SBF 1013 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY

TITLE:
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS IN ANIMALS

NAME

GROUP
LECTURE
Date

Muhammad Azfar Bazli Bin Jamal Nasir

(E20151011324)
Mohammad Faiz Bin Hassan
(E20151011166)
Muhammad Farhan Bin Ahmad
(E20151011176)
Ahmad Daniel Bin Ahmad
(E20151010876)
E
Dr. Shakinaz Binti Desa
06/05/2016

1.0 PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN ANIMALS

A branch of biology that deals with the functions, mechanisms, and activities of
organisms at the cellular or organ system level. Apart from that,it is the biological
processes and functions of the parts of an organism.Organisms is classes into
multicellular organisms that made up more than one cell.In humans,the cell are
specialised which allow each cell to have its own structure and its own function. Cell
specialised helps to divide body functions among different type of cells.Cell are
organised into tissue, organs, system and then organism.In humans, there are twelve
different type of systems coordinating their activities together as organisms always
exposed to changing external and internal environment which they can adapt itself. For
example,changes in the internal factors such as temperature, pH level, osmotic pressure
and glucose level can effect internal environment and subsequently,affect the organisms
life processes.Various system are required to maintain an optimal internal environment
for efficient functioning of the organism.

CELL

ORGAN

TISSUE

ORGANISM
SYSTEM

The diagram

1.1

of cell organisation flow

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The
respiratory system allows for
the exchange
of gases between the blood and
external
air.The human respiratory
system is
involve in the inhalation and
exhalation of breathing which exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
gases.This human respiratory system include the organ which is lung,

trachea, bronchus,bronchiole, alveolus, and diaphragm.

INHALATION

FACTOR

EXHALATION

The
internal
intercostal
muscle relax while external
intercostal muscle contract

INTERCOSTAL MUSCLE

The
internal
intercostal
muscle
contract
while
external intercostal muscle
relax

DIAPHRAGM

Diaphragm relax and became

curved upwards

The volume in thoraic cavity

increases

THORAIC CAVITY
(VOLUME)

The volume in thoraic cavity

decreases

The air pressure in thoraic

cavity decreases

THORAIC CAVITY
(AIR PRESSURE)

The air pressure in thoraic

cavity increases

Rib cage move upward and

outward.

RIB CAGE

Rib cage move downward

and inward.

AIR MOVEMENT

Air in the lungs moves out

into the atmosphere.

Diaphragm contract and

became flattens

Air in the atmosphere moves

into the lungs

1.2 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system also know as cardiovascular system which their function is as a
medium of transportation oxygen, nutrient, hormone, and cellular waste products

throughout the body in human.The circulatory system in human consists of blood,blood

vessels and heart.In human,the types of circulatory system is closed circulatory system
which the blood is contained and flows continuously in blood vessel and valves can be
found to maintain the flow of blood in one direction only.The closed circulatory system in
human is made up of pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.

Pulmonary
circulation
Systemic
Circulation

PULMONARY CIRCULATION

SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

(Heart - Lungs - Heart)

(Heart - All body tissue-Heart)

-Deoxygenated blood is pumped out from -Oxygenated blood from the lungs which
the right ventricle into pulmonary artery enters the left atrium is pumped into the left
which transport blood to the lungs.

ventricle and is then pumped out the heart

through aorta.

-At the lungs,gaseous exchange occurs.The -The blood that is pumped out of the heart is
deoxygenated blood in the pulmonary artery at high pressure.The aorta branches to form
receives oxygen and becomes oxygenated arteries which transport oxygenated blood to
blood and is transported from lungs to the all the body tissues.
left atrium of the heart by pulmonary vein.
-The

main

function

of

pulmonary -Exchange of gases and nutrients occurs in

circulation is to change deoxygenated blood the body cells of an organ

to oxygenated blood
1.3 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The human digestive system comprises of the alimentary canal which starts at the mouth
and ends at the anus.Digestion involve both physical and chemical processes.Physical
digestion is the breaking down of food particles by teeth into smaller food particle and it
involves peristalsis which moves the food particles down the alimentary canal.The
chemical digestion is breaking down of large complex molecules in the food into
soluble,smaller and simple molecules by specific enzymes in the present of water which
known as process
hydrolysis.

Part of

Biochemical

Notes

alimentary canal Glands

Secretion

Enzyme

reaction

Mouth (pH=7)

Saliva

Saliva

Substrates:Starch

Digestion

amylase

Product:Maltose

carbohydrate

Salivary
glands

of

Stomach

Gastric

Gastric juice

Pepsin

Polypeptide occur

Digestion

(pH=1.5)

glands

Renin

produce casein

protein begin.

Duodenum

Liver

Bile

None

None

Emulsifies fats

(pH=7.8)

Pancreas

Pancretic juice Lipase

glycerol and fatty Digestion of lipid

acid

Amylase
Ileum

Intestinal

(pH 7.6)

glands

of

occurs

Maltose produce

Trypsin
Intestinal juice Erepsin

Peptides form
Peptide produce

Digestion of food

Sucrase

Glucose produce

is complete.

Maltase

Glucose

Lactase

Lactose

Lipase

Glycerol and fatty

acid

1.4 Musculoskeletal system

The musculoskeletal system provides form, stability, and movement to the human body. It
consists of the body's bones (which make up the skeletonsee Bones), muscles), tendons
, ligaments (see ligaments ), joints , cartilage, and other connective tissue. The term
"connective tissue" is used to describe the tissue that supports and binds tissues and
organs together. Its chief components are collagen and elastic fibers, which are composed
of different proteins.These muscle have the ability to contract and relax when stimulated
by a nerve.All muscle have to primary proteins called actin and myosin which involve in
the contraction of muscle fibers.Both protein required energy in form of ATP.The skeletal
muscle usually exist as paired antagonistic muscle which means when one muscle
contract,the other will relax and as the muscle contract it become shorter and thicker
exerting a pulling force to move the bones causing a movement.

Musculoskeletal system diagram

1.5 Reproductive system
The major function of the reproductive system is to ensure survival of the species.Within
the context of producing offspring, the reproductive system has four functions which is to

produce egg and sperm cell,to transport and sustain these cells,to nurture the developing
offspring and to produce hormones.
These functions are divided between the primary and secondary, or accessory,
reproductive organs. The primary reproductive organs, or gonads, consist of the ovaries
and testes. These organs are responsible for producing the egg and sperm cells
gametes,and hormones. These hormones function in the maturation of the reproductive
system, the development of sexual characteristics, and regulation of the normal
physiology of the reproductive system. All other organs, ducts, and glands in the
reproductive system are considered secondary, or accessory, reproductive organs. These
structures transport and sustain the gametes and nurture the developing offspring.

General Reproduction system in human.

2.0 Causes of Hypoxia

Hypoxia has detrimental effects on muscle structure.Chronic hypoxia of altitude leads to a marked
decrease in muscle fiber density. There is a decrease in mitochondria volume by up to 30% . The changes
in mitochondrial volume are accompanied by significant decrease in the activity of enzymes responsible
for aerobic oxidative metabolism and muscle oxidative capacity and are found to be moderately reduced
by exposure to altitude.

Hypoxia also causes diaphragm and abdominal muscle

contractile fatigue which results in exercise performance
limitations. In contrast, which causes reduction in
maximal rate of O2 uptake was proposed as the main
proteins involved in the cellular transport of bicarbonate,
Changes in body composition

protons, and lactates are increased in both skeletal

result

hypoxia-related

muscle and red blood cells.Prolonged exposure to

suppression of muscle protein

synthesis results in weight loss.

Hreason affect in decrease in muscle cross-sectional area

Loss of appetite with altitude was thought be due to
and in muscle oxidative activity.
increased leptin levels which is a protein hormone

Hypoxia-induced

intestinal

secreted from adipose tissue in response to food intake

dysfunction contributes to Weight

and affects the satiety center of hypothalamus.The

loss especially above 5500m.

proposed causes of weight loss (WL) are decreased food

from

intake due to loss of appetite, changes in endocrine

parameters controlling homeostasis, imbalance of energy
intake and expenditure, increased basal metabolic rate
and high activity levels, impaired intestinal function,
change in body composition including loss of fat mass or
loss of muscle mass, and decrease in body water.

3.0 Situation
Mountain climber in high-altitude adaptation 8847 meters above sea level.There are two major
kinds of environmental stresses at high altitude .First, there are the alternating daily extremes of
climate that often range from hot, sunburning days to freezing nights.In addition, winds are often
strong and humidity low, resulting in rapid dehydration. Second, the air pressure is lower. This
is usually the most significant limiting factor in high mountain regions.The air pressure is 30%
lower at the higher altitude due to the fact that the atmosphere is less dense.
High

altitude

sickness" include

lack

of

appetite,vomiting,headache,distorted,vision, fatigue,and
difficulty with memorizing and thinking clearly.
At high altitudes, the lower air
pressure makes it more difficult

In serious cases, pneumonia-like symptoms (pulmonary

for oxygen to enter our vascular

edema due to hemorrhaging in the lungs and an abnormal

systems.The result is hypoxia.

accumulation of fluid around the brain (cerebral edema)

develop.Pulmonary and cerebral edema usually results
in death within a few days if there is not a return to
normal air pressure levels. There is also an increased risk

of heart failure due to the added stress placed on the

Additional red blood cells and capillaries are lungs,
produced
to and
carryarteries
more oxygen.
The lungs increase in
heart,
at high altitudes.
size to facilitate the osmosis of oxygen and carbon
There
alsomountain
an increase
in theour
vascular
When dioxide.
we travel
to ishigh
areas,
bodies
network of muscles which enhances the transfer
of gases.
initially

develop

inefficient physiological

responses.There is an increase in breathing and heart rate

to as much as double,even while resting.Pulse rate and
blood pressure go up sharply as our hearts pump harder
to get more oxygen to the cells. These are stressful
changes, especially for people with weak hearts.