AQA UNIT 3 GCSE REVISION NOTES

(Higher only in italics)

The Periodic Table

History
At the start of the 1800s quite a lot of elements had been discovered, but there had
been no real attempt to organize them.
Newlands, an English chemist and Mendeleev, a Russian chemist both worked on the
problem by arranging the elements or order of their atomic weight (mass) and looking
for patterns in their properties.
Both were successful to some extent, but Mendeleev was much more successful
because.
a) He recognized that there were some elements still to be discovered, so he left
gaps in his table
b) He was not afraid to change the order of some elements in the table where it
seemed to make sense.
c) He was able use the table to successfully predict the properties of some
elements which had not yet been discovered.
Later when more elements had been discovered and chemists realized that the
elements should be in order of atomic number rather than atomic mass, Mendeleevs
Table was shown to be extremely successful.
The Modern Table
The periodic tables patterns are now known to be based on the structure of the atom.
Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of atomic number (number of
protons in the nucleus)
The group number of an element shows the number of electrons in the outer shell.
The period number shows the number of shells of electrons
e.g. Sodium is element number 11 and has the structure 2.8.1 It therefore has 11
protons, it is in Group1, period 3 of the periodic table.
GROUP 1 , The Alkali Metals.(Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)
Similarities
1) All elements have 1 electron in the outer shell:
Li: 2.1 Na: 2.8.1 K: 2.8.8.1 etc.
2) For this reason they all form 1+ ions when they react:
Ions are Li+, Na+, K+ etc.
3) They have similar physical properties. All are very light, soft metals which are shiny
when cut.

4) They have similar chemical properties. In particular they react vigorously with water
giving hydrogen and an alkaline solution of the hydroxide.
(e.g. 2Na + 2H2O = 2NaOH + H2)
For this reason, they are called alkali metals
Because of the violence of this reaction with water, alkali metals are stored under oil,
and only very small amounts should ever be reacted with water using safety screen,
goggles etc.
Differences
1) The metals are all soft and light, but going down the group from Li to Cs, they
a) Have decreasing melting points (Li = 180oC, Na = 98oC, K = 64oC etc.)
b) Become softer
2) There is a definite increase in reactivity going down the group from Li to Cs. Li reacts
quite mildly, Na more vigorously, K quite violently etc.
This is because the atoms lower down have more inner shells of electrons. These
'shield' the outer electrons from the attraction of the nucleus, and allow the outer
electron to be lost more easily. Since metals react by losing electrons, they become
more reactive.

GROUP 7 , The Halogens. (F, Cl, Br, I, At)

Similarities
1) All are non-metals
2) They are diatomic (F2, Cl2, Br2 etc.)
3) All elements have 7 electrons in the outer shell:
F: 2.7 Cl: 2.8.7 Br: 2.8.18.7 etc.
4) For this reason they all form 1- ions when they react with metals
Ions are F-, Cl-, Br- etc.
(They get the extra electron by sharing if they combine with another nonmetal)
Differences
APPEARANCE
MELTING POINT
REACTIVITY
Fluorine
Yellow gas
-220
Extremely reactive
Chlorine
Green gas
-101
Very Reactive
Bromine
Brown liquid
-7
Quite reactive
Iodine
Black solid
113
Not very reactive
Note:
1) The differences in appearance and state
2) The clear increase in melting point
3) The clear decrease in reactivity.

REACTIONS
1. They react readily with metals to form salts (chlorine does this most readily, then
bromine, then iodine)
e.g. Mg + Cl2 = MgCl2
2Na + I2 = 2NaI
2. Like metals, a more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive one:
e.g. chlorine + potassium bromide = bromine + potassium chloride
Cl2 + 2KI = Br2 + 2KCl
or bromine + sodium iodide = iodine + sodium bromide
Br2 + 2NaI = I2 + 2KBr
THE TRANSITION METALS
This is the block which appears in the middle of the periodic table. It contains many of
the metals in everyday use, such as iron, nickel and copper.
Properties
These metals tend to be strong and dense, with a fairly high melting point.
Their reactions are similar to other metals, and their reactivity is medium to low.
Compounds
Like other metals, compounds are ionic, but many transition metals can have ions with
different charges.
e.g. Iron ions can be Fe2+ or Fe3+, so that it can form 2 sets of compounds called iron (II)
compounds and iron (III) compounds. e.g.
Iron (II) chloride contains Fe2+ ions and is pale green in colour
Iron (III) chloride contains Fe3+ ions and is brown-yellow in colour
Transition metal compounds have a variety of colours
Iron (II) compounds are pale green
Iron (III) compounds are yellow-brown
Copper compounds are blue
Nickel compounds are green
Electronic Structure
Transition elements are elements in which the penultimate shell is being filled.
e.g. the first 5 elements in period 3 are:
K = 2.8.8.1
Ca = 2.8.8.2
Sc= 2.8.9.3
Ti= 2.8.10.3
V= 2.8.11.3 etc
Sc, Ti, V are transition metals, and in these elements, the 3rd rather than the 4th shell is
being filled.

Acids, Alkalis and Bases

Definitions
In 1887, the Swedish Chemist Arrhenius came up with the idea that all acids produced
hydrogen ions (H+) in water, while all alkalis produce OH- ions.
However, these ideas were not readily accepted because
a) It did not explain why ammonia (NH3) behaved as an alkali, nor how insoluble bases
such as magnesium oxide (MgO) behaved.
b) Ideas about particles and ions were not widely understood
In 1920s, the English chemist Lowry and the Danish chemist Bronsted came up with
new definitions:
An acid is a proton donor (it releases H+ ions), while a base is a proton acceptor (accept
H+ ions).
e.g. acids
HCl = H+ + ClH2SO4 = 2H+ + SO42Bases
OH- + H+ = H2O
NH3 + H+ = NH3
Acid Base Reactions
MgO + H2SO4 = MgSO4 + H2O
(here, the sulphuric acid gives 2 protons to the oxide ion to form water)
NH3 + HCl = NH4Cl
(here the HCl gives a proton to the ammonia)
Strong and Weak Acids
Strong acids are completely split up in water to their ions.
e.g.
HCl = H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
H2SO4= 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
HNO3 = H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
The H+ ion is always produced

Note that weak acids (like ethanoic acid in vinegar, citric acid in lemons or carbonic acid
in fizzy water) do not completely split up into hydrogen ions. The low concentration of H +
ions makes them weak.
When a strong alkali such as NaOH or KOH is dissolved in water, it produces dissolved
OH- ions.
e.g.
NaOH = Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
A weak alkali is only partly ionised, e.g. ammonia
NH3 + H2O = NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
(the ionisation reaction is reversible)
When an acid reacts with an alkali, the ionic equation is:
H+ + OH- = H2O
This is the ionic equation for all acid - alkali reactions.
Choice of Indicators for Titrations
The volumes of solution which react with each other can be measured by titration using
a burette, a pipette and suitable indicator,
The most commonly used indicators are
Indicator
Methyl Orange
Phenolphthalein

Colour in Acids
Pjnk
Colourless

Colour in Alkalis
Orange
Pink

For strong acid- strong alkali titrations you can use either indicator
For strong acid- weak alkali titrations you must use methyl orange
For weak acid- strong alkali titrations you must use phenolphthalein

TITRATION CALCULATIONS (H)

1. The concentration of solutions is measured as the number of moles dissolved in one
dm3 of water (1dm3 = 1000cm3 = 1 litre). This concentration is given in mol dm-3
or is sometimes written M.
e.g. if 2 moles of a substance are dissolved in 1 dm3 of water, the solution is said
to have a concentration of 2 mol/dm3.
2. The concentration of a solution can be found by using the relationship

Moles

Conc Vol

Concentration is measured in mol/dm3 and volume is measured in dm3

1000cm3 = 1 dm3, so always divide cm3 by 1000 before using this relationship.
e.g.
a) What is the molar concentration if 0.2 moles are dissolved in 250cm3 of water?
volume = 250/1000 = 0.25 dm3
concentration = 0.2/0.25 = 0.8 mol/dm3
Questions
Find the number of moles of
a) NaCl in 3 dm3 of a 0.1M solution.
b) CuSO4 in 200cm3 of a 0.2M solution.
c) HCl in 50cm3 of a 0.5M solution.
Complete the following table:
Moles
Concentration (mol dm-3)
0.1
0.5
0.15
0.8
0.01
2
0.2
0.5

Volume
3dm3
200cm3
1dm3
600cm3

CALCULATIONS FROM EQUATIONS

Once the number of moles has been calculated, the balanced equation can be used in
the normal way:
1) Use ' moles =conc x vol' to find number of moles of one substance.
2) Use 'big' numbers in equation to find moles of other substances.
3) Use conc = moles/volume to find the molar concentration of the other
substance if required.
Examples:
a) 250 cm3 of a solution of NaOH of concentration 0.1 moles dm-3 reacts with
hydrochloric acid.
How much acid is used?
2NaOH + H2S04 = Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Moles = Concentration x Volume
Conc = 0.1M
Vol = 250/1000 = 0.25 dm3
So Moles of NaOH = 0.1 x 0.25 = 0.025
From the equation, the moles of H2SO4 is half this: 0.025/2 = 0.0125
b) 50 cm3 of a solution of sodium carbonate of concentration 0.2 moles dm-3 reacts
with hydrochloric acid. How much hydrochloric acid is used?
Na2CO3 + 2HCl= NaCl + H2O + CO2
Moles = Concentration x Volume
Conc = 0.2mol dm-3
Vol = 50/1000 = 0.05 dm3

So Moles of NaOH = 0.2 x 0.05 = 0.01

From the equation, the moles of HCl is twice this: 0.01 x 2 = 0.02 moles
c) 100 cm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide of concentration 0.5 moles dm-3 reacts
with 25cm3 of hydrochloric acid. NaOH + HCl= NaCl + H2O
i) How many moles of hydrochloric acid is used?
ii) What is the concentration of the hydrochloric acid?
i) Moles = Concentration x Volume
Conc = 0.5mol dm-3
Vol = 100/1000 = 0.1 dm3
So Moles of NaOH = 0.5 x 0.1 = 0.05
From the equation, the moles of HCl is the same: 0.05 moles
ii) For the HCl, Concentration = Moles/ Volume
Moles = 0.05
Volume = 25/1000 = 0.025 dm3
Concentration = 0.05/0.025 = 2 mol dm-3

WATER CHEMISTRY
WATER
Water is the most common chemical on the planet. One of its most important properties
is as a solvent. It is an extremely good solvent for a wide variety of chemicals, and for
this reason it is difficult to obtain pure.
Sea water is formed when rainwater runs through rocks & soils, dissolving out minerals.
These are taken by rivers to the seas where the minerals are concentrated through
evaporation. The most common is sodium chloride (salt) but there are many others as
well.
HARD & SOFT WATER
Hard water has the following properties:
1) It is difficult to make a good lather.
2) Scum is formed with soap.
3) Lime scale forms in kettles, pipes etc.
Hard water contains Ca2+ or Mg2+ ions in solution. These ions react with soap to form
scum.
This is because soap is sodium stearate, which reacts with calcium ions to form
insoluble calcium stearate which is scum.
Calcium is usually dissolved in the form of calcium sulphate or calcium hydrogen
carbonate.
If calcium hydrogen carbonate is present, it can be removed by boiling. This
decomposes the calcium hydrogen carbonate to calcium carbonate, which forms scale.
This is called temporary hardness.
If calcium sulphate is present, hardness cannot be removed by boiling. This is called
permanent hardness (although, it can in fact be removed by other water-softening
methods).

The hardness usually comes about by rainwater falling on limestone or chalk. Rainwater
is made acidic by dissolved CO2, and this dissolves the calcium carbonate to form
soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate.
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2
The presence of dissolved Ca2+ ions from the calcium hydrogen carbonate makes the
water hard.
If water containing calcium hydrogen carbonate is heated, insoluble calcium carbonate
is formed again as lime scale in your kettle, pipes etc.
Ca(HCO3)2 = CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
Some people choose to soften their water because
1) Less soap is used.
2) No scum is formed.
3) No lime scale is formed.
There are 2 popular methods
1) Calcium ions may be taken out of solution by adding another ion to form an insoluble
calcium salt.
e.g. Sodium carbonate (washing soda) reacts to form insoluble calcium carbonate.
2) An ion exchange resin can be used. This is a material containing a high
concentration of sodium ions. When hard water is passed through, the calcium ions in
the water are replaced by sodium ions, which do not cause hardness.
SOLUBILITY
Water is good solvent for many substances.
It will dissolve most ionic substances
Some covalent simple molecular substance will dissolve, but many do not.
SOLUBILITY CURVES
A solubility curve shows how much of a substance can be dissolved in a certain amount
of water at different temperatures. Usually more can be dissolved at higher
temperatures.
By reading off the amounts which can be dissolved at different temperatures, you can
work out how much will crystallise out of solution when the temperature changes.

Solubility Curve for Sodium Sulphate

Grams dissolving in 1kg of water

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Temperature/oC
This shows that at 50C 100g of water can dissolve a maximum mass of 30g of sodium
sulphate, while at 70C 100g of water can dissolve a maximum of 40g of sodium
sulphate.
(a solution dissolving as much solute as it can is called a saturated solution)
Therefore, if 1 kg of a saturated solution of sodium sulphate is cooled from 70C to 50C
then 10g (40g - 30g) of sodium sulphate would be precipitated out.
SOLUBILITY OF GASES
Many gases dissolve in water (e.g. ammonia & carbon dioxide). They dissolve more
under pressure, but become less soluble as the temperature rises.
Fizzy water is a solution of carbon dioxide, but only remains fizzy if kept under pressure.
Fish need the oxygen that is dissolved in water, but if the temperature rises, the amount
of dissolved oxygen will decrease.
WATER QUALITY
Water of the correct quality is essential for life. For humans, drinking water should have
sufficiently low levels of dissolved salts and microorganisms.
This is achieved by choosing an appropriate source, passing the water through filter
beds to remove any solids and then sterilising with chlorine.
Water filters containing carbon, silver and ion exchange resins can remove some
dissolved substances from tap water to improve the taste and quality.
Pure water can be produced by distillation.

ENERGY, FUELS AND POLLUTION

EXOTHERMIC reactions are reactions which release heat or other forms of energy to the
surroundings. Most reactions are exothermic, the most obvious ones are combustion reactions.
Other examples are respiration & fermentation
e.g. Magnesium + oxygen = Magnesium oxide
When an exothermic reaction occurs, the products of the reaction have less energy than the
reactants, since some energy has been released. This can be shown on an 'Energy Profile'
Magnesium + Oxygen
Energy

Heat given out to surroundings (-1245kJ)

Magnesium oxide

e.g. 2Mg + O2 = 2MgO

H = -1254 kJ/mole
The energy change is represented by H, which is measured in kJ per mole, and is negative for
exothermic reactions.
ENDOTHERMIC reactions are reactions which take in heat from the surroundings the most
usual examples are thermal decompositions, i.e. reactions in which a substances is split up by
heat. Another example is photosynthesis.
e.g. Calcium carbonate = Calcium Oxide + carbon dioxide
When an endothermic reaction occurs, the products of the reaction have more energy than the
reactants, since some energy has been taken in. This can be shown on an 'Energy Profile'

Energy

Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide

Heat taken in from surroundings (+345kJ)
Calcium carbonate

The energy change is represented by H, which is measured in kJ per mole, and is positive for
endothermic reactions. e.g.
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2 H = +345 kJ/mole
Practical Measurement of Energy of Reaction

When a reaction is carried out, it is usually carried out in such a way that the heat evolved is
transferred to some water (in some cases a dilute solution is used in place of water, but the effect
is very similar). The formula used is
q= mcT
Where q= Energy change is measure in Joules
m = mass in grams of water or solution whose temperature is raised.
(remember 1cm3 of water weighs 1g)
c = heat capacity of water (usually given as 4.2 J/K/g)
T = change in temperature
If the value of H is required in kJ, the enthalpy change is divided by 1000
If the value is required is in kJ /mol, then divide by the number of moles of reactant.
H = mcT where n is the number of moles used.
1000 n
Remember that if the temperature increased, the reaction is exothermic (H -ve) and vice versa.
e.g. 10g of octane (C8H18) is burned and used to raise the temperature of 100cm3 of water from
18oC to 57oC
q= mcT
m = total mass of solution whose temperature was raised = 100g
c = heat capacity of solution = 4.2
T = 57 - 18 = 39oC
Energy given out = 100 x 4.2 x 39 = 16380J
Energy in kilojoules = 16380/1000 = 16.38kJ
The number of moles octane used = Mass/Mr = 10/114 = 0.0877
H = 16.38/0.0877 = -186kJ/mol 9negative because reaction is exothermic)
Bond Energies
1. When a chemical reaction occurs, the bonds between the atoms in the reactants must be
broken, before the new bonds in the products can be formed.
e.g. H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl
Showing the bonds: H-H + Cl-Cl = H-Cl + H-Cl
The bonds between the 2 hydrogen atoms in H2 and between the 2 chlorine atoms in Cl2 must be
broken before new bonds between H & Cl can be made
The process of bond breaking is endothermic (takes in energy)
The process of bond making is exothermic (gives out energy)
To calculate the energy change for the above reaction, we need to know the bond energies:
Bond energy of H-H bond = 436 kJ/mole
Bond energy of Cl-Cl bond = 242 kJ/mole
Bond energy of H-Cl bond = 431 kJ/mole
Energy needed to break 1 H-H bond and 1 Cl-Cl bond = 436 + 242 = 678 kJ
Energy given out when 2 H-Cl bonds are formed = 2 x 431 = 862 kJ
The difference is 862-678 = 184 kJ given out.

So we can write

H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl
H = -184 kJ/mole
(remember that a minus H means an exothermic reaction)

Activation Energy
Many exothermic reactions need a small input of energy before the main reaction will start (e.g.
the match that lights the bonfire). This is called ACTIVATION ENERGY, and is needed to start
breaking the bonds in the reactants so that new ones can be formed.

Endothermic Reaction
Exothermic Reaction

ACTIVATION
ENERGY

ACTIVATION
ENERGY

REACTANTS

PRODUCTS

ENERGY OF
REACTION

ENERGY OF
REACTION

PRODUCTS

REACTANTS

Fuels & Pollution

Pollution of the atmosphere is mainly caused by the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas).
Power stations use huge amounts of these fuels and so are a major source of pollution. Cars and
lorries are another major source of atmospheric pollution, however the use of fuels is essential
for our economy, and viable alternatives to fossil fuels will need to be developed.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
TESTS FOR METAL IONS
FLAME TEST
Clean a piece of nichrome wire with sandpaper, then water, and dip it into your test
substance. Now hold the wire at the edge of a blue Bunsen flame.
Bright orange flame - SODIUM (Na+)
Lilac - POTASSIUM (K+)
Crimson - LITHIUM (Li+)
Brick red - CALCIUM (Ca2+)

Apple green BARIUM (Ba2+)

TESTING WITH SODIUM HYDROXIDE
Since most metal hydroxides are insoluble, adding sodium hydroxide solution to a
solution of a metal salt will give a precipitate.
e.g. Copper sulphate + Sodium hydroxide = Copper Hydroxide + sodium sulphate.
CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)
= Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
The copper hydroxide is seen as a blue precipitate.
Method
The substance is dissolved in water. Sodium hydroxide solution is added until in excess.
No Precipitate
Sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) or ammonium (NH4+) must be present, as the hydroxides
of these are soluble.
If ammonium ions (NH4+) are present, then ammonia gas will be given off which turns
red litmus paper blue (alkaline)
White Precipitate which does not redissolve in excess NaOH
CALCIUM (Ca2+) or MAGNESIUM (Mg2+) must be present, as Ca(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2
are both white and insoluble.
White Precipitate which dissolves in when excess NaOH is added
ALUMINIUM (Al3+) present. Al(OH)3 is insoluble in water, but soluble in sodium
hydroxide solution.
Coloured Precipitate
COPPER (Cu2+) ions give a blue ppt of Cu(OH)2
IRON (II) (Fe2+) ions give a dirty green ppt of Fe(OH)2
IRON (III) (Fe3+) ions give a brown ppt of Fe(OH)3

TESTS FOR NON-METAL IONS

1) Test for Carbonates
Add dilute acid.
If it fizzes, test for CO2.with lime water (goes cloudy). This indicates a CARBONATE
(CO32-)
2) Test for Halides (Chloride, Bromide & Iodide)
Add a little nitric acid, followed by a few drops of silver nitrate solution.
CHLORIDE (Cl-) gives a white ppt of AgCl,
BROMIDE (Br-) gives a cream coloured ppt of AgBr
IODIDE(I-) gives a yellow ppt of AgI

3)Test for Sulphates

Add a little dilute HCl, followed by barium chloride solution.
SULPHATE (SO42-) gives a white ppt of BaSO4.
4) Test for Nitrates
Add a little aluminium powder and dilute sodium hydroxide solution and warm gently.
NITRATE (NO3-) will produce ammonia gas which turns damp litmus paper blue
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
When heated, organic substances may char (turn black) because of the carbon in them.
Unsaturated compounds containing a carbon-carbon double bond. These will
decolourise bromine water.
When organic compounds undergo complete combustion, they form carbon dioxide and
water.
By weighing the amounts of these produced, the amounts of carbon and hydrogen
present can be calculated, and hence the empirical formula.
In water 2/18 of the mass is hydrogen (mass of H atoms =2, mass of H2O molecule =18)
In carbon dioxide 12/44 of the mass is carbon (mass of
C atom =12, mass of CO2
molecule =44)
e.g. An organic compound is burned and produces 8.8 g of CO2 and 3.6g of H2O. Find
its empirical formula
Mass of CO2 = 8.8g.
Mass of carbon = 8.8 x 12/44 = 2.4g
Mass of H2O = 3.6g
Mass of hydrogen = 3.6 x 2/18 = 0.4g
Empirical Formula
Element
Carbon
Hydrogen
Mass
2.4g
0.4g
Ar
12
1
Mass/Ar
0.2
0.4
Divide thru by smallest
0.2/0.2 = 1
0.4/0.2 = 2
So the ratio of C:H = 1:2 and the empirical formula is CH2.
INSTRUMENTAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS
Many modern labs use instrument to analyse compounds rather than wet chemistry.
These include
Absorption Spectrophotometers which analyse the elements in a compound
Mass Spectrometers which can find the mass of particles
Infrared Spectrometers which give information about bonds in substances.

Advantages
These methods use much smaller quantities of chemicals than traditional methods, and
generally produce more accurate results.
Disadvantages
Instrumental methods use much more expensive equipment, and require a greater skill
level to operate and interpret results.