Module on

Transistor
Dept. of Physics: 1st sem. 2013

1. BJT structure
Transistor is basically three-terminal semiconductor devices. It has three separately
doped regions and two pn junctions. The pn junctions are connected back to back and
can be of either n-p-n or p-n-p structure. Fig. 1 shows the basic structure of an n-p-n
bipolar transistor and a p-n-p bipolar transistor, along with the circuit symbols. The
three terminal connections are called the emitter(E), base(B) and collector(C). The
emitter region is heavily doped (++) doping order of 1019 cm3 . The base region is
lightly doped (+) relative to the emitter region, doping order of 1017 cm3 . The width
of the base region is small compare to the minority carrier diffusion length (<< 1m).
The collector region is the largest and moderately(n or p) doped, with order of 1015 cm3 .

The reason for using these relative doping or impurity concentrations and for the
narrow base width will be clear as we develop the theory of the bipolar transistor. The
concepts developed for the pn junction operator apply directly to the bipolar transistor.

n ++

p++

p
C

C
B

(a)

(b)
E

Figure 1: Block diagram and circuit symbol of (a) npn and (b) pnp transistor.

2. Potential barrier
Let Nde ,Nab and Ndc are the concentration of donor in E-site, acceptor in B-site
and donor in C-site of a n-p-n transistor, respectively and assume that all the donor
and acceptor atoms are ionized. The potential barrier(Veb ) in E-B junction of n-p-n
transistor can be calculated, the required formula is


kT
Nde Nab
Veb =
ln
e
n2i
1 B.Roy

Preprint submitted to

(1)

Similarly, the collector base potential barrier(Vcb ) in C-B junction is



kT
Nab Ndc
Vcb =
ln
e
n2i

(2)

3. Space charge layer

There are two space charge regions in a transistor, E-B space charge region and BC space charge regions. The distance between two metallurgical junctions i.e., emitter
junction and collector junction, is denoted by WB , shown in Fig. 2(a). The length of
the neutral base, defined as the distance between the E-B space charge region and B-C
space charge region edges is known as base width denoted by W . Let Nde and Nab be
the concentration of emitter and base region of n-p-n transistor respectively.The width
of the E-B depletion region with potential barrier is


1/2
2s Veb Nde + Nab
WEB =
e
Nde Nab

(3)

Where, s is the permittivity of the semiconductor material. and Veb potential barrier in
E-B junction.
If Ndc be the doping concentration of collector, the width of the B-C depletion region is


1/2
2s Vcb Nab + Ndc
WBC =
(4)
e
Nab Ndc
E

(a)
EC
EFi
EF
EV

(b)

EC
EF
E Fi

(c)
EV

WBE

WBC

B
111
000
00000
000
111
n11111
00000
11111
000
111
p
p
00000
000 WB 11111
111
00000
11111
000
111
00000
11111
000
111
W 11111
00000
000
111
x nC
xpE
x nE
x pC
x
0000
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
00000
11111
E
0000
1111
00000
0000 n 11111
00000 p C
p 1111
0000 11111
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
00000
EF
0000 11111
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
00000
0000 11111
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
00000
0000 11111
1111
00000
11111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
p
0000
1111
n
0000
1111
n 1111
0000
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

Figure 2: (a) Space charge region in pnp transistor. Energy band diagram for pnp [(b))] and
npn [(c))] transistor in equilibrium under zero bias.

4. Transistor current component

To derive the expression for terminal current, we consider an p+ np transistor in the
common base configuration, shown in Fig. 3, operating in a active mode, i.e., the emitterbase junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased. The
2

holes are injected from the emitter to the base and these electrons diffuse to the collector
junction. The transistor current components are, emitter current IE , base current IB
and collector current IC these are also called terminal current.
We will evaluate the IE current from the gradient of the injected hole distribution at
the emitter junction and IC current from the gradient of the electron concentration at
the collector junction. The base current can be found from a charge control analysis of
recombination in the base region. The other current components are
IpE = the current due to the flow of hole i.e., hole current component of IE .
InE = the current due to the flow of electron i.e., electron current component of IE . Thus
IE = IpE + InE
When holes diffuse through the base, not all the holes reach the collector, because very
small number of holes recombines with an equal number of electron in the base. The holes
are swept out of the base into collector by the reverse-bias voltage. Let IpC represents
the hole current as a result of holes crossing the base from emitter. Hence IpE IpC
represents the bulk recombination hole current. Other components of base current are
ICBO , reverse saturation current or leakage current. The subscripts CBO stand for
current from collector to base with emitter open, very often it is simply written as ICO .
Therefore the total collector current IC is given by
IC = IpC + ICBO
Base current, IB = InE + (IpE IpC ) ICBO .

IpE
InE

JE n JC
IpE IpC

I pC
I CBO

IE
IC
IB
VBE

VCB

Figure 3: Transistor current components. ICBO is reverse collector saturation current or

leakage current.
The expressions for different current components are based on the following assumptions

1. Holes diffuse from emitter to the collector; drift is negligible in the base region.
2. Emitter current is made up entirely of holes; the emitter injection efficiency is 100%.
3. The collector saturation current is negligible.
4. The active part of the base and the two junctions are of uniform cross-sectional area A;
current flow in the base is essentially one dimensional from the emitter to the collector.
5. All currents and voltages are steady state.
Before going to derive the expression for terminal current, first we have to find out the
3

variational of excess carrier in the base region.

4.1. Variation of excess carrier in the base region
The minority hole carrier injection in n-type base is
pn = pno e

eVBE
kT

The excess hole concentration at the edge of the emitter depletion region, x = 0 [Fig.4(b)]
is given by
p0nE = pn pno

 eVBE
= pno e kT 1
Where the second subscript indicated the edge of the base region towards the emitter
site. pno is the minority carrier hole in the n type base region at equilibrium.
Similarly, the excess hole concentration in the base at the edge of the collector depletion
region x = W due to applied bias VBC is given by
p0nC = pn pno

 eVBC
= pno e kT 1
The solution of the diffusion equation[

d2 p0n (x)
dx2

p0n (x)
L2p ]

of the excess hole concentration

is
p0n (x) = Aex/Lp + Bex/Lp
where, Lp =

(5)

p
Dp p is the diffusion length of hole in the base region and Lp >> W in a

properly designed transistor, as most of the injected electrons reach the collector at W .

11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11

(a)
np

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

eV/kT

pe
no

np (x)

p (x)
n

(b)

n po
n po
WE

np(x)

no

x =W

x=0

Figure 4: Variation of minority carrier under base-emitter forward bias and collector-base in
reverse bias conditions.
To find A and B the two boundary conditions are
(i) at x = 0; p0n (x) = p0nE
(ii) at x = W ; p0n (x) = p0nC
4

and

Substituting these values, we get

A + B = p0nE
AeW/Lp + BeW/Lp = p0nC
To find A and B, we may use Cramers rule
B
1
=
=

0 

 1

p
1
1 
nE 



eW/Lp p0 
eW/Lp eW/Lp 
eW/Lp 
nC

A
 0
pnE

p0
nC

Solving the above equations, we have





eW/Lp
1
0
A = W/L
pnE W/L
p0nC
p eW/Lp
p eW/Lp
e
e



eW/Lp
1
0
B = W/L
pnE + W/L
p0nC
p eW/Lp
p eW/Lp
e
e


Therefore
ex/Lp eW/Lp ex/Lp eW/Lp
eW/Lp eW/Lp
 x/Lp

ex/Lp
e
0
+ pnC W/L
p eW/Lp
e

p0n (x) = p0nE

(6)

4.2. Evaluation of the terminal current

Using the expression for excess hole distribution[Eq. (6)] in the base region, we can
evaluate the emitter and collector currents from the gradient of the hole at each depletion
region edge
Ip (x) = eADp

d 0
[p (x)]
dx n

(7)

This expression evaluated at x = 0 gives the hole component of the emitter current(IpE ).
There is also electron component of the emitter current(InE ). If we neglect the contribution of this current component, then emitter current is equal to the hole component
of the emitter current, i.e., IE = IpE .

Expression for IpE

Derivative of p0n (x) is


1 ex/Lp eW/Lp + ex/Lp eW/Lp

Lp
eW/Lp eW/Lp
  x/Lp

1
e
+ ex/Lp
0
+ pnC
Lp eW/Lp eW/Lp

d 0
[p (x)] = p0nE
dx n



According to the assumption, the value of Ip (x) = IpE = IE at x = 0

IE =


 W/Lp


eADp 0
e
+ eW/Lp
2p0nC
pnE

Lp
eW/Lp eW/Lp
eW/Lp eW/Lp

 
 
eADp 0
W
W
pnE coth
p0nC cosech
Lp
Lp
Lp
5

(8)

If we neglect the electrons crossing from collector to base in the collector reverse biased condition, the collector current IC is made entirely of holes entering the collector
depletion region from the base, i.e., IC = IpC . The collector current can be obtained by
evaluating Eq. (7) at x = W
IC = Ip (x = W ) = eADp

d 0
[p (x)]
dx n

(9)

The value of Ip (x) = IC at x = W

IC =



 W/Lp
qADp
2p0nE
e
+ eW/Lp
0

p
nC
Lp
eW/Lp eW/Lp
eW/Lp eW/Lp

 
 
eADp 0
W
W
pnE cosech
p0nC coth
Lp
Lp
Lp

(10)

The base current IB is

IB = IE IC



eADp
W
W
(p0nE + p0nC ) coth
cosech
=
Lp
Lp
Lp




eADp
W
(p0nE + p0nC ) tanh
Lp
2Lp

(11)

4.2.1. Approximation of the terminal currents

(i) For VCB = 0; p0nC = 0.
(ii) It is further assume that the collector junction is strongly reverse biased, i.e., VBC <<
0; the excess hole concentration is
p0nC = pn pno

 eVBC
= pno e kT 1
= pno
The minus sign indicates an excess hole concentration below the equilibrium value or the
total concentration being approximately zero (p0nC +pno pno +pno = 0). Since, pno is
normally quite small, especially in Silicon transistor, the. excess hole concentration
at the collector edge is zero. In such cases, the equation for IE IC and IB simplify to the
following expression
eADp 0
p
coth
Lp nE

IC = IpC =

eADp 0
p
cosech
Lp nE

IB =
Now, as W << Lp ;

W
Lp

IE = IpE =

eADp 0
p
tanh
Lp nE

W
Lp


(12)

W
Lp

W
2Lp


(13)


(14)

<< 1, we can neglect the higher term of Taylor series expansion

of the hyperbolic functions. Under this approximation the current components can be
6

written as
eADp p0nE
Lp

IE =

eADp p0nE
Lp

IC =

Lp
W
+
W
3Lp

Lp
W

W
6Lp

(15)



W
eADp p0nE
Lp
2Lp


eAW p0nE Dp
=
2
L2p


eAW p0nE
Dp
=
2
Dp p
0
eAW pnE
=
2p

(16)

IB =

(17)

Where p is the life time of the hole. The expression in Eq. (17) can also be obtained
from Eqs. (15) and (16)
IB = IE IC


eADp p0nE W
W
W
W
+

+
Lp
Lp
3Lp
Lp
6Lp


eAW p0nE Dp
=
2
L2p


Dp
eAW p0nE
=
2
Dp p
0
eAW pnE
=
2p
=

(18)

This base current only taken into account the recombination of carriers in the base region.

1
cosh(x)

coth(x) cosech(x) =
sinh(x) sinh(x)
cosh(x) 1
=
sinh(x)
2sinh2 (x/2)
=
2sinh(x/2) cosh(x/2)
= tanh(x/2)

4.3. The electron component of emitter current
To calculate the electron component of the emitter current InE , the procedure identical
to that used for calculating the hole current can be used, assuming a very thin emitter
width WE , corresponding to narrow dipole approximation. Assume a linear distribution
of electron in the p+ -type(highly doped) emitter region, then
eADn 0
n
WE pE
 eVBE

eADn
=
npo e kT 1
WE

InE =

Another approximation:
7

(19)

In this approximation the emitter is long compared with the electron diffusion length
in the emitter (long-diode)(Ln >> WE ), the emitter current is
eADn 0
n
Ln pE
eVBE
eADn
=
npo e kT ;
Ln

InE =

as VBE >> kT

(20)

5. Base recombination current

Under the forward bias condition of the EB junction a large number of hole crosses
the junction and enters the base. At the same time a very small number of electrons flow
from the base to the emitter, assume that this is negligible when holes diffuse through
the base, they take a small but finite time to flow through this region, before the reach
the collector depletion region. During this time a very small number of holes recombines
with an equal number of electrons in the base. Since the base is lightly doped and it is
very thin, this number(hole concentration) is very small. In practice about 2% of hole
which diffused into the base from the emitter recombine with electron in the base. The
loss of electrons is made up by the flow of an equal number of electron from the negative
terminal of a battery into the base. The flow of such electrons form base current,IB is
also known as base recombination current.

Thus to maintain the charge distribution electrons must be supplied at a rate

IB =

Qp
p

Where, Qp represents the steady-state total charge of excess holes in the base region and
p is the time at which this charge tends to disappears. On the other hand; we may
consider that Qp amount of charge must be replaced every p second and related the
recombination rate to the rate at which electrons are supplied by the base current.
An approximate expression for Qp can be obtained by integrating the excess charge
concentration distribution
ZW
Qp =

qAp0n (x)dx

For p0nC = 0, W << Lp and x << Lp in Eq.(6). The variation of excess charge
concentration becomes linear and written as
 x

p0n (x) = p0nE
+1
W
ZW
Qp =

 x

qAp0nE
+ 1 dx
W

=
=

qAp0nE


W
x2

+x
W
0

qAW p0nE
2
8

Therefore, the base current is

IB =

qAW p0nE
2p

Which is same as that found in Eqs. (17) and (18).

6. Drawback of linear approximation
The emitter current and collector current is determined essentially by diffusion current
and hence by the gradient of excess holes at x = 0 and x = W respectively. If the
distribution of excess holes were perfectly linear, the slope would be same at x = 0 and
x = W i.e., at each end of the base region. Therefore, the magnitude of the emitter
current is equal the collector current. This would imply zero base current! it is not
possible. There must be some bend downwards to the distribution, shown in Fig.5.
This slight deviation from linearity gives a steeper gradient at the emitter junction (i.e.,
at x = 0) than at collector junction(i.e., at x = W ) and hence the emitter current IE is
greater than IC by the value of the base current IB .
Base

ea
lin
p (x)
n

x=

xn = W

Figure 5: Linear approximation of minority carrier in base region.

7. Injection efficiency
Injection efficiency() is defined as the ratio of the current due to the carriers injected
from the emitter to the total emitter current. For p-n-p transistor, emitter into base
=

IpE
IpE
1
=
=
IE
IpE + InE
1 + IInE
pE

The expression for IpE is [ Eq. (12)]

IpE =
=
=
'

 
qADp 0
W
pnE coth
Lp
Lp
 
qADp 0
Lp
p
, as W << Lp
Lp nE W
 eVBE

qADp
pno e kT 1
W
eVBE
qADp
pno e kT , (f or eVBE >> kT
W

We have InE from Eq. (19)

eADn 0
n
WE pE
 eVBE

eADn
=
npo e kT 1
WE
eVBE
eADn
=
npo e kT , f or eVBE >> kT
WE

InE =

(21)
9

Substituting these relation, we get

1
1 + IInE
pE

1+

qADn npo
WE

1+

Dn npo W
Dp pno WE

W
qADp pno

(22)
Using the relation npo ppo = pno nno above relation can be written as
=
=
=
=

1
1+

Dn nno W
Dp ppo WE

1+

Dn NdB W
Dp NaE WE

1+

n nno W
p ppo WE

1+

n W
p WE

1
1
1

as D =

kT

( = ne)

(23)

Where, n and p are the conductivity of the emitter and base region respectively.

If the base width W and the emitter width WE are comparable in magnitude and
n >> p , the injection efficiency may be approximated from Eq. (23) to be
=

1
1+

n W
p WE

=1

p W
n WE

7.1. Another Expression for :


1
1
InE
=
= 1+
IpE
1 + IInE
pE
#1
"
qADn n0pE
Lp

= 1+
Ln
qADp p0nE coth LWp

1
Lp Dn n0pE
W
= 1+
tanh
Ln Dp p0nE
Lp
1

W
Lp Dn npo

as W < Lp
= 1+
Ln Dp pno
Lp

1
W Dn nno
= 1+
, npo ppo = pno nno
Ln Dp ppo
1

W n NdB
= 1+
Ln p NaE
8. Estimate the width of the base region
The base current is small compare to collector current
|

IB
| << 1
IC
10

We have the expressions for IB and IC in pnp transistor

qAW p0nE
2p
qADp p0nE
IC =
W

IB =

Thus
IB
| << 1
IC
qAW p0nE
W
<< 1

2p
qADp p0nE
|

or

W2
<< 1
2p Dp

or

W2
<< 1
2L2p

Hence good current gain and a linear minority hole distribution in the base region
required a very thin base region W compared with the minority carrier diffusion length
Lp , which is also the required/necessary condition for low hole recombination rate in
the base region, i.e., low base current. This is the reason for making the base region thin.

9. Transport efficiency or Base transport factor

The base transport factor defined as the fraction of the hole injected from the emitter
into the base which reach to collector, which is defined as
IpC
; U sing Eqs. (12) and (13)
IpE
W
Lp
qADp 0
pnE cosec

'
0
Lp
Lp
qADp pnE coth LWp

T =

1
cosh LWp

For, W << Lp , we may expand the cosh( LWp ) function in a Taylor series, so that
T '
1+

1
2

'1

1
2

1


W
Lp

2

W
Lp

2

10. Collector efficiency

The collector efficiency(M ) is often called collector multiplication factor, is defined as
the ratio of total current crossing the collector junction to the injected carrier current
arriving at the collector junction from base side
IC
IpC + ICBO
=
IpC
IpC
IpC
'
=1
IpC
11

M=

11. Taylor expansion of hyperbolic function

x3
x5
+
+ ..............
3!
5!
1 x 7x3
cosech(x) = +
+ ..............
x 6
360
x4
x2
+
+ ..............
cosh(x) = 1 +
2!
4!
x2
5x4
sech(x) = 1
+
+ ..............
2
24
3
5
x
2x
tanh(x) = x
+
+ ..............
3
15
1 x x3
coth(x) = + ..............
x 3
45
sinh(x) = x +

12