Turkish Culture in the Middle East:

The Extent to Which Seljuk Turks Retained Their Culture Upon Settlement in the Middle East
Todd Sheffield
4/23/2015
His 383
Professor Trepanier

Islam is a religion that has affected the world in many different ways since its creation. It
has absorbed many different peoples into its ranks in order to spread its message and also as a
means to acquire territory. Under the Caliphs, the empire spread far and wide, and to the east, a
people, today commonly known as Turks, pushed westward in their own attempt to expand west
from Central Asia. The Turks prior to 1000 A.D. inhabited a wide expanse of land in Central
Asia that had mountains with large valleys to accommodate their nomadic way of life in both
summer and winter. When the Turks started their migration through Muslim territory, they
picked up many new cultural traits and also contributed some of their culture to the region.
When considering the absorption and distribution of culture in the Middle East, one can only
wonder whose culture was stronger, the native Muslims or the invading Turks. It is with this in
mind that the question can be asked as to what extent did Turks retain or abandon their culture
after settling into the Middle East between the years of 1000 and 1250 A.D.?
The answer to this is complicated. It is true that the Turks did retain a significant portion
of their way of life when migrating through the Middle East, but it is also true that they picked
up many new things from the native inhabitants of their new home. It can be argued more
specifically that the Seljuk Turks contributed more culturally than they absorbed, but a slightly
less convincing counter-argument can be made for almost any of the main points mentioned later
in this paragraph. This is because the Seljuk Turks essentially brought with them many different
mechanisms that enabled them to conquer, but these assets the Turks used merged with concepts
that originated in the Middle East. Now, the first point of arguing the Turks contributed more
than they adopted pertains to the way in which they practiced Islam and assisted with the spread
of its message. Secondly, Turks revolutionized military tactics which helped spread their
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influence into other aspects of society. Third, the Seljuk Turks who inhabited Anatolia reverted
back to a way of life very similar to that of before their migration. Lastly, the Seljuks were
tolerant of local cultures that did not conform to theirs and they even had friendly relations with
other states from time to time. Because of these things, it is clear that the Turks did not pick up
as much from the Middle East as one could initially interpret.
To shed some vague light on the situation, it must be noted that there were many different
tribes who called themselves Turks around the time of their expansion. People in the Middle
East and throughout portions of Europe used the Turks to fuel the slave trade since they
historically came from a Shamanist background, and the difference in religion enabled Muslims
to enslave them.1 People who came from religions other than Islam ran the chance of becoming
enslaved upon capture after battles or by slave traders. Shortly after the Islamic and Turkish
States collided, many Turks converted to Islam and helped spread their message even further. 2
This simply means that the leaders of the tribe converted.
Hailing from Transoxania, the Seljuks moved into Khorasan after defeating the
Ghaznavids and then conquered Khwarezm. This brought about the first Seljuk state led by
Tughril Beg who was a descendent of the founder of the tribe, whose name happened to be
Seljuk.3 Other tribes claiming the same root title of Seljuk branched off of the aforementioned
tribe led by Tughril Beg. Some Turks lived along the northern border of Iran which is partially a
1

Saoud, Rabah. "Muslim Architecture under Seljuk Patronage (1038-1327)."Foundation for

Science, Technology, and Civilization (FSTC). http://www. muslimheritage. com/features/default.
cfm (2003). Pg. 2.
2

Ibid, 2

3 Agoston,

Gabor and Bruce Masters. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Facts on
File, Inc., 2009. Pg. 515.
3

cause for their exposure to Islam, but the smaller dynasties living in the area soon submitted to
Seljuk rule.4 By the time Tughril Beg died in 1063, the empire he helped build extended from
the Oxus River to the Euphrates river. 5 When considering the fast expansion of the Turks up to
this point, one can only wonder what sort of intermingling between Turk and Arab took place
and how belief systems and ways of life began to alter.
A new leader, Alp Arslan (r. 1063-72), nephew of Tughril Beg, stepped up to rule after
Tughrils passing. With his claim, he suppressed several rebellions and extended Seljuk borders
into Anatolia in 1071 which brought about the Battle of Manzikert. 6 Anatolia seemed to be
mostly under Byzantine rule up until the Seljuks came into the region. To prevent the Turks
from expanding, Emperor of the Byzantines, Romanus IV Diogenes (r. 1068-71), massed an
enormous army to prevent the Turks from harassing borders any further. This ultimately led to a
Seljuk victory and mass panic for the Byzantines in Anatolia as well as in Constantinople. The
Byzantine defeat opened almost all of Anatolia to Seljuk expansion.7 Malikshah (r. 1072-1092),
Alp Arslans cousin, took over after Arslans death and expanded the empire further for the
Seljuks.8 Many states began to form at this time, all pledged to the Great Seljuks. After
Malikshahs death, the state started deteriorating, and many of these small Seljuk states broke off

Ibid, 515.

Ibid, 516.

Ibid, 516.

Ibid, 516.

Ibid, 516.

to form semi-independent states. 9 Now that a brief history of events has been displayed, it is
important to understand the context in which they occurred.
Seljuk history is still a mystery in many ways. The later the period, the more facts that
are known, but their early arrival in the Middle East is not as documented as historians would
like. In fact, most of what is published about them comes from their successors. 10 Only in
recent history has Turkish literary texts been published for analyzing. When looking at a
peoples culture, literary works can be just as important tools for conducting an analysis as
inscription, coins, waqfiyyas, and chronicles. These tools shed light on the religious,
intellectual, artistic, economic, and legal aspects, while literary sources provide a look at how
the populace generally felt about those things.11
To begin discussing how the Seljuk Turks influenced Islam, one must understand how
they worshiped prior to their conversion. The Turks were followers of Shamanism which is a
sect of Tengrism. This consists of many different spirits being able to influence people, but there
is one spirit in supreme control, and that is Tengri. It is typically characterized by ancestor
worship and sacrifices. Shamans were mediators between people and spirits. Before the Seljuks
began their drift to the West, it was not uncommon to see Islamic converts on the borders of Iran.
It was not until the second half of the 10th century that the Seljuk leadership embraced Islam
wholeheartedly.12

Ibid, 516.

Koprulu, Mehmet Fuat. The Seljuks of Anatolia: Their History and Culture according to local
Muslim Sources. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. 1992. Pg 1.
10

11

Ibid, 6.

12

Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Pg. 516.
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It could be said that since the Turks abandoned their ancestors religion and adopted a
foreign religion, they conformed to another groups culture. That is a reasonable argument since
many sources do not mention Shamanism after the Turks begin their migration and instead refer
to the Turks dedication to the spread of Islam. It can be seen in the following paragraphs that the
Turks have a lot of power within religion and founded new institutions within it that had the
potential to curve religious culture.
The Turks tended to be staunch Sunnis, and as they migrated, they portrayed their fight
against the Shiite Buyids as a righteous cause for restoration. The Seljuks eventually made their
way to Baghdad where they freed the Caliph from Buyid influence, and placed him under Seljuk
protection.13 Turkmen expanded northwest towards Anatolia which led to the Battle of
Manzikert as previously discussed. The Rum Seljuks established a capital known as Konya
which became a focal point for Sufism as well as other things like fine arts and literature.
Sufism was similar to that of Shamanism due to the common ground of experiencing the spirits
of worship. Being able to have a similar religious experience allowed for a smoother transition
for converts over to Islam. Most of what developed both religiously and culturally had an
Iranian twist to what was fundamentally a Turkish settlement since most everyone spoke the
Turkish language.14 It is apparent that if the Turks protected the highest leader of the Islamic
world, they likely had some impact in decision making.
One important institution in Islamic society is the study of Islamic law. Seljuk Architect
and leader, Nizam al-Mulk designed many madrasases, colleges to study Islamic law. These

13

Esposito, John L., ed. The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press, 1999. pg. 54.

14

Ibid, 55.

buildings along with the institution itself served as a guide for future Muslim states.15 The
purpose of the madrasas was not only to strengthen Sunni Islam against Shiism, but also to help
train administrators, and by dispensing patronage to make the religious elite responsive to their
wishes.16 This shows that the Turks adopted Islam and created an institution that had the power
to shift culture in the Middle East.
In addition to their religious power within the Middle East, the Seljuks also had great
military skill. During this time, highly mobile troops who could attack from a distance, like the
Turks mounted warriors, had an advantage over mostly infantry troops like the Byzantines as
well as others who lacked the supply of horses and the skill in using them effectively. The
nomadic Turks used horses from when they were born up until their deaths. This prolonged
exposure allowed for their skills in warfare to develop almost beyond competition in Turkish
expansion.
The Turks moved into the Middle East from a land East of Iran in central Asia. They
conquered Khorasan as previously discussed and used it as a base of operation to further extend
their reach to the West.17 The Turkmen came in droves, and it was often difficult for their leaders
to control them because pillaging was their sole aim of warfare.18 Turkmen often fought for the
Seljuks and claimed them as their royal house, yet guiding their actions was difficult. One
source said that the momentum of Turkish raiding could be almost unstoppable, and it almost

15

Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Pg. 517.

16

Esposito, John L., ed. The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press, 1999. pg. 56.

17

Esposito, John L., ed. The Oxford History of Islam. Pg 53.

18

Cahen, Claude. Pre-Ottoman Turkey. Pg. 23.

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guaranteed diplomatic issues for the Seljuk leaders in attempts to make peace. 19 This was not
always an issue for military and diplomatic leaders in the region. A few centuries earlier, a
standing military composed of Arabs could be controlled so long as they were loyal to their
leaders. With the introduction of slave armies composed of Turks, major issues preventing those
Armies from rebelling arose. Since, the sole aim for the Turkmen was to raid and pillage, it is
undeniable that the way of life for people living with the Turks also changed.
In attempt to curve the behavior of the Turkmen, measures had to be implemented to
focus their destructive nature on something worthwhile or at least on something that would cause
less damage.20 This was done by sending many Turkmen to the frontier regions of Anatolia
away from areas that were prosperous for the empire. Another means that the Seljuks used to
control the Turkmen that followed them on campaigns and raided friendly territory unnecessarily
was to hire some of them as mercenaries and to hire slave armies as the core of their armies to
keep the unruly Turks checked.21 Controlling troops to the degree that the Seljuks displays the
change in military culture at the time. The tactics that they used against their enemies as well as
against their allies were the tactics that they brought with them to the Middle East from central
Asia. Without such a swift, violent, tactically sound force, it is unlikely that the Seljuks could
have conquered and held as much ground as they did.
An argument could be made against this stating that the Seljuks were using the same type
of soldiers (Turks) as the Arabs were before them. That may be so, but having the base of

19

Esposito, John L., ed. The Oxford History of Islam. Pg. 53.

20

Ibid, 53

21

Ibid, 53.

operations, Khorasan, that the Seljuks had allowed them draw more support from the region and
use the resources that they needed more effectively than the Arabs.
Lastly, the Turks who lived in Anatolia seem to have reverted back to their ancestral way
of life in Anatolia. The Seljuks of Rum found terrain in the heart of Anatolia that strongly
resembled the terrain of their ancestors in central Asia. This allowed for the people who were
still semi-nomadic to maintain their traditions of herding sheep from the mountains to the
lowlands in the area.22 Also, the Turkmen who migrated still pillaged like before, both in their
old lands and on the journey over to Anatolia.
With so much time and distance separating the Turks departure from Central Asia and
their eventual, comparatively peaceful settlement in Anatolia, it is hard to believe that they could
revert back to their traditional ways of semi-nomadism and herding in a terrain that looked just
like their ancestors old land. Well the new land that they inhabited in Anatolia was cut off from
much of the rest of the Middle East during the Crusades. That allowed for the Islamo-Turkish
society within Anatolia to shape itself without interference from other Middle Eastern influences.
In fact, some estimate that the Turks were outnumbered by natives in the area by ten to one.23 It
is certain that the majority of the population was not Turkish, it was not even Muslim, and it was
not unified.24 For the land to eventually be called Turkey, it must have had strong
characteristics that set it apart from the rest of the Middle East that also had a reasonable amount
of people of Turkish decent and culture. In fact, many citizens saw themselves by their religious

22

Cahen, Claude. Pre-Ottoman Turkey. Pg 34.

23

Ibid, 154.

24

Ibid, 155.

affiliation, no much as by directly identifying as Turkish or not. They would say this in either
Turkish or Persian.25 The Irano-Turkish symbiosis led simultaneously to a de-arabization which
had in fact started in the East alone. 26 To say that Turks adopted other peoples culture would
be the same as saying that they jumped on a sinking ship. They took what was in front of them
and gave the people the opportunity to make something new out of it. When it came to outdated
or inefficient products, Turkish rule allowed others to develop what they had been unable to.
They brought opportunities for locals to develop and enhance what already existed locally and
what the Turks brought with them.27 Again, this overemphasizes the fact that the Turks brought
with them tools to and characteristics that the people they ruled adopted to some extent and they
also revolutionized what technologies and concepts they were introduced to on their migration.
The Middle East advanced greatly under their rule.
The last reason that the Seljuks were able to retain rather than abandon their culture came
with their ability to be tolerant of the local and foreign populations way of life and vice versa.
Evidence of this is shown when examining waqfs that show deeds and other documents proving
that the Turks mingled with all sorts of peoples during their time in Anatolia. 28 Legal documents
as well as cultural items such as literature prove this claim. There is some evidence that Native
women volunteered to be with Turkish men and that their children were raised as Turks.29 If

25

Ibid, 153.

26

Ibid, 51.

27

Ibid, 51.

28

Ibid, 147.

29

Ibid, 144.

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women volunteered to be with foreign men and raise their children as Turks in a society that
seemed to be tolerant of other cultures, then this claim must have something behind it.
In addition to friendly local relations, the Seljuks had friendly relations with other states
at times. For example, Byzantines did not appear to regard Turks as Badly as Arabs. Turks
fought in their Army, many assimilated to their population, and the Byzantines viewed the Turks
as just another group that would be absorbed into their Empire over time. 30 The main Turkish
influence on these peoples was on the frontiers. This allowed for intermingling of two factions.
At times, even though they might be technically at war with one another, the parties on the
frontier might deal with one another because they were so far away from the conflicts that it
made more sense to be friendly. 31
As it is shown above with many examples and evidence to support it, the Seljuks allowed
for the further spread of Islam in all the territories they controlled. They did this through the
building of different institutions designed to increase their influence along with the Sunni
message that it carried and by capturing Baghdad and placing the Caliphate under their
protection. Next, they changed the way that battles were fought in the Middle East. This was
evidenced by battles fought against Arab, Byzantine, and other Turkish Armies as well as their
ability to control an unstable fighting force. Also, we see their resilience in maintaining old
traditions from when they lived in Central Asia. They went back to a semi-nomadic way of life
and influenced the people around them in isolation making the area distinctly Turkish. Lastly,
we see that the Seljuks were able to remain friendly with local and foreign populations to the

30

Ibid, 76.

31

Ibid, 146.

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betterment of everyone involved. The Byzantine Empire at times viewed the Seljuks with favor
along with the local populations that were controlled by the Seljuks.
Therefore, when asked to what extent did Turks retain or abandon their culture after
settling into the Middle East between the years of 1000 and 1250 A.D.? One can effectively
answer after reading this evidence that while both the retention and abandonment of their culture
are correct, the Turks definitely left more of a mark on Middle Eastern society than vice versa.

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Bibliography
Agoston, Gabor and Bruce Masters. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Facts on
File, Inc., 2009. Pg. 515-517.
Cahen, Claude. Pre-Ottoman Turkey: A General Survey of the Material and Spiritual Culture
and History, c. 1071-1330. New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1968.
Esposito, John L., ed. The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press, 1999.

Koprulu, Mehmet Fuat. The Seljuks of Anatolia: Their History and Culture according to local
Muslim Sources. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. 1992.
Saoud, Rabah. "Muslim Architecture under Seljuk Patronage (1038-1327)."Foundation for
Science, Technology, and Civilization (FSTC). http://www. muslimheritage. com/features/
default. cfm (2003).

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