tachikawa {nf the imperil apancse Navy by the Davie Kaigun Koku Gisusho (Fist Naval ‘Ae Technical Arsenal at Yokosika. Japanese Army Air Force A Brief History The Imperial Japanese Army's first flying experience began, as early as 1877, with the use of balloons. Those early experiences were followed in 1904; during the Russo-Japanese War, by the use of two balloons which made feurteen successful fights in support of the Japanese forces besieging, Port Anthur. In the field of heavier-than-air machines, since 1789 attempts had been made by private citizens to test ornithopter-type gliders but none of the military Services paid much attention to these efforts. Yet, during the first decade of the twentieth century, the development abroad of flying machines caught the attention of the Japanese and, on 30 July, 1909, the Provisional Military Balloon Research Socie'y was formed with members selected from the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy and from the staff of the Tokyo Imperial University In 1910 the Society sent Captain Yoshitoshi Tokugawa to France and Captain Kumazo Hino to Germany to receive pilot training and to pur- chase aircraft. Upon returning to Japan these officers brought back an Henri Farman biplane and a Grade monoplane ard, on 19 December, 1910, made their first fight in Japan, During 1911 several types of aireratt ‘were imported and Captain Tokugawa designed an improved version of the Henri Farman which was buile by an Army balloon unit. Other Japan- exe officers were (rained abroad but, finally, an initial group of officers completed their training in Japan, A line-up of Nakajima Ki27b Auny Type 97 Model B Fighters of the 59th Sentai, Ts Chats (US Navional archives) 29Still using imported aircraft and Japanese-built machines modified from foreign designs, the Imperial Japanese Army continued to train flying personnel but, with the exception ofa token rumber of officers who in 1918 served with the French Aviation Militaire, this Service did not take part in the air operations of World War I, During this period the air unit ‘of the Imperial Japanese Army gained some degree of independence when in December 1915 it was organized as the Air Battalion of the Army ‘Transport Command, Further gain in status was achieved in April 1919) when the Army Air Division was established under the command of Maj-Gen Tkut eS Misubsshi Kir2t-la being prepared for a bombing raid, This scene was ‘Dhoiggrephed in noethern China The activation of the Army Air Service was the result of the visit of a French mission which, led ty Colonel Faure and comprising 63 instruc tors, brought to Japan several types of French aircraft which had acquired fame during World War I. Thus the SPAD S.13C-1 was adopted as the standard fighter of the Imperial Japanese Army while the Nieuport 24C-1 ‘was placed in production by Nakajima Hikoki K.K. as a fighter trainer and the Salmson 2A-2 was bailt by Kawasaki Kokuki Kogyo K.K. as the ‘Type Otsu I reconnaissance aircraft. Other types of aircraft were obtained from the United Kingdom and included the Sopwith Pup and Avro SO4K ‘On I May, 1925, the Army Air Corps was established and, with status equal to that of the Artillery, Cavalry and Infantry, was placed under the ‘command of Lieut-Gen Kinichi Yasumitsu’s Koku Hombu (Air Head- ‘quarters). Upon its inception the Army Air Corps had a personnel strength ‘of 3,700 officers and men and could muster a strength of some 500 aircraft Shorily thereafter the Army Air Corps began to take delivery of various aircraft of Japanese design ‘During its first ten years of existence the Army Air Division/Corps had seen action on a smalll scale at Vladivostok in 1920 and in China during the 1928 Tsinan Incident, However, the next decade was to see greatly expanded air setivities on the part of units of the Imperial Japanese Army 0 ‘The Mitsubishi Kis7-I1 was the standard personne transport aperated throughout the ‘var b the Japanese Army’ and Dai Nippon Kok KK: (L3-Navy Department) The first of these actions was the Manchurian Incident, which broke out, September 1931 and wasollowed in January 1932 by the Shanghai Incident. By then the aie units of the Imperial Japanese Army were equipped with a number of Japanese-built aireraft including the Mitsubishi Type 87 light bomber, the Kawasaki Type 88 reconnaissance type and the Nakajima Type 91 fighter and they had little difficulty in achieving superiority over the Chinese forces. As a result the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo was established in Manchuria. Soon therealter the Imperial Japanese Army undertook a major modernization and expansion programme and instigated at that time the development of many aireralt which were still operated by that Service during the Pacific War ‘While this re-equipment programme was being pushed Forward, fightin flared up anew in China on 7 July, 1937. The second Sino-Japanese con- flict had begun. During the initial phase of operations the Imperial Japan ese Army left the brunt of offensive air operations to the rival Japanese Navy ard limited their activities to air support of ground operations along, the Manchukuo border in order to concentrate on farming new units Se ‘The Naksjima Ki-t8-1 Hayabusa (Peregrine Fakzon) which entered service justin time {to take part inthe inal operations in Malaya. US Nav Departmen) 31"The Kawasaki Kit5 KAle Toryu (Dragon Killer) was the Japanese Army's ‘Standard heavy fighter and only operational nah fae Up to that time the basic air units of the Imperial Japanese Army had been the Hiko Rentais (Air Regiments) made up of fighter, bomber, reconnaissance and/or transport Chutais (Squadrons or Companies). However, early combat experience in China dietated a complete reorgan- ization, and the Hiko Rentais gave place to smaller, mote flexible, special- ized units: the Sentais (Groups). The unit structure then implemented formed the basic organization used during the Pacific War. ‘Under this system the basi: unit was the Sentai (Group) which normally comprised three Chutais (Squadrons or Companies) of nine to twelve aireraft and a Sentai Hombu (HQ Section) and was commanded by a Lieut-Colonel or a Major. The next units in the command chain were the Hikedans (Wings or Air Brigades), normally commanded by a Major- General of Colonel. They consisted of a Shireibu Hikodan (Command Section), a reconnaissance unit of varying size up co full Sentai level and usually any combination of three Sentoki (Fighter) Sentais, Keibaku (Light Bomber) Sentais and/or Jubaku (Heavy Bomber) Sentais. Two or TA Kawasaki KietSIU Army Type 99 Twicenined Light Bomber Mo 1 Clink Field, Manta 32 three Hikodans formed a Hikoshidan (Air Division) and a Kokugun (Air Army) grouped two or three Hikoshidans. In additien, independent units smaller than a Sentai were formed whenever the tactical situation required it, eg. Dokuritsu Dai Shijugo Chutais (Independent Squadrons or Come panies)and Dokuritsu Hikotais (Independent Wings) Supreme command of the Imperial Japanese Army was lodged in the Daihonsi (Imperial General Headquarters) to whieh reported the Sanbo Shocho (Chief of Army General Staff), Reporting divetly to the Chief of ‘Army General Stait were the Keku Sokambu (Inspectorate General of ‘Aviation which planned and supervised the raining of fying and main tenancepersonnel,and the Koku Hombu (Air Headquarters), which among other daties was Fesponsible for aircraft, aero-engine and aircrattequi ment design and research. ae The Nalajima Ki-f91 Donnyu «Storm Dragon), seen hers, was intended plant the Mitsubsht Ki HAV bt wasn fact ouved by its predecessor, (US ary ‘Beparment) ‘As their organization was consolidated and training accelerated and as, new aireraft of Japanese design and manufacture were becoming available in inereasing numbers, the Imperial Japanese Army stepped up their air operations over the Chinese mainland, Concurrently with operations against Chinese forces the Army found themselves involved in two brief but costly border incidents at Changkufeng and Nomonhan during which they bitterly fought the Soviet Air Force. Although the losses incurred during these incidents, partially offset by the valuable experience acquired, only temporarily set back the realization of their modernization pro- ‘gramme, the Imperial Japanese Army were strongly influenced by their encounter with the Soviet Air Force. In the eyes of the Army Head- quarters the USSR became the prime potential enemy, and equipment Planning, especially in the field of aircraft, was influenced by the desire to be prepared for a conflict along the Manchukuo-Siberia border. Thus the Koku Hombu concentrated on the development of aiccraft suited to short tactical land sorties in cold weather and consequently their aireralt were illsuited to long overwater missions among the islands of the Pacific 3During the planning for war operations in Southeast Asia and the Pacific the Imperial Japanese Army—due to the technical constraints indicated above—were primarily assigned the responsibility for air opera~ tions over extensive land areas, ¢.g. China, Malaya, Burma, the Nether- lands East Indies and the Philippines. When the war broke out this Service had some 1,500 aircraft available of which some 700 were assigned to the 3rd Hikoshidan (operations against Malaya) and the Sth Hikoshidan {operations against the Philippines) as follows: 3rd Hikoshidan 3rd Hikodan oth Sentai (Ki-43 and Ki-27) 27th Sentai (Ki-S!) 75th Sentai (Ki-48) 90th Sentai (Ki-48) 7th Hikodan dth Sentai (Ki-43 and Ki-27) 12th Sentai (Ki-21-) oth Sentai (Ki-21-11) 98th Sentai (Kie2I-1D) 12th Hikodan Ist Sentai (K-27) Lith Sentai (Ki-27) 15th Dokuritsu Hikota S0th Dokuritsu Dai Shijugo Chutai (Ki-15 and Ki Sist Dokuritsu Dai Shijugo Chutai (KielS and Ki-46) Bist Sentai (Kie15 and Ki-d6) 2ist Dokuritsu Hikotai 82nd Dokuritsu Dai Shijugo Chutai (Ki-30) 84th Dokuritsu Dai Shijugo Chutai (Ki-27) ‘Sth Hikoshidan 4th Hikodan Sth Sentai (Ki-48 and Ki-30) 14th Sentai (Ki-21-1) 10th Hikodan Tih Sentai (Ki-27) Bist Sentai (Ki-30) 62nd Sentai (Ki-21-Il) 10th Dokuritsu Hikotai 74th Dokuritsu Dai Shijugo Chutai (Ki-36) 52nd Dokuritsu Dai Shijugo Chutai (Ki-S1) J6th Dokuritsu Dai Shijugo Chutai (Ki-15) 16th Sentai (Ki-30) Nth Hike Chutai (Ki-s7) 3H In the first nine months of the war the air units of the Imperial Japanese ‘Army met with considerable suecess, the only sericus opposition being encountered over Burma where the Royal Air Force and the American Volunteer Group inflicted severe losses to the Nipponese units. With the ‘exception of the further offensive on the western frost towards India, the Japanese advance had reached its limits by July 1942. During this period the aircraft and crews of the JAAF gave a good account of themselves and proved equal and often superior to the motley collection of aircraft albeit gallantly manned, which the Allies then had available. From the autumn of 1942 until October 1944 the Imperial Japanese Army fought a war of attrition while suffering steadily increasing air Tosses particularly in New Guinea and China. Despite the priority assigned to the European Theatre of Operations the Allies were, during these two years, able Lo obtain an ever more apparent numerical superiority in their ‘war against Japan, Facing such odds the JAAE's aircraft, developed before the war, started to show their age and, with few exceptions, the Army were uunable to introduce more modern aircraft in sufficient’ numbers. This situation particularly affected the bomber aircraft class where the Mitsu~ bishi K-21 heavy bombers and the Kawasaki Ki-f8 light bombers—with insufficient offensive load, defensive armament, armour protection and speed—had to bear the brunt of the operations. The fighter units of the Imperial Japanese Army fared somewhat better with the introduction of the Kawasaki Ki-61, but most units retained their lightly armed, un- protected Nakajima Ki-f3s, Only reconnaissance units had at thett dis- posal in the Mitsubishi Ki-46 an aircraft comparing favourably with Allied machines [A Kavasski Ki-I-1 KAfe isn (Swallow) ofthe 24th Sea, ane of the units ‘ssluned to Japanese home defenee tn 1948. (Consghe) In October 1944, as the Imperial Japanese Army vias beginning to take delivery of modern bombers (Mitsubishi Ki-67) and fighters (Nakajima Ki-84) the Allies landed in the Philippines, thus starting the third phase of the Pacific War. Hopelessly outnumbered, the Japanese Army bitterly fought to slow down the Allied thrust towards the homeland. The Mari- 35The Nakajima Ki-84-la Hayate (Gale) made its dabut in Chia in August 1944 Ti yas an outstanding fighter, but went ino bate hopaesly ournumbered aanas, the Philippines, Iwo Jina and Okinawa having fallen, Japan lay at the merey of the Allies. Bombing of the homelane on a regular basis hid begun on 15 June, 1944, with the first raid by China-based B-29s, In an attempt to distupt Allied bombing operations, the Imperial Japanese Army committed an ever increasing number of fighter units to the defence of the homeland, but their Nakajima Ki-d3s” Kids and Ki-84s, and thei Kawasaki Ki6ls and Ki-l00s lacked the high-altitude performance and heavy armament required to blunt daylight operations by the formidable Super fortresses. This Service was even less prepared for night operations, as the only aircraft type available, the Kawaseki Ki4S KAI, had no A.L radar and its performance was only marginal against the B-29s, Concur- rently with these operations the Imperial Japanese Army prepared them= selves for the expected invasion of Japan. To that effect air operations were curtailed (0 a minimum to conserve aircraft and divindling fuel supplies, and plans were on hand for the mass use of obsolete aircraft, specially built types and trainers in taiatari (suicide) sorties such as those first used on a large scale during the Philippines campaign. The atomic bombs and the subsequent Japanese surrender made this contingeney plan 36 Japanese Navy Air Force A Brief History Quantitatively and qualitatively the most important Japanese air force during the Pacific War was that operated by the Imperial Japanese Navy land this Service bore the brunt of the fighting against the Allies from the early hours of 8 December, 1941, (Japanese time), to the dawn of the atomic age. The first step towards creating a naval air arm was taken in June 1912 by the Imperial Japanese Navy with the establishment of the Naval ‘Aeronautical Research Committee. Soon thereafter six officers were sent to France and to the United States with instructions to purchase a number of seaplanes and to Iearn to Ay and maintain these machines, and on 2 November, 1912, two of these officers flew their Farman and Curtiss sea planes from the nevly created naval air station on the Oppama Coast near Yokosuka, Domestic training of naval pilots was then undertaken on a limited seale and, within a year, the Imperial Japanese Navy commis- sioned their first seaplane tender, the Wakamiya Mor An A I en eas ee ay ae During the ie Wold War the InperilJparee Naty made on of we i lee sof ata yen Spember and Oxoher B14 thy pete our scapes fom the Wako ara apa the Ge ina fre at Togas Making bong wll a Tecnnahsans toe hee arated aking sll Coto mineyer Hone not feng ately engage Tat waren he European one thet the Inparifapanese Navy no fre oppor ttt the dpi arin vac, Nett the Wend Wa potod vat "OMAR Mitsubishi AGM2 Reisen (Zero Fighter) of the 3rd Kokusai during operations in the Netherlands East Indies early in 1 marked by two significant events affecting the development of Japanese naval aviation: the first uwo Naval Air Corps, the Yokosuka and Sasebo Kokutais, were respectively activated in April 1916 and Match 1918 and, in 1917, the first operational naval aircraft designed in Jap factured at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. Following the end of the war Japanese naval air activities were reduced and the only significant event of this period was the first successful take-off from a dock mounted on the Wakamiya Maru made in June 1920 by an imported Sopwith Pup flowa by Lieutenant Kuwabara. The year 1921 was, however, to sce a reversal in the trend as the Imperial Japanese Navy began the second phase in the development of their aic arm following the arrival in Japan of the British Aviation Mission, led by the Master of Sempill, which brought with it instructors and modern aircraft, Late during the same year the Hesho, the world’s first eireratt carrier buile as such, was launched, and development of a series of aircraft~designed in Japan by Herbert Smith, the former chief designer of Sopwith Aviation Co “was undertaken, During the twenties and carly thirties the air units of the Imperial hajima CON1 Navy Cartier Resonnaissance Ps {1 Saivn (Painted Cloud), {twas an aircrar of mis type high dtcovered the Unitea States cet atthe start OF the Battle ofthe Marianas in June 19%, 38 Japanese Navy were involved in a series of incidents against Chinese forces, but it was not until 7 July, 1937, that this Service participated in a major action, Meanwhile, in 1932, the Naval Aircraft Establishment was ized and the Imperial Japanese Navy initiated their ambitious 7-Shi programme calling for the design of a series of aireraft including carrier fighters, carrier attack bombers, carrier bombers, reconnaissance seaplanes and land-based attack bombers. This programme was, however, a failure as, from all the aircraft submitted, only the Kawanishi E7K1 reconnais- sanee seaplane was placed in quantity production, the Hiro G2HI attack bomber was procured in limited numbers and all other types remained in prototype form. Despite these discouraging results a new impetus hi been given to the Japanese aircraft industry and, two years later, a 9 i a Ja ‘An Aichi E13A1—nemercally the most important Japanese Navy wartime reconnaiwance seaplane. (US Nn) Departien) programme as to result in the production of several famous Japanese aircraft among which were the Mitsubishi ASM series of carrier fighters the Migubishi G3M attack bombers, the Yokosuka BAY carrier attack bombers and the Kawanishi H6K flying-boats. With the availability of these aireraft the Imperial Japanese Navy were able to pursue vigorously their exoansion programme asd were ready for combat operations when the second Sino-Japanese confict flared up in July 1937, Operating from carriers as well as from land bases- the world’s first transoceanie raids were made by Mitsubishi G3M bombers of the Kanoya and Kistrazu Kokutais within one week of the beginning of hostilities Fathe aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy immediately gave a good account ‘of themselves. As Japanese air superiority forced the Chinese to withdraw their aircraft far from the battlefields, the Japanese Navy had a good ‘opportunity to demonstrate the long range of their bombers by flying deep into Chinese territory while, in the latter phase of the war, they began to use most of the aircraft which were to bear the brunt of the fighting against the Allies during the Pacific War. During the second Sino-Japanese conflict the Imperial Japanese Navy were able to perfect their tacics and to strengthen their air unit organiza~ tion. Like the Japanese Army this Service was placed under the supreme command of the Daihonei (Imperial General Headquarters) to which reported the Gunteibu Socho (Chief of Navy General Stall). One of the sections reporting to this officer was the Kaigun Keku Hombu (Navy Air Headquarters) which were responsible for aireraft, engines and equipment selection and testing as well as for supervision of training of flight and maintenance personnel. Operational control of air units was vested with the individual Kantais (Fleets), Koku Kantais (Air Fleets) and Homen Kantais (Area Fleets), Carrier-based aircraft were assigned to specific Koku Sentais (Carrier Divisions), usually comprising two aircraft carriers, and a varying number of Koku Sentais were assigned to Koku Kantais. Later during the Pacific War the carrier-based aireraft were reorganized into Kokutais (Naval Air Corps) with one or more Kokutais being assigned cither to land bases or to carrier units grouped into Koku Kantais. Land-based aircraft were normally assigned 10 Koku Kantais which Included one or more Koku Sentais (Air Flotillas, these units being in turn subdivided into Kokutais (Naval Air Corps). The Kokutais were the basic air units of the Imperial Japanese Navy and they had a strength of up to 150 aireraft of one or more types, although smaller aircraft comple- ments were the rule rather chan the exception. Other land-based units, [Abandoned Japanese Navy aircraft at Atsugi atthe end of the war. In the foreground ‘are a number of Mitsubishi AGM Reisen Zero Fighters), ons with svngtps folded and ‘arrester hook lowered, and inthe background a Mitsubishi G3M bomber. (US-12) 40 Ree ee see aS GER OE eee "A batle-damaged Nakajna BSN? Tenn ¢Heaenly Mount) at Clark Tek Sait la Mark 1503 0S Ney ep) ‘often smaller than Kokutais, were directly assigned to local Homen Kantais (Area Fleets) as the tactical situation required. ‘On the eve of the Pacific War the Japanese Navy had some 3,000 combat aircraft on strength of which almost 1,400 aircraft wore assigned to first Tine units as follows Rengo Kantai (Combined Fleet) First Kantai ‘Third Koku Sentai Hosho (UL ASMGs and 8 BAY 15) 2utio (06 ASM4s and 12 BSN2s) Surface units (battleships and cruisers) (34 seaplanes) Second Kantai Surface units (cruisers) (39 seaplanes) ‘Third Kantai Surface units (cruisers and seaplane tender Sanuki Maru) (U5 seaplanes) Twelfth Koku Sentai Kamikawa Maru (12 seaplanes) Sanyo Maru (8 seaplanes) Fourth Kantai Surface vessels (cruiser ‘and mine-layer) (2 seaplanes) 24th Kaku Sentai ‘Chitose Kokutai (36 G3Ms) Yokohama Kokutai_ (24 H6Ks) 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th Kokutais (42 veaplanes) Kivokawa Maru (12 seaplanes) 4fh Kantai Chichiima Maru (6 seaplanes) Kimikawa Maru (8 scaplanes) Nanha Homen Kantai (Southern Area Fleet) Sagara Maru and Kashii (9 seaplanes) First Koku Kant First Koku § Akagi (18 AGM2s, 18 D3A1s and 27 BSN2s) Kaga (18 A6M2s, 18 D3A1s and 27 BSN2s) Second Koku Sentai Sons (18 A6M2s, 18 D3A1s and 18 BSN2s) Hiryu (U8 A6M2s, 18 D3A1s and 18 BSN2s) Foustl: Kok Sentai Ryujo 2) Fifth Koku Sentai Zuikaku (18 AGM2s, 27 D3AIs and 27 BSN2s) ‘Shokakis (18 A6M2s, 27 D3ALs and 27 BSN2s) Eleventh Koku Kantai 2ist Koku Sentai Kanoya Kokutai (72 G4MIs) First Kokutai (48 G4MIs) Toko Kokutai (24 H6ks) 22nd Koku Sentai Mihoro Kokutai (43 G3M2s) Genzan Kokutai (48 G3M2s) Special Detachment 23rd Koku Sentai (6 C5M2s and 36 A6M2s) Takao Kokutai (72 G3M2s) Tainan Kokvtai (02 AGM2s and 12 CSM2s) Third Kokutai (02 A6M2s and 12 C3M2s) Special seaplane tender detachment Mizuho (20 seaplanes) Chitose (20 seaplanes) Shina Homen Kantai (China Area Fleet) Special Detachment (12 BSN2s and 8 seaplanes) Possessing the necessary combination of long-range aircraft and fight crews experienced in lengthy overwater fights, which the Japanese Army lacked, the land-based units ofthe Japanese Navy were assigned the prime responsibility forthe eampaign in the islands ofthe Pacific while the carrier- based aireraft of the First Koku Kantai were assigned the task of neu- tralizing the US Fleet by frst striking at the Pacific Fleet’s home base of Pearl Harbor. ‘Whether land- or earrier-based, the units of the Japanese Navy obtained ‘a great series of victories during the first six months of the Pacific War but none did bettor than the First Koku Kantai. This air fleet, carrying the lite of the Imperial Japanese Navy, achieved successes from Peat! Harbor to Wake Island, Rabaul, Ambon (Amboina), the Marshall Islands, Darwin, Ceylon and the Coral Sea. However. on 4-6 June, 1942 the crushing defeat off Midway the result of effective intelligence work by US forces and Japanese tactical errors and not consequent on poor equipment or lack of valour en the part of Japanese crews—effectively stopped the Japanese advance. Ina final offensive gasp the Imperial Japanese Navy occupied Guadalcanal and Tulagi in the Solomons from ‘where they prepared to contain the Allied counter-offensive in the hope that the Allies would finally settle the conflict at the conference table. Two neatly completed Mitsubishi 2MB Raiden (Thunderbolt) fighters at, Atsug in September 1945, The engine-cooling fan Blades can be clay seen on the nearest ‘areratt. (OSAP) Unfortunately for the Japanese, this hope never materialized, and losses —which had been comparatively small until the battle of Midway—began to rise steadily during the air, land and sea battles in the Solomons. Following the inconclusive Battle of Santa Cruz in October 1942, during which the carrier-based units of the Japanese Navy almost regained the initiative, Guadalcanal had finally to be evacuated by Japan in February 1943, A comparative lull followed during which none of the opponents Was able to mount major offensives, but the air arm of the Japanese Navy had their strength slowly drained during the war of attrition in the Sol ‘mons/Rabaul/ New Guinea are. ‘When finally in June 1944 the Americans had been able to builel up thei cartier fleet to mount a major offensive against the Japanese-held Mari- 45ana. the Japanese Navy assembled nine aiteraft carriers embarking some 450 aircraft as well as some 200 land-based aireralt, During the infamous “Marianas Turkey Shoot” the Japanese Navy suffered a major defeat. To a large extent this defeat was due to their neglecting to develop in time « new cartier fighter to supplement the ageing Mitsubishi AGM sees Whereas the JAAF kept introducing new aircraft types. often too soon ti correct theit teething troutles. the INAF relied miainly on & eontinuows upgrading of existing ty Mitsubishi AOM fighters and Mitsubishi GAM bombers which formed the mainstay of that Service throughout the Tn the early autumn of 1944 a new Allied offensive led to major air battles around the Philippines and Formosa durng which the Japane Navy suffered alarming losses. The situation became worse Following the American landing at Leyte Gull and Japan was severely defeated during the second Battle of the Philippine Sea, From then on the Japanese Nave were lelt without an effeetise carrier leet. In the Palippines. the First and Second Koku Kantais fought a desperate battle and, despite the inereasing use of kamikaze attacks- first attempted on 25 October, 1944—finally al Japanese air activities in the Phulippines ceased in early January” 1943 Little respite was given to the airerews of the JNAF as a month later the Allies landed at Iwo Jima and in April 1945 it was the turn of Okinawa where kamikaze operations increased sharply. Fighting against sremendous hhumerical odds the air unvts of the Japanese Navy. despite the increasing use of etter aireralt such as the Kawanishi NIK T+) and N1K2+) fighters Kyushu QIWI Tokai (aster Soa) antisubmarine patrol sierat at Miata, Hol CGO" has the els ape specially dexuned for ths day sith he Japanese ass 4 The experimental hangar at the Machi Kaigun Koki Gijtousho «First Nasal Ale Technical Arsenal), In the foregronnd are Yokosuka MNY? Ohka (cherry Blossom) pioted fomos bevond ave cornponents of the Yokosuha ROY Kew (Beautiful Claude 1S Nuns Deptt and Yokosuka PLY] bombers. could not contain the Allied advance Meanwhile. in Japan itsell, otter units fought an equally desperate battle ‘against the Superfortresses and the carrier-based aircrall of the US Navy until 21 August, 1945, when the Imperial Japanese Navy ceased ail hostilities in accordance with an Imperial Reserip! of 14 August. The Rising Sun had finally set. 4sArmy Type 1 Transport Model € (KrS4), the third vers Tachibana tame red Mgnt ansport AUS Nut Depart) Japanese Aircraft Designation Systems Throughout the Pacific War the Japanese military forces used a variety of aircraft designation systems which proved highly confusing for Allied intelli Fsonniel. For example, a typical aireralt operated by the Japanese Army carried «) Kitai number (e.g. Ki-61), a type number (Army Type 3 Fighter) and a name (Hien). To simplify and expedite aireralt identification the Allies added to most aircraft a code name (e.2. TONY) Today it is the code names that are still remembered. and this section has been conceived to give an insight into the various Japanese aircraft designation systems while also giving some historical background on the introduction and use of Allied code names. To provide a complete listing of designations given within each system. all are listed in the Designation Index found at the end of this book whether or not the aircraft which bore such designations were stil in service during the Pacific Wav. During the frst fiflcen years of their existence the JAAF designated their aircraft under various systems although mostly adopting manufac- turers’ designations: hut ay none of these designations remained in-use at the beginning of World War Il they are not listed here In 1927 the type number system was adopted and remaited in use watil the final collapse: so also was the Kitai number system. first introduced in 1932. In addition, some aireraft reveived a popular name while research aeroplanes. gliders and retary wing ‘chalt were given special designations, 46 “The fist Kite desigation, Kit, was given in 1982 9 the Mitsishibuil Army “Tone 98 Hens Bomber UC, Calor The Tachikawa A-26, designed as a civil aircraft, became the Ki77 when the ros was taken ove? bs the Imperial Japanese AT. ise the Kokusai Kusk (Cuantest Heine F Nowra bSection F—itai numbers In 1932 the Koku Hombu began assigning Kitai (Ki) or airframe num= bers to alll aiveralt- projected for the Imperial Japanese Army. Aireraft built prior to ths date but still in service or underg ving tests received a Kitai number retrospectively. The Ki numbers were assigned in numerical sequence until [944 when the Japanese felt the need 10 confuse Allied intelligence furtter. Models of a hisie type kept the same Ki number but received an addi tional Roman numeral to differentiate one model from another. Versions fof the same mocel received an additional Japanese character (commonly replaced by an equivalent letter to facilitate printing) following the Roman numeral, In some cases the Roman numerals and letters were supplemented. bya Kaizo (Kai) or modif cation symbol. These ssstems are best expl by an example, the famous Kawasaki Hien (10N¥) Kio Designation of the project and prototypes. Ki-6l4 First production version of the fist model Ki6l-lb Second production version of the first model. Ki-ol-l KAle Third production version of tie frst model. KiGll KAld Fourth production version of the first model, Ki-el-t Prototypes of the second model. Ki6i-Il KAI Modif ed prototypes of the second model. Ki6l-l KAL First production version of the sevond model Ki-61-I1 KALb Second production version ofthe second mode! Ki6 1-11 Projected third model. To complicate the marter further, gliders. which initially received a Kitai number (eg. Fukuda Ki-23), later received a Kel (Guraida) or glider number (e.2. Kokusai Ku-7) In addition. aireralt which did not originate at te Koku Hombu reveived fa designation bised on their manufacturer's name or designation (e.g. Kayaba Ka-1. Kobe Te-Go. Tachikawa SS-1). Missiles received a special designation. although the Kawasaki Igo-1-B was slso known as the Ki-L48, to conluse Allied intelligence Section 2 Type munibers Beginning in 1927, aircraft accepted for quantity production and opera tional service sere knowr by a designation combining a brief description ‘of their function and a type number, The type number was based on the last digits of th: Japanese year during which a particular aircraft was acoepted. Prior to the year 2599 (1939 a,b.) the lst two digits were used In 2600 (1940 4.0.) the type number became 100, and on and after 260 (1941 A.D.) only the last cigit was used Aeroplanes aecepted during 2597 (1937 ab.) had the type number 97 and included the Army Type 97 Fighter (Nakajinra Ki-27). Army Type 97 Light Bomber (Mitsubishi Ki-30), Army Type 97 Heavy Bomber «Mitsu: hishi Ki-21)and Army Type 97 Command Reconnaissance Plane (Mitst 48 Army Type 100 Command Reconnaissance Plane Mol 4A «Mish inal experimental version ol ome of the Bes apnexe Ware at dishi Ki-15), The exaet description of the Function of each aircraft was of great importance to avoid confusion between Iwo or more aireralt. as can he seen in the case of the Mitsubishi Type 97 Bomber. which could either he the single-engined Light Bomber (Ki-30) or the Wwin-engined Heavy Bomber (Ki-21). AAs with the Kita designations it was necessiry to distinguish betseen the models and versions of a basic type. Models of the same aireraft sere listed in numerical sequence using the Arabic numerals corresponding to the Ronvant numeras used in its Kita designatio , Similarly. each version received an additional letter or Katizo designatien following the type and model numbers, Once again the Kawsasahi Hien (10x¥) is chosen ls the example: Kiet No type number ay this wus the Kitui designation of the project and prototypes. Ki-ol-ta Army Type 3 Fighter Vode 1A (Type 3 ay this air craft Was accepted for quantity production during the Japanese fiseal year 2603). Ki-ol-lb Army Type 3 Fighter Model 18. Kisol-I KAle Army Type 3 Fighter Model 1C Ki-ol-l KAld Army Type 3 Fighter Model 1D. Koll Prototypes of the secon model. no type number Ki-6L-ILKAL Modified prototypes of the sevond model. no type ‘number. Kill KAla Army Type 3 Fighter Model 24. Kil KAlb Army Type 3 Fighter Model 2B. Ki-6t-lll Projected third model. no type number In the case of foreign-built aircraft, instead of ssing the last digits of the Japanese year. the Koku Hombu assigned to them a type letter based either on the country of manufieture (e.g. Type | Heavy: Bomber for the talian Fiat B.R.20) or the manufacturers’ intials (e.g, Type LO Transport fot the Lockheed |) »Sectfon 3 Popular sures Soon alter the opening of hostilities inthe Pacific arew it became evident to the Japanese High Cominand that the use of the Kitai and Type number systems in battle communigués had (wo shortcomings: they revealed tow much to the enemy and were too complex for any particular aireralt to appeal to the Japanese populace, Therefore popular names were given 0 the principal airerat likely to attract the enthusiast of the public. Whereas the Navy gave popular nasves to their aircraft according to a set pattern the Army chose their nameshaphavardly In addition to these popular names. abbreviated designations. such as Shin-Shitei (Army Type 10¢ Command Reconnaissance Plane) and Gute (Army Type 99 Assitult Plane), became quite famous in Japan. However they were never popular names 1 JAPANESE NAVY AIR FORCE DESIGNATION SYSTEMS On the eve of the Pacific War the sireralt of the Japanese Navy we designated according to three distinet systems: the Shi numbers. the ty numbers and the short designations. Later in the war the JNAF adopted tivo new designation systems. the popular names and the SADP designe Section I — Experimental Shi mumbers From 1931 onward a Shi or experimental number based on the current Japanese imperial year of reign was assigned to every new aireralt pro- jected for the Navy. Thus all aircraft projeets initiated during 1932. the seventh year of Showa as the reign of His Majesty Hirohito is alled. were Known as Experimental 7Shi, whereas those designed in 1940 became known as Experimental 15-Shi. To differentiate between the nt pre- jects bearing the same Experimental Shi number each aireratt was brief described as to its main purpose (e.g. carrier fighter. reconnaissance ses plane, ete). Thus the full Shi number of a connaissance seaplane de- Navy Fapssimental 1685 Casrer Attack Romer iAishi BTAT Ryan 50 eloped in 1932 by Kawinishi way Navy Experimental 7Shi Reconnay sance Seaplane ‘This system of designations, quite similar in principle to the British specification system, was in eonstant use up (0 the end of the war fiveraft projected in 1945 came under the Navy Experimental 20. group. Navy Tope 0 Carrier Fighter Model 2 Teeson Zen Fight has under nah ABMS). This example of rocket lansing fa Section 2 Short designation system During the late wentics the Japanese Navy introduced an aireratt desig nation system similar in its basie concept to the one used until 1962 by the US Navy. When the detailed design of a new airerafh was initiated it was designated by a group of letters and numbers known as the ‘Short desig nation (e.g. A6M1). The first capital letter, or type symbol. indicated the primary Function of the aireraft, ie. A for carrier fighter. B for carrier attack bomber (orpeda bomber). ete. (Refer to Designation Index for complete listing of ‘ype symbols.) The first number. or ype number. indicated the number of different aireralt that had beer ordered under each type designation while the second capital letter indieated the company responsible for the design of the sircrall, The to letters and the first number remained unchanged uring the life of the aircratl while the second number. indicating 1 particular model of the aireralt, changed with each new model, Minor ‘modifications, not justifying a change in model aumber. were identified by a lower case letter following the second number (e.g. A6MSe) ‘When an airerait was mod fied to perform some other duty, the new uty way indicated by the appropriate type symbol ‘ollowing the second umber andl separated from it by & hyphen (e.g. AGM2-K) Foreign aireraft adopted lor servive use by the JNAF followed the regular pattern (eg. A/HeI) while Forcign arena! baught for experi- mental purpose only received a similar short designation in whieh the first number was replaced by the cupital letter X (ee. AXHe!)The Following letters were assigned to the apanes Faeturers supplying ireraftv the Japanese Navy A Aichi (Aichi Tohei Denki KK. and Aichi Kokukt KK, North American {North American Aviation Ine! B Boeing (The Boeing Aireralt Company) C Consolidated (Consolidated Aireratt Corp DB Douglas (Douglas Aireralt Company Ine). G Hitachi (Hitachi Kokuki KK.) Grumman (The Grumman Aircralt Engineering Corp, H Hiro (Daiuichi Kaigun Kokusho). Hawker (Hawker Aireratt Lud, He Heinkel (Ernst Heinkel Flugreugwerke A.G.) J Nihon Kegata (Nihon Kogata Hikoki K.K Junkers (Junkers Flagveug und Moiorenwerke AG.) K Kawanishi (Kawanishy Kokuki KK.) Kinner (Kinner Airplane & Motor Corp) M_— Mitsubishi (Mitsubihi Jukogye K.K.. NN Nakajima (Nakajima Hikoki KK). P Nihon (Nihon Hikoki KK.) s Si Vv Sisebo (Dai-Nijichi Kuigun Kokusho) Showa (Showa Hikohi KK VoughtSikorsky (Vought-Sikorsky: Division of United Aiveralt corp W > Watunbe (K.K. Watanabe Tebhosboy. Kyushu (Kyau Hikohs RK) Y Yokeutha (DatlehiKaigon Kok Giitsestoy Z_— Miaune (Mizuno Garaida Seinshisho) Section 3 Type number sistem From 1921 onwards, as a substantial number of Japanese-built aireratt centered service, the Navy assigned 10 each type ob aireruft going into production a designation eembining a brief Geseription of their fanetion ‘with a type number. From (921 10 1928 the type rumbers were based on the current Japanese year of reign during which a particular type of aireralt was accepted for production. eg 1921-26 = Taisho 10 10 Taisho 15 and 1927 and 1928 Showa 2 and 3. However. commencing mn 1929 the type numbers were based on the last digits of the Japanese calendar year. The INAF system of type numbers was then similar to the one initiated in 1927 by the JAAF with the exception of the type number for airerall accepted for production during the year 2600 (1840) a..) whieh were Type 0 under the Naval nomenclature and Type 100 under the Arms’s nomenelature, ‘To distinguish between wndels and versions of a tusie type of ainerat the Navy used a system of rode! numbers, Initially a single digit was used Tor each version, the first one being designated Model Land a subsersion fof that Model T being known as the Mewel F-1, In the late thirties the ayshoat of the war way the Navy Type 2 Fsingtloat Model 12 ‘kuvannhi HIRI) TOS Niet Depurieas model number sistem was modified, each moclel number comprising (wo digits, The first digit ws changed each vime the airframe was modified and the second digit was changed each time a differen: engine model was adapted to the airizame. Thus the first model of a hasic type of aircraft was designated Model 11. the segond model became Model 21 if there ‘was only an airframe modification, Model 12 itonls the type af engine hal changed. or Model 22 i both atrtram nt 10) those of the first model, Minor modifications. not justifying a change sn model rumber, were identified by st Japanese character such as FB (Keo Z (Ors. (Hei. ete. following the appropriate Model number, For Dractical purposes, inv the Western World. these characters are usually replaced by Roman letters (eg. the Type and Model numbers for the Mitsubishi AGMSe were Nay Type 0 Carrier Fighter Model S265) -or 520). Foreign aircraft in JNAP service were known by a similar system in Which the type number way replaced by a type leter. the leter vorrespond- ing to that assigned to the manufacturers under the short designation system (eg. the Heinkel A7Hel way known ay the Navy Type He Air Defence Fighter} ast aS ee BEE, IA. a Navy Bote Ginea Stiky Wast the Yokostha PIV sas hy ol atm 33The fll designation of the Aichi ELOAL under the Fspe Number sistem wa Navy Revonnusunce Seaplane Zain (Sapiens Cloud) Mode In late 1942. the type number system was modified for security reasons The type number gave place to a popular code name as detailed in Section 4 while the brief description of the aircraft's function and the mode! umber continued in use as before (e.g. Navy Suisei Carrier Bomber Model 33 for the Yokosuka DSY Section 4 ~ Popular nanes For a long time the Japanese Navy discouraged the use of popular names and only a few airerall, sueh as the Mitsubishi GAM which was known to its erews as the Hamaki (Cigar) due to the shape af its fuselage did receive a popular name, However. in July 1943, the Navy reversee their long-standing aversion towards popular names and officially assignee names to their aireralt in lew of type numbers. The chosen ascording to the following code popular names were Fighters Named after meteorological phenomena, Carrier and seaplane Names ending in pu or fu (wind). Intereeptor fighters: Names ending in den thi Night fighters Names ending in Ko ( Auiack aireralt med afer mountains Reconnaissance aircrart: Named after clouds Bombers: Named alter stars {sei} or vonstellations (zan) Patrol planes Named after seas and veeans Transports Named alter shies, Trainers Named after trees. plant Miscellaneous aircraft: Named after landscape a A. Naxy Interceptor Fighter Raifen (Thunderbolty Mode! 21 (Mitsubishi \abandned inthe Philippines By rereating Japanese forces (1'S Aus Deparoneme, Section § — Service Aerop ine Development Progranime (SAP) systems In 1939 the Bureau of Aeronautics of the Imperial Japanese Navy instituted the Service Aeroplane Development Programme under which the design teams in charge of rew aireralt projects could study the require: ments and problems of new aircraft for submission lo the NAF prior to undertaking detailed design, An aircraft comin 2 ‘under this programme received « special project designation consisting ofits manufacturer's letter tunder the short designation system and a two-digit number (10, 20, 30. ete) However. records of most of these SADP numbers were destroyed prior t0 the Allied occupation of JapanMisubyahi Kite wa sil wie (eker)) Allied ineliganoe bli IIL Pace Cop SAME syst The development of the ase of the colourfill isle names given to the Japaniese sive Guring Would War He begae in the Theatre in the second hall of 192, Initials. Japanese aireraft were identified’ as Zerosif they were fighters and as Mitsubishis if they dropped bombs. The result was unaveidable confusion and the problem of labelling Japanese aeroplanes was delegated to the theatre's Air Technical Intel ligence Unit (ATIU) of the Allied Air Forces, Discovery of Japanese official names helped litte, They we tand the list was incomplete. Cumbersome though such designations were some agencies started to use them for lack of something better. Others faitempted to deseribe the Ispes by manulactuters but this only added te confusion inasmuch iy more than -one manufacturer was sometimes involved. Early in 1942. Captain Prank T, MeCoy Jr. of Nashville, Tennessee. was sent to Australia as the Intelligence Offer of the 38th Bombardmeni Group. In June 1942 he hesime the founder and head of the Materiel uthwest Pasitic —_ LeeacDe. the prolecesor of Ks way the Mitsubioh) ASME Tone 9m. Carre Based eter an Stn dapanese sont (CS Nase Depunnonr) ne OMS Seotion of the Directorate of Intelligence, Allied Air Borces, Southwest Pacific Area, in Melbourne. Capiain McCoys sta numbered two: Tech nical Sergeant Francis Williams ane! Corporal Joseph Grattan, These three men were assigned the tash of identifying Japanese aireralt The early activitios of the Diroctorate of Vntelligenes, which became the Technical Air Intelligence Unt in Octuber 194, ate well described by Colonel (then Captaind MeCoy himself: “The need for classification was urgent s0 we decided to start oul fresh, with our own system of code names for enemy aircraft. Lam from Tennessee. and the firs. selections we made The Dieectorate of Inllgenee, Alling Ne Forces, SPA. waive the code name PLE {othe Navy Tope 0 Observation Sealane (Mliscbishi FIM). US Nant Benartnent) were hillbilly names such as ZEKE, SATE, ROI. JAKE, PETF=sbort, simple and unusual and easy to remember “Sergeant Williams and | selocied most of the names ja our numerous bull sessions, and we started assigning them in July 1922 while we were still in Melbourne. Air Commodore J, E. Hewitt. Raat. the Director of Intel- Tigenee, and his executive and deputy, Major Ben B. Cain, Usaat. gave 100 Per cent approval on the cade mimes and helped us ir the ight from thes ‘on. I say fight ungualiliedly. besause everyone thought we were crazy, We assigned 75 code names in the list month, Thus were barn most of the code names which were to come into com= mon usage throughout the Allie ait forces. By September 1942, the South= west Pacific Area's intelligence information sheets were using the ede hhames exehisively. Shortly thevalter, the South Paciie and China: Ind Burma theatres were employing the TATU code names and silhoucue sheets. McCoy bopan a series oP ables 10 Washington sand 40 the Air‘wvkt us the code ame wien 10 the fast reeonnalssance carciee-based Nakai NYS (Painted Clow Ministry in London. requesting the adoption of the same or similar system of standardized identification, His involved, strange-sounding messa taroused suspicion on one oovasion (one of his code names was HAP, the nickname of General Henry H. (Hap) Amold, Usxaf Chief of Staff) and he ‘was summoned before General MacArthur's chief of operations 10 expl them, Late in 1942, the eode name system was adopted by all United States Air Forces and by the United States Navy. and several months later th British Air Ministry gave it their approval er. when the Materiel Section of the Directorate of Intelligence new Japanese aizcratt i Would assign a tentative label. cheek Psa eMituhnhi Kiely annsegine Might sation i the ini States with Washington, London and India headquaeters for any available con firmation and then announce the designated code name. No classification was given to these names. [n the summer of 1944 a jcint Army. Navy Air Technicel Center at Anacostit, DC. took over the responsibility for assigning the names Tho code names were allotted on the following basis Male first names: Fighters (Army and Navy. singles and bine engined), Reconnaissance seaplanes, le first names: Bombers, attack bombers and dive-pombers Reconnaissance aircraft (land- or carrier-bused), Flying-boats, Transports names beginning with the leter TD, Tree names Trainers Bird names: Gliders Two famous Nakajima fighters, 710, Ki-HE-IL Shoki (Dome). inthe and wasn: Kibet Hayate (Gale) (US Nes Department) reround Several exceptions to the above pattern may be noted. The Nakajima Ki-d4, roo, was frst spotted in China and dubbed there. A request was made for the name to stick ane all co-ordinating parties agreedJapanese Aircraft Camouflage and Markings Tie purpose of this section is aot to provide a complete history Hn camouflage and markings as this subject, adequately covered in specialized ‘Volumes s beyond the scope of this book, but rather to provide a survey of the basic schemes used by the Japanese Forees to camouflage and identily their aircraft. No attempt has therefore been made to cover the often un. sual schemes resultiag [ron teld contingencies when the ground perscanel had to adopt expedient methods using whatever paints were available 60 them. Like the nain bods of the book this section Is divided into two parts pectisely cvering the camouflage and markings used by the Imperial Japanese Army aiid the Imperial Japanese Navy Am easly production Mitsubishi K-2la in se vented camoufige, (USAF 3 AIRCRAPT OF THE IMPERIAL IAPANESE ARMY At the start of the Pacific War most combat aiterafl of the Japanese Army were either let in natural meal finish or were painted light grey~ f overall (ee page 68), However, during the second Sino-Japanese Conflict some aircralt (pes an particular the Mitsubishi Ki} and Kawasiki Kiet? bombers displayed an carly form of camouflage The most comnon samouflage scheme ther used consisied of irregular ofive green (A3) and beovwn (A, N14) areas separated by thin shite oF light, ble w:tsy lines on the upper surfaces while under surfaces were finished i Tight grey (AN2) (sce page 699 'As the war sent on the nged for camouflage became more pressing: and field units bogan to apply a series of varied schemes. Most of these ‘ook the Form of either olive green (A3) Slotches or smake-weave stripes over the factory frish or natural metal finish (see page 46). Meanwhile camouflage sctemes began to be applied at the factory and commonly consisted of euther osive wegen (A3) exer al « pper surfaces with light grey ® IGHT BLUE HINOMARU RED “EIB TRAINING ORANGE AS PALE GREY AYN 20 DEEP YELLOW A/N22 MATT BLACK f 1 AIN2 LIGHT GREY — ayia YELLOW - LJ ‘AG NATURAL METAL FINISHA Mitsubishi Ki-21-109 of the Ish Semtal andr at arcrat has typeal sakesacane camouage an pel ‘ngs ts addieonal canta (A,N2) oF natural metal finish on under surfaces (see pages 64 anid 70) or olive green (A3) blctches spray-painted over the buse finish (see pages 67 and 77), In either case 4 Hat black or dark b-ue anti-glare panel was Frequently applied on the nose of fighter aircraft Other frequently-used schemes included the cnlours applied te many experimental of training aeroplanes. However, in this instance the purpose was not camouflage bul rather the opposite. such sireraft being painted in bright training orange }E18) overall (see pages 73 anf 74) Wentification markings consisted of a ‘eo nbat identification stripe’ in white around the rear fuselage lorward of the tail surfaces and, during the last two yearsof the wa, yellow (A N20 oF A NA) i extending from the root lo a position about level wi divide. As with the camouflage schemes exceptiors were rather frequent National markings consisted oF solid red circles (Hinamarus) normally leading edge panels Mitsubishe Ki-2is boaring abstract rypreentations of three Kai gharacters spelling Hamamaist, home fase othe Haram Ses Resner Train sehowh 61[A Nakajima Kis-L Hayabusa ‘Peregrine Faken) of she, $0th Sentai showing the infrequent wned unit markings on the feslage The Kew Is scan ae? being shot van neat Chittagong. Brits Ofeal > painted on both sides of the Tusclage and above and below the wings. On biplanes the Hinomarus were painted on both upper wings and under both lower wings, On camouflaged aircraft the Hinomarus were normally out- lined in white on dark surfaces but many aireraf: operating in defence fof the homeland had their Hinomarus applied on white bands ciccting the fuselage and wings (see page 46) while at least one unit applied an ad ditional narrow red cirele around the white-ringed Hinomarus, Unit markings. first introduced during the litter phase of the second Sino-Japanese conflict, consisted of brightly cooured designs. These markingsoften took the form of abstract symbols of either the Sentai mum ber (see page 70 showing the markings of the 74% Sentai) or the Kanji characters spelling the name of the unit's home be Akeno for the Akeno Fighter Training School). Other markings were geometric designs (see arrow on Kids of the 64th Sentai on page 6) of, less trequently. were more conventional (e.g. rampant tiger on Kieg® of the 82nd Sestal NBeaton belonged othe 26h Senta CSTE ‘These markings were initially applied on the rear fuselage or on the verti tail surfaces by fin and rudder. The colour of these markings served to identify the Chutats within a given Sentai: cobalt blue was used for the Sentai Hombu and white. red, yellow and green were normally used by the Ist, 2nd. 3rd and 4th Chutais. A white outline was often used on camoullaged aireral Representative camouflage and markings ure illustrated on the following pages and are keyed 10 the colour chart (opposite page 60), The IPMS, colour code numbers, well-known to modellers and used by hobby: paint manufacturers, are used as an aid to the reader during the war were confined (0 th AIRCRAFT OF THE IMPERIAL JAPANESE NANY During the early part of the second Sino-Japanese conflict most aircraft of the Japanese Navy sere left in natural metal finish or were aluminium doped. Later on. however. most aireralt we sky grey (NS) oF wer camoufaged in dark green (NI) and tan (N17) on their upper surfaces, and light grey (A N2) on their lover surfaces. On the eve of the Pacilie War these two schemes wore the most prevalent among naval combat oirera (see finish (we paws 76 and 81) but many aireratt were still eft in-aatural metal 8 and 83) Na Aichi DIAL in tspeal rena overall alanis nish with rn ar raudder, Whesspate have tos remo During the early putt of the Pacitic War a ne scheme was introduced and firs applied to lund-hased attack bombers. fleatplases and ying boats. This scheme consisted of dark green (N1) upper surfaces with either light grey (A N2), light blue (N10) oF natural metal tnish (AG) lower sir- faces (se pages 81-85 and 78 respectively), For a while carrier-based airerafi retained their sky grey (N8) finish but with thelr assignment to land bases becoming inersasingly frequent the ground crews began 10 apply dark green (NI) blotches on their upper surlaces and fuselage sides (see page 76). The extent oF blotching varied from widely spaced spotsubishi A6M2 Reien (Zero Fighter dhe Faunan Kokua en with shy eres (ND finish Fagine siting an all number were Pik 10 SP) toan almost uniform application of dark green, Howeyer. in July 1943 solid dark green (NI) was adopted as the standard camouthige colour tar the upper surfaces of all naval «ombat aieratt Experimental and training uircraft were initially painted teaining or (E18) all over (see pages 82 anud 84) but, as their bases bevame the Frequent largets of Allied airerafi. their upper surfaces were finished in dark areen, training orange being retained on their lower surfaces. Finally i were camouilaged in the same way as the per surlaces and light grey or natural metal Tate in the war, these airer ‘combat aircraft (dark green Finish lower surfaces). ‘A common feature on rata the paintiny several aire with this ral Early during the war the white combat stripe on the rear fuselage was discarded on Navy aircratt, but yellow (A N4 or A N20) wing leading edge engined aircraft of the Japanese Nas sts of the engine cowling(s) in matt black (A N22; howeve fi types (e.g. Mitsubishi GAM anal 2M series) did not comply Mitsubishi GAM ty ‘overall suing orange he ft haructer on th as Poonsine tthe Roki Cj Sh tA Techn Arsen ot identilication panels similar to those applied on Army aieralt were normally applied National markings used on JNAF aircraft were similar to those applied to JAAP aireraft but the hone defence bands circ swings were not used by the Navy. Some Navy aireralt had the ated over white or yellow squares (see page 83, Unit markings, painted aero both sides of fin and rudder. anlerwent a series of changes during the Paeitie War. AL the Start of the War Navy ait= cerait used a unit marking system consisting af either one or wo Kana characters referring to the aiterall's home base (ext. page 34 where the character Ka stands for Kastaniganray it the aireralt was based in Japan for Korea. of a Roman letter (e.g. page 83 where W identifies the [4th Kokutai) for land-based aireraft in 4 combat zone or of a Roman letter and Roman numeral (ee. page 79 where BI idenrites she first aircraft carrier -I- of the Second Kohn Senrai -B.) for carvier-based aiteratt. The the fuselage and Hinomarus Qverall at black finish and Hinsmarus without byntits sore applied 1 Japanese Navy nigh fighters, Thivsalour shame seen ona Nakaions HINTS Gekbu thle Tin tCopoaghe Marae lunit marking was followed by a hyphen and a series of digits -uswally three -xhich identified the individual aigerait in the anit In the mid-war sears these sjstems of unit markings were replaced by sn alledigit system whereby each unit received st eall number of 0 10 four Uigits (Whree digits were the cule but many exceptions existed), The first digit was intended to identify the unit's role, but this principle was not consistently followed. The use of individual aircralt numbers, separated From the unit call number by # hyphen, remained identical, Finally. at the War's end. as unity were once again stationed in Japan, some of them chose ‘gain to paint the Kana character identifying their home base in place oF their call number (e.g. Tainan KokutaiIs sides and wing upper surfaces, \°1 nd spines.IMPERIAL JAPANESE ARMY AIRCRAFT Kawasaki Ki-10 With the appearance ofthe Ki-10 the classic biplane fighter design reached its peak in Japan and the aircralt marked the end of an era, However. its superior manoeuvrability and supreme dog-fight agility were to influence the thinking of Japanese fighter pilots who, For many years after the intro duction of the monoplane fighter, kept insisting that these aireralt be equally manoeuvrable, In the early thirties the fighter units of the Imperal Japanese Army were ‘equipped with Army Type $1 Fighter parasol monoplanes built by Naka Jima and with Army Type 92 Fighter biplanes built by Kawasaki, but both types of aircraft were markedly slower than the Hawker Fury then used by the Royal Air Force and the Boeing P-26A then being delivered to the US Army Air Corps. In an attempt to produce in Japan a fighter aireraft equal or superior to contemporary foreign types, in 1933 Kawasaki had designed the Ki-5, a clean inverted gull-winged camilever monoplane, but in 1934 it was rejected by the Army as tests revealed that its manoeuvrability was unsatisfactory. In September 1934. shortly after the Ki-S°s development had been discontinued. the Koku Hombu instructed Kawasaki to design a high-performance fighter biplane while Nukajime were asked to develop a competitive fighter monoplane Designed by Takeo Doi with the assistance of Engineers Imachi and Tojo, the Kawasaki Ki-10 was a elean-contoured biplane of unequal span with ailerons fitted t0 the upper wing only. Powered by an 850 hp Kawa saki Ha-9-l1a twelve-cylinder vee liquid-cooled engine driving a two-blade fixed-pitch propeller, the first Ki-l0 prototype as completed in March 1935 and was followed a month later by a second, identical, aircraft, Early flight test results confirmed that the aircraft was markedly Superior to the Fourth prototype of the Kawasaki Kil) Army Type 95 Fighter 86 The Kawasaki Ki-10 Army Type 95 Fighter Model | was the Japanese Army's Tost operational ghter biplane unsuccessful Ki-S in speed as well as in manoeuvrability, However. the competitive Nakajima Ki-II with its low-wing moroplane configuration ‘was still faster and Kawasaki feared that the production contract would go to Nakajima. Every effort was made to improve speed and the third proto: type was fitted with a three-blade metal propeller in place of the two-blade wooder airserew used on the ‘rst two aireralt, and Mush-head rivets were adopted. The fourth prototype was identical with the exception ofthe upper wing which featured increased dihedral to improve stability. Even so modified the Ki-10 was still sower than the Ki-I]. but the gap had been sufficiently reduced for the Ki-10 to win a large praduction eonteact on account of is exceptional manoeuvrability. The production Ki-10-I designated officially Army Type 95 Fighter Model 1. was identical to the third prototype and 300 were built by Kawasaki between December 1935 sand October 1937. ‘When placing 4 productior contract for the Kil0-1, the Army had instructed Kawasaki to initiate a development programme aimed at improving the aireraft’s stability. For this purpose the 185th Ki-10 was fitted with wings of increased span and area. and with a lengthened fuse- lage. Flight test results showed a marked improvement and the aircraft served as a prototype for the Ki-l0-II series which went into production as the Army Type 95 Fighter Model 2 beginning in June 1937, In April 1936, design of a cleaned-up version began and the 200th airframe was completed in Ostober 1936 as the KEWL KAI. Ihe large radiator was moved back from under the engine eowling to between the redesigned low-drag cantilever undercarriage internally sprung wheels covered by drag-reducing wheel covers, At the same time the engine cowling, still housing an Ha.9-Ila, was cleaned-up. During tests a maxi- mum speed of 420 km/h (261 mph) was reached. this speed exceeding that of the standard Ki-10-L by some 20 rvh (12-5 mph). Two generally Similar KielO-IL KAI were produced by incorporating the aerodynamic} Al € | i i | eawasenr Koro provements of the Kisl0A KAL into KislO-1L sie by the Ha-9-I1b with a maximum rating of 950 hp at For short periods. they reached a top speed of 445 kanlh (276-3 mph) Despite a maximum speed almost equal to that of the Nakajima Ki-27 Fighter monoplane, the Ki-I0-Il KAL remained in prototype form as it was obvious that the heyday of the biplane combat aireralt was over. ‘The Ki-10-1 and Ki-l0-IC saw service with units of the Japanese Army in Japan, Formosa, Korea and Manchukuo and participated in combat mes and, powered $00 m (12.470 fi) he experimental Kawasaki Kr-IO-IL KAls had a masimam speed of 276 mp ‘and were the fastest oF the KIO eres 8 operations in China and Manchuria during the second Sino-Japanese conflict and the Nomonhan Incident. However. when the Pacific War began tte Ki-10 had been relegated to training and other ancillary duties, Allied intelligence olicers, who early in the war still believed the aircraft to be in first-line service. assigned to it the code name PERRY but aircraft of this type were only occasionally encountered over China. eave apd 990 pt 8008 "duhing steed etl popes (R-DAT KAD. rower kets net Bes Basta Bklephat oesmn at ro‘Kaveasaki Kiei2s of the 7h Sent Kawasaki Ki The Kawasaki Ki-32, which was the last type of bomber aircraft powered by a liquid-cooled engine to be used by the Japanese Army. had more th the average share of teething troubles and, altho lly remark able as the contemporary Mitsubishi Ki-30 designed to meet the same military requirements, it never achieved the fame ofits Mitsubishi rival In May 1936. the Army instructed Mitsubishi and Kawasaki to design single-engined light bomer to replace the obsolete Army Type 93 Single ygined Light Bomber (Kawasaki Ki-3), Possessing « maximum speed of 400 km/h at 3,000 m (2485 mph at 9,845 ft), the aircraft was required to Fry a bomb-load of 300 to 480 kg (661 to 992 [b) at a cruising speed of 300 km/h (186 mph) between 2,000 m and 4,000 m (6.560 Fr to 13,125 f) and was to carry a defensive armament comprising a xed forwardtiring 7-7 mm ma firing 7-7 mm machine-gun. Like their rivals at Mitsubishi, the Kawasaki design team, led by Engineers Isamu Imashi and Shiro Ota. adopted for the Ki-32 a mid-wing cantilever monoplane configuration with a fixed spatted undercarriage and an internal fuselage bomb-bay but, whereas the Mitsubishi engineers had selected an air-cooled engine, Kawasaki decided to use an Ha-2-II engine of their own design, the choice of this twelve-cylinder liquid-cooled engine later proving (o be the souree of considerable difficulties, The first of eight Ki-32 prototypes was compleied and flown in March 1937 but fight trials were marred by protracted engine teething troubles necessitating several redesigns of the engine nacelle and a strengthening 90 The Kawasaki Ki-32 Amy Type 98 Single-engined Light Bomber (WS4) of the crankshaft, During competitive trials against the Mitsubishi Ki-30. the Kie32 was found to possess better lying characteristics, However, the Japanese Army. which by now had a Tulleiedged war on their hands ‘decided first to order the Mitsubishi aireraft with its more reliable power plant. Finally. in July 1938. the Ki-32 was also placed in production as the ‘Army Type 98 Single-engined Light Bomber and. ultimately, more Ki-3 than Ki-30s were bull. In service the Ki-32 was liked by its erews for its manoeuvrability superior to that of the Ki-30, snd it took an active part in the second Sino~ Japanese conflier despite the fact that its liquid-cooled engine proved ‘susceptible to battle damage. Although the Ki-32 was fitted with a fixed tundereurriage it was slightly faster than the contemporary British Fairey Battle with its retractable undercarriage and it should be remembered as fone of the types which brought Japanese military aviation on a par with the air forces of the Western nations. In December 1941 the Ki-32 was stil in Frontline service and the type Cook part in the bombing operations Kawasaki Ki with segmented camoutlage.(U8.4F) 91leading to the surrender of the Commonwealth forces defending Hong Kong. Soon thereafter, the Ki-32 (code name MARY) was assigned to training is ym nett B50 SOD IS y ey A capcured Kawasaki KietS Toryu, (US4V:1 Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu (Dragon Killer) ‘The Kawasaki KinfS had ore of the longest and most frustrating pre- production development perinds of any Nipponese aircraft seeing active duty daring the second Worls War but, during the last months of the war ‘when the Japanese wece vainly trying to defend their country from the devaststing night bombing raids by the B-2s, it was the Atmy’s only ‘operational night fighter. a task for which it had not been originally desi. The appearance in Europe and America of twin-engined long-range fighters had not escaped the stention of the Japanese military stall which sav inthis type of aifcraft an answer to the limited range of contemporary single-engined fighters. However, when in March 1937 an oficial specifi cation for a twin-engined heavy fighter was issued to the Japanese aircraft manufacturers, no stringent requirements were impesed as factions within the Army were unable (o agree on the relative importance to be given to armament, speed and handling characteristics. In enswer to this specific cation three projects were submitted to the Koku Hombu, the Nakajima Ki-37, the Kawasaki Ki38 and the Mitsubishi Ki-39. As they had more pressing projets. Nakajima snd Mitsubishi were allowed to abandon the KKi-37 and the Ki-39 fairly rapidly. but the Ki-38 design studies progressed smoothly at Kawasaki under the leadership of Isamu Imashi. A detailed mock-up of the Ki-38, a clean monoplane powered by two twelve-eslinder liquid-

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