The

Effect of Diet on Sea Turtle Migration

By: Daniel S. Pyle
Sea Turtle Biology

ABSTRACT: The diets of sea turtles range from very generic and seemingly common,
such as the omnivorous diets of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and olive ridley
(Lepidochelys olivacea), to the unique, such as the cnidarian diet of the leatherback
(Dermochelys coriacea). These species also have a wide variety of migration
distances and ranges spanning from a multi thousand-kilometer loggerhead
migration to low hundreds performed by olive ridley. In comparison the Australian
flat back (Natator depressus) does not even leave its neritic foraging grounds. When
comparing the diet, feeding habits and migration distance, only the leatherback and
Pacific olive ridley regularly return to open waters to forage, while having very
different diets and body types. The loggerhead undergoes periodic transoceanic
migrations during its lifespan while the green sea turtle generally stays in neritic
regions and migrates from chosen foraging areas to nesting beaches.
Key Words:
SEA TURTLE; MIGRATION; DISTANCE; DIET; LEATHERBACK (Dermochelys
coriacea); GREEN (Chelia mydas); LOGGERHEAD (Caretta caretta); OLIVE RIDLEY
(Lepidochelys olivacea); KEMPS RIDLEY (Lepidochelys kempii).

Introduction
The practice of migration is something that has been heavily imbedded into
most species as is it can be found in every major denomination of animal species
ranging from aviary, to terrestrial, to aquatic (Hays 2013). Migration occurs when
an animal finds itself in an unsuitable environment and is in need of better

resources (. 2013). This migration often occurs on an annual cycle as weather and
climate changes, in order to stay near to food sources for proper foraging
(Hays2013).

Within aviary, terrestrial and aquatic species, this migration distance can

vary drastically. Some birds will fly thousands of kilometers such as the Arctic terns
(Sterna paradisea), while others fly only a few hundred kilometers in order to evade
colder temperatures and keep well fed (Hays 2013). Some terrestrial ungulates may
migrate several hundred kilometers, such as the wildebeest (Connochaestes
taurinus) or simply adjust elevation as many mount species do (Hays 2013,
Mysterude 2016). Of those that migrate in the oceanic regions many are known for
their great distances such as the Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), which
has been known to migrate up to 16,000 kilometer round trips from feeding and
birthing areas (Flix 2014).
While body size often plays a role on the distance of the migration
undertaken by a species, or taxa, many species do differentiate between their
breeding and feeding grounds (Hays 2013). Generally speaking, those with the least
resistance will travel the furthest (Hays 2013). This is supported when considering
birds travel the furthest, followed by swimmers, and then terrestrial species (Hays
2013).
Sea turtles (family Cheloniidae) are amongst the species known to travel
great distances between their breeding and foraging grounds; however, they are in a
taxa known to not commonly nest year after year (Hays 2013, Luschi 2003). Of the
seven species of sea turtle, only the Flatback turtle (Natator depresus) refrains from

any migratory actions and remains geographically restricted to the islands of

Australia and New Guinea (Hays 2013, Bowen 2007). Of the reaming six species of
sea turtle, leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), green (Chelia mydas), loggerhead
(Caretta caretta), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), kemps ridley (Lepidochelys
kempii) and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricate), the leatherback, green, loggerhead,
and olive ridley undertake the furthest migrations (Luschi 2003, Hays 2013).
In this review, the migration and diet of leatherback, green, loggerhead and
olive ridley sea turtles will be compared as their migratory distances have been
recorded to be the furthest respectfully (Hays 2013). The purpose of this paper is to
compare migration distance and diet in order to determine whether or not diet
plays any significant role in the total migration distance.

Turtle Migration and Diet
Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea):
Leatherback sea turtles are recorded to have the furthest recorded migration
distance of any of the cheloniid species combined (Hays 2013). They are also the
most globally distributed of the sea turtles and reptile in the world (James 2007,
Heaslip 2012). Leatherbacks migrate from tropical equatorial waters for breeding
and nesting to more temperate colder waters during feeding; which occurs during
the summer and fall seasons (James 2007, Houghton 2006).
Of the leatherbacks found in the Atlantic Ocean, a longitudinal migration path
is typically used (Heaslip 20012). For Atlantic leatherbacks, foraging occurs
between the tropics and Arctic Circle (James 2007, Heaslip 2012, Bowen 2007).

During the breeding seasons Atlantic leatherbacks move back south for mating and
nesting (James 2007). Data shows that turtles feeding in high longitudinal regions,
such as Nova Scotia and Canada, nested in Central America and Caribbean states,
such as Venezuela, Trinidad, Grenada, Colombia, Costa Rica and Puerto Rico (James
2007).
For the leatherbacks located in the Pacific Ocean, nesting occurs in the
eastern Pacific within the tropical latitudes, between Mexico and Costa Rica
(Shillinger 2008). In the western Pacific, nesting occurs along the coasts of
Indonesia and Malaysia (Dutton 2007). Those nesting in the eastern Pacific tend to
forage south off the coast of South America, while those nesting in the western
Pacific forage in the South China Sea and the North Pacific Transitional Zone
(Seminoff). These migrations can span between 2,000km and 4100km (Hays 2013).
During feeding season, leatherbacks locate themselves around geographic
regions associated with upwelling due to the natural amounts of nutrients being
brought up from the ocean floor, providing sustenance for their primary food
source, jellyfish (Cnidaria) (Heaslip 2012, Seminoff 2012, Dodge 2011). Of large
oceanic species specializing in the gelatinous diet of jellyfish, leatherback and
sunfish (Mola mola) are the only large vertebrates (Dodge 2011). As the diet is
rather energetically improbable and deficient, leatherbacks reciprocate by
consuming anywhere between 70% and 180% of their body mass per day
(Houghton 2011, Heaslip 2012). In order to maximize on energy efficiency during
diving and foraging, leatherback focus on regions and pods of jellyfish with high
densities, using foraging techniques equitable to terrestrial grazers.


Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta):

The loggerhead sea turtle can be found in both the Atlantic and Pacific

Oceans and has large nesting grounds in Japan, Australia and off the US state of
Florida, as they occupy the higher latitudes of the subtropical gyres (Boyle 2009,
Polovina 2004). Once hatched, loggerheads will move to pelagic regions of the ocean
and drift in oceanic gyrs, such as the North Atlantic Gyre system or the Peruvian
Current, until reaching maturity (Bolten1998, Boyle 2009). During this time, many
loggerheads hatchlings from Japan or Australian rookeries, will drift all the way
across the Pacific to foraging areas in the eastern Pacific of North and Central
America (Boyle 2009). Loggerhead sea turtles, like all sea turtle species, will return
to the area of their natal beach to nest, meaning that some must migrate across the
Pacific (Bolten 1998).

While in the deeper pelagic regions during their youth, loggerheads are

primarily carnivorous, as they have been recorded to consume large amounts of fish
and gastropods, barnacles and species of pelagic crab in their intestine (Seney 2007,
Polovina 2004). Because loggerheads and sea turtles in general are not quick
moving predators, it is widely believed that the pelagic fish diets are primarily a
source of bycatch from fishing vessels (Seney 2009). However once their juvenile
period has come to fruition, loggerheads move to more neritic regions where their
diet and feeding tactics shift into more predatory and crustacean based (Lazar 2011,
Seney 2007).

Loggerheads in the Atlantic are recorded to forage heavily off the shore of

Virginia and feed heavily on Atlantic Horsehoe Crabs (Limulus polyphemus), the
Common Blue Crab (Callinectes sapidus) and many types of molluscs (Lazar 2011,
Seney 2007). Loggerheads whom have additional foraging areas, such as in the
Mediterranean or in neritic regions of Japan, typically have larger clutch sizes than
those in the more pelagic foraging areas (Zanden 2014, Polovina 2004).

Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea):

The olive ridley sea turtle is considered the most numerous of the sea turtles

exhibiting a strong presence in the Indian Ocean, eastern Pacific region and
throughout the Atlantic Ocean (Whiting 2007, Polovina 2004,
2014). Unfortunately, the olive ridley is still classified as endangered by the
International Union of Conservation of Natures Red List (Colman 2014, Abreu
2008). Olive ridley sea turtles are found predominantly in the equatorial and
southern regions of the globe, such as Australia, as they prefer warmer waters
between 23C and 28C, which provide deep thermoclines for diving (Polovino
2004). Because of this, olive ridleys in the Pacific exhibit primarily pelagic
opportunistic feeding habits while spending time near the equator and circulating in
the warmer Subtropical Gyres (Polovina 2004, Wildermann 2012). Those living in
the Atlantic exhibit similar tactics, however they rely less on the pelagic methods
than they do foraging in the benthic regions of neritic coastlines (Colman 2014,
Wildermann 2012).

Olive ridley sea turtles primarily feed off crustacean species, such as the

pelagic red crab (Pleuroncodes planipes), varying species of Callinectes and some
Moluscs (Colman 2014, Wildermann 2012). Studies have begun to show evidence of
olive ridley consumption of fishing vessel bycatch as many crustacean species
considered to by bycatch, such as Persephona lichtensteinii, are being found in olive
ridley intestinal tracts (Colman 2014).

Olive ridley sea turtles will typically migrate between 180km to 1000km, but

have also been recorded to travel up to 1500km in extreme cases (Whiting 2007).
When relocating to more neritic regions before nesting, olive ridley sea turtles are
primarily found in the shallow coastal and continental shelf where they can move to
their final nesting region (Whites 2007).

Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas):

Green sea turtles can be found in tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide
(Parker 2011). Along the coast of eastern Asia a genetically different morphotype
can be found known as black turtles (Chelonia mydas agassizii), however, it is still
classified under the same genus (Hart 2015, Seminoff 2002). The more common
green turtle is found in tropical and subtropical waters around the world (Parker
2011). Once hatched, a green sea turtle will make its way into the ocean and is
presumed to live in pelagic regions until its juvenile stage (Arthur 2008). Very little
is known about the years following the hatching of green turtles, or any turtle,
species as these years are commonly referred to as the lost years (Arthur 2008,
Hays 2013, Luschi 2003).

While in their juvenile stage living in open ocean pelagic areas, green turtles
survive on a general omnivorous diet, feeding on a very wide verity of planktonic
species for between 5 and 10 years (Arthur 2008, Hatase 2006, Luschi 2003). Once
their juvenile period has passed and they have reached an approximate curved
carapace length of 44cm, they move to the more neritic foraging areas and
transition into a herbivorous diet of sea grass or macroalgae (Arthur 2008, Hatase
2006). Once sexual maturity is reached, female green turtles begin their migration
along neritic coastlines to nesting areas, which may be up to 2600 km away,
however usually average between 800 and 600 km (Arthur 2008, Hays 2013, Hart
2015, Hatase 2006). During the green turtles migration to the rookeries, they follow
neritic foraging paths allowing them to stay well fed and energized (Hart 2015).
Because green turtles do return to the beach they were born on, some turtles must
inevitably go out of their way to return to their hatching areas, sometimes migrating
up 1600km in the case of one study tracking a turtle that nested on the island of
Taipin Tao in the South China Sea (Cheng 2007).

Discussion

Of the four species being reviewed, the leatherback has the furthest

migratory distance averaging between 2,000km and 4,100km, followed by the green
turtle migrating 600km to 800km, the loggerhead migrating 450km to 600km and
the kemps ridley migrating between 280km and 500km (Hays 2013). While all
these species migrate great distances, only the leatherback and loggerhead appear

to make regular trans oceanic movements, with the loggerhead migrating primarily
during its juvenile years (Dutton 2007, Boyle 2009).
When comparing the different diets of sea turtles, all but the leatherback and
green turtle may be considered omnivorous, as both the leatherback and green have
much more unique and developed diets (Heaslip 2012, Seminoff 2012). Loggerhead
and olive ridley sea turtles have fairly similar diets as they both feed off of
crustacean and occasional fish from bycatch (Polovina 2004).
While all turtles are believed to spend a portion of their life during their lost
years in the open ocean, the leatherback and olive ridley appear to return between
their nesting periods, using these open waters as their primary foraging grounds
(Whiting 2007, James 2007). The leatherback utilizes the continental shelfs and
more polar regions as their larger body is capable of withstanding the colder
temperatures, while the olive ridley remains in the warmer equatorial regions
where a deep thermocline and shallow stratification allows for deep diving and a
wide variety of food (James 2007, Polovina 2004).
For green turtles, the distance of migration and diet is more a question of
where the turtle has decided to forage (Arthur 2008). Some green turtles have been
recorded to undergo no migration, as they have chosen to forage adjacent to their
nesting region (Hays 2013). In this manner, diet and migration distance would be
case by case.
Loggerheads undergo a very long transoceanic migration between their
youth and reaching sexual maturity (Boyle 2009). While this migration is quite
extensive, it is also quite slow, as it is mediated by years of neritic foraging before

returning to their natal nesting grounds (Bolten 1998). This migration will occur
periodically throughout the mature loggerheads life (Boyle 2009).

Conclusion
With the change in global temperatures and potential rise in ocean elevation,
these foraging areas have potential to change and possibly move. By better
understanding the distances a species is willing to migrate and its methods of
foraging, conservation efforts in line with these issues can be pursued or further
studied.

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