CHAPTER 8

RING HOMOMORPHISMS, INTEGRAL DOMAINS, FIELDS

8.1. Ring Homomorphism
Ring homomorphism is a function between two rings which
respects the structure, where the operations on the left-hand side is
in R and on the right-hand side in S. Note that a homomorphism must
preserve the additive inverse map because
so

More explicitly, if R and S are rings, then a ring homomorphism is a

function f : R S such that:

f(a + b) = f(a) + f(b) for all a and b in R

f(ab) = f(a) f(b) for all a and b in R

f(1R) = 1S

map f : R S between

rings

is

called

a ring

homomorphism if

f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) and f(xy) + f(x)f(y) for all x, y R.

Example 1. If R is any ring and S R is a subring, then the inclusion i:
S , R is a ring homomorphism.
Basic Properties of Ring Homomorphism
Let f : R S be a ring homomorphism. Then, directly from these
definitions, one can deduce:

f(0R) = 0S.

f(a) = f(a) for all a in R.

For any unit element a in R, f(a) is a unit element such that f(a1)

= f(a)1. In particular, f induces a group homomorphism from the

(multiplicative) group of units of R to the (multiplicative) group of

units of S (or of im(f)).

The image of f, denoted im(f), is a subring of S.

CHAPTER 8

The kernel of f, defined as ker(f) = {a in R : f(a) = 0}, is an ideal in R.

Every

ideal

in

commutative

ring R arises

from

some

ring

homomorphism in this way.

The homomorphism f is injective if and only if ker(f) = {0}.
If f is bijective, then its inverse f1 is also a ring homomorphism. In
this case, f is called an isomorphism, and the rings R and S are
called isomorphic. From the standpoint of ring theory, isomorphic

rings cannot be distinguished.

If there exists a ring

homomorphism f : R S then

the

characteristic of S divides the characteristic of R. This can sometimes

be used to show that between certain rings R and S, no ring

homomorphism R S can exist.

If Rp is the smallest subring contained in R and Sp is the smallest
subring

contained

in S,

then

every

ring

homomorphism f : R S induces a ring homomorphism fp : Rp Sp.

If R is a field and S is not the zero ring, then f is injective.
If both R and S are fields, then im(f) is a subfield of S, so S can be

viewed as a field extension of R.

If R and S are commutative and P is a prime ideal of S then f1(P) is

a prime ideal of R.
If R and S are commutative and S is an integral domain, then ker(f)

is a prime ideal of R.
If R and S are commutative, S is a field, and f is surjective, then

ker(f) is a maximal ideal of R.

If f is surjective, P is prime (maximal) ideal in R and ker(f) P,

then f(P) is prime (maximal) ideal in S.

Moreover,

The composition of ring homomorphism is a ring homomorphism.

The identity map is a ring homomorphism (but not the zero map).

Therefore, the class of all rings together with ring homomorphism

forms a category, the category of rings.
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For every ring R, there is a unique ring homomorphism Z R.

This says that the ring of integers is an initial object in the category of

rings.
For every ring R, there is a unique ring homomorphism R 0,
where 0 denotes the zero ring (the ring whose only element is zero).
This says that the zero ring is a terminal object in the category of
rings.

8.2. Ring Isomorphism

A ring homomorphism having a 2-sided inverse that is also a ring
homomorphism. One can prove that a ring homomorphism is an
isomorphism if and only if it is bijective as a function on the underlying
sets. If there exists a ring isomorphism between two rings R and S,
then R and S are called isomorphic. Isomorphic rings differ only by a
relabeling of elements.
Example: Up to isomorphism, there are four rings of order 4. (This
means that there are four pairwise non-isomorphic rings of order 4 such
that every other ring of order 4 is isomorphic to one of them.) On the
other hand, up to isomorphism, there are eleven rings of order 4.
Ring Isomorphism Theorem
Theorem 8.2.1. (First isomorphism theorem). Let R and S be rings and let
: R S be a homomorphism.
Then:
(1) The kernel of is an ideal of R,
(2) The image of is a subring of S,
(3) The map : R/ ker im S, r + ker 7 (r) is a well-defined
isomorphism.

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Example: Proof. The image of is a subring by Lemma 1. Let us prove

that ker is an ideal. By Lemma 1, (0) = 0 so 0 ker and hence the
kernel is nonempty. Let a, b ker and let r R. Then since is a
homomorphism we have
(a + b) = (a) + (b) = 0 + 0 = 0,
(ra) = (r)(a) = (r) 0 = 0,
(ar) = (a)(r) = 0 (r) = 0.
Let r1 + I, r2 + I R/I. Then since is a homomorphism we have:
(r1 + I + r2 + I) = (r1 + r2 + I) = (r1 + r2) = (r1) + (r2)
= (r1 + I) + (r2 + I)
((r1 + I)(r2 + I)) = (r1r2 + I) = (r1r2) = (r1)(r2)
= (r1 + I)(r2 + I)
(1 + I) = (1) = 1.
Therefore is a homomorphism. Let us prove that is bijective. If r
+ ker ker , then (r + I) = (r) = 0 and so r ker or equivalently r
+ ker = ker . Thus ker is trivial and so by Exercise 9, is injective.
Let s im . Then there exists an r R such that (r) = s or equivalently
that (r + ker ) = s. Thus s im and so is surjective. Hence is an
isomorphism as desired.
Theorem 2. (Second isomorphism theorem). Let R be a ring, let S R be a
subring, and let I be an ideal of R. Then:
(1) S + I := {s + a : s S, a I} is a subring of R,
(2) S I is an ideal of S, and
(3) (S + I)/I is isomorphic to S/(S I)
Example: Proof. S is a subring and I is an ideal so 1 + 0 S + I. Let s1 +
a1 and s2 + a2 be elements of S + I. Then
(s1+a1)(s2+a2) = (s1 s2) | {z } S + (a1 a2) | {z } I and (s1+a1)(s2+a2) =

s1s2

|{z} S + s1a2 + a1s2 + a1a2 | {z } I .

Hence S + I is a subring of R. The intersection S I is nonempty since 0
is contained in I and S. Let a1, a2 S I and let s S. Then a1+a2 SI

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since S and I are both closed under addition. Furthermore, sa1 and a1s
are in S I since I is closed under multiplication from R S and S is
closed under multiplication. Therefore, S I is an ideal of S.
Theorem 3 (Third isomorphism theorem). Let R be a ring and let J I be
ideals of R. Then I/J is an ideal of R/J and
(R/J)/(I/J) = R/I.
Example: Proof. Since I and J are ideals, they are nonempty and so I/J =
{a + J : a I} is also nonempty. Let a1, a2 I and let r R. By definition
of addition and multiplication of cosets, we have
(a1 + J) + (a2 + J) = (a1 + a2) + J,
(r + J) (a1 + J) = ra1 + J,
and (a1 + J) (r + J) = a1r + J.
Since I is an ideal, a1 + a2, ra1, and a1r are contained in I so I/J is
an ideal of R/J. Consider the map : R/J R/I that sends r + J to r + I.
We claim that this is a well-defined surjective homomorphism with
kernel equal to I/J. (See Exercise 11.) Then (R/J)/(I/J) is isomorphic to
R/I by the first isomorphism theorem.

8.3. Integral Domain

An integral domain is a commutative ring with an identity (1 0)
with

no

zero-divisors.

That is ab = 0 a = 0 or b = 0.
Definitions of integral domain:

An integral domain is a nonzero commutative ring in which the

product of any two nonzero elements is nonzero.

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An integral domain is commutative ring with no nonzero zero

divisors.
An integral

zero ideal {0} is a prime ideal.

An integral domain is a nonzero commutative ring for which every

non-zero element is cancellable under multiplication.

An integral domain is a ring for which the set of nonzero elements

domain

is

commutative

ring

in

which

the

is a commutative monoid under multiplication (because the monoid is

closed under multiplication).
Definition 1.1. Let R be a ring. A divisor of zero or zero divisor in R is an
element r 6= 0, such that there exists an s R with s 6= 0 and rs = 0.
Example: in Z/6Z, 0 = 2 3, hence both 2 and 3 are divisors of zero. One
way to find divisors of zero is as follows:
Definition 1.2. Let R be a ring. A nilpotent element of R is an element r,
such that there exists an n N such that r n = 0. Note that 0 is allowed
to be nilpotent.
Lemma 1.3. Let R be a ring and let r R be nilpotent. If r 6= 0, then r is
a zero divisor.
Proof. The set of n N such that r n = 0 is nonempty, so let m be the
smallest such natural number. By assumption, r 6= 0, hence m > 1.
Then 0 = r r m1, where m 1 1 and hence m 1 N. Since m 1 <
m, r m1 6= 0. Hence r r m1 = 0, with neither factor equal to 0, so
that r is a divisor of zero.
Example: in Z/16Z, 0 = 24 = 2 2 3, hence 2 is a divisor of zero.

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Definition 1.4. A ring R is an integral domain if R 6= {0}, or equivalently

1 6= 0, and there do not exist zero divisors in R. Equivalently, a nonzero
ring R is an integral domain if, for all r, s R with r 6= 0, s 6= 0, the
product rs 6= 0.
Definition 1.5. Let R be a ring. The cancellation law holds in R if, for all
r, s, t R such that t 6= 0, if tr = ts, then r = s. 1 Lemma 1.6. A ring R
6= {0} is an integral domain the cancellation law holds in R.
Proof. = : if tr = ts and t 6= 0, then tr ts = t(r s) = 0. Since t 6= 0 and
R is an integral domain, r s = 0 so that r = s. = : Suppose that rs = 0.
We must show that either r or s is 0. If r 6= 0, then apply cancellation to
rs = 0 = r0 to conclude that s = 0.
The following are examples of integral domains:
1. A field is an integral domain. In fact, if F is a field, r, s F with r 6= 0
and rs = 0, then 0 = r 10 = r 1 (rs) = (r 1 r)s = 1s = s. Hence s = 0.
(Recall that 1 6= 0 in a field, so the condition that F 6= 0 is automatic.)
2. If S is an integral domain and R S, then R is an integral domain. In
particular, a subring of a field is an integral domain. (Note that, if R S
and 1 6= 0 in S, then 1 6= 0 in R.)
Examples: any subring of R or C is an integral domain. Thus for example
Z[ 2], Q( 2) are integral domains.
3. For n N, the ring Z/nZ is an integral domain n is prime. In fact,
we have already seen that Z/pZ = Fp is a field, hence an integral domain.
Conversely, if n is not prime, say n = ab with a, b N, then, as elements
of Z/nZ, a 6= 0, b 6= 0, but ab = n = 0. Hence Z/nZ is not an integral
domain.
4. If R is an integral domain, then, as we shall see in a minute, R[x] is an
integral domain. Hence, by induction, if F is a field, F[x1, . . . , xn] is an

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integral domain, as is Z[x1, . . . , xn]. To prove the last statement (4)

above, we show in fact:
Lemma 1.7. Let R be an integral domain. Then, if f(x), g(x) R[x] are
both nonzero, then f(x)g(x) 6= 0 and deg(f(x)g(x)) = deg f(x) + deg g(x).
Proof. Let d = deg f(x) and e = deg g(x). Then f(x) = Pd i=0 aix i and g(x) =
Pe j=0 bjx j with ad, be 6= 0. Since adbe 6= 0, the leading term of f(x)g(x)
is adbex d+e . Hence f(x)g(x) 6= 0 and deg(f(x)g(x)) = d + e = deg f(x) + deg
g(x).

8.4. Field
Is one of the fundamental algebraic structures used in abstract
algebra. It is a nonzero commutative division ring, or equivalently
a ring whose

nonzero

elements

form

an abelian

group under

multiplication. As such it is an algebraic structure with notions

of addition, subtraction, multiplication,

and division satisfying

the

appropriate abelian group equations and distributive law. The most

commonly used fields are the field of real numbers, the field of complex
numbers, and the field of rational numbers, but there are also finite
fields, algebraic function fields, algebraic number fields, p-adic fields,
and so forth.
First example: rational numbers
A simple example of a field is the field of rational numbers,
consisting

of

numbers

which

can

be

written

as fractions a/b,

where a and b are integers, and b 0. The additive inverse of such a

fraction is simply a/b, and the multiplicative inverse (provided that a
0) is b/a. To see the latter, note that

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The abstractly required field axioms reduce to standard properties of

rational numbers, such as the law of distributive.

or the law of commutativity and law of associativity.

The field of quotients of an integral domain
We first begin with some general remarks about fields. If F is a field
and r,s F with s 6= 0, we write (as usual) rs 1 = r/s. Note that r/s =
t/w rw = st, since rw = (sw)r/s and st = (sw)t/w, and by cancellation.
Then the laws for adding and multiplying fractions are forced by
associativity and distributivity in F: for example,
r/s + t/w = rs1 + tw1 = (rw)(sw)1 +(ts)(sw)1
= (rw + ts)(sw)1 = (rw + ts)/(sw).
Now suppose that R is an integral domain. We would like to enlarge
R to a field, in much the same way that we enlarge Z to Q. To this end,
we construct a set whose elements are fractions r/s with r,s R and s
6= 0. the field of quotients over an integral ... 75
Let I be a non-degenerated integral domain-like ring and u, v be
elements of the carrier of the field of quotients of I. Then u v = v u.

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CHAPTER 8

Let I be a non-degenerated integral domain-like ring and u, v, w be

elements of the carrier of the field of quotients of I. Then (u v) w = u
(v w).
Let I be a non-degenerated integral domain-like ring and u be an
element of the carrier of the field of quotients of I. Suppose u 6= 0the
field of quotients of I. Then there exists an element v of the carrier of the
field of quotients of I such that u v = 1the field of quotients of I.
Let I be a non-degenerated integral domain-like ring. Then the field
of quotients of I is an add-associative right zeroed right complementable
Abelian commutative associative left unital distributive field-like non
degenerated non empty double loop structure. Let I be a non-degenerated
integral domain-like ring. Note that the field of quotients of I is Abelian
commutative associative left unital distributive field like and nondegenerated. Next we state the proposition.
Let I be a non-degenerated integral domain-like ring and x be an
element of the carrier of the field of quotients of I. Suppose x 6= 0the
field of quotients of I. Let a be an element of the carrier of I. Suppose a
6= 0I.
1Iii.
Let

Let u be an element of Q(I). Suppose x = Q Class(u) and u = hha,

Let v be an element of Q(I). If v = hh1I, aii, then x1 = Q Class (v).

us

observe

that

every

add-associative

right

zeroed

right

complementable commutative associative left unital distributive field-like

non degenerated non empty double loop structure is integral domain-like
and right unital. One can check that there exists a non-empty double
loop

structure

complementable,

which
Abelian,

is

add-associative,
commutative,

right

associative,

zeroed,
left

right
unital,

distributive, field-like, and non-degenerated. Let F be a commutative

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associative left unital distributive field-like non empty double loop

structure and let x, y be elements of the carrier of F.

65