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- Dr.V.V.Krishna Sastry*
Before attempting to assemble information Gavampati who did not accept the Vinaya and Dhamma
regarding the sects of Buddhism it is necessary to explore texts as approved by the council as the Buddhavacana or
the causes that paved the way for the schism in the Order the real word of the Master. Whether Gavampati and Purana
after Parinirvana and its subsequent branching off into were one and the same or two different persons is
eighteen known sects that adopted their respective names controversial but it is certain that Purana expressed his
on the basis of the regions, traditions, mode of worship etc inability to accept the approved2 . He had also insisted upon
but with negligible differences in their respective the incorporation of the eight rules relating to food but the
philosophies. If at all there were differences, neither any assembly negatived his proposal. The differences were of
literary texts are available nor there are perceptible serious nature that Purana was either excommunicated or
architectural or artistic variations to emphasize such on his own came out of the Sangiti and was compelled to
differences. Differences, no doubt, occurred not on found a new Sect known as the Mahisahaka3 that had, most
aesthetics or ideology but on minor usages and traditions. probably, its headquarters in Andhra.The Vinaya that was
Thus the main structure built up by the Master was never approved by the Mahisashaka sect of Purana incorporated
shaken but in order to induce more and more followers, the eight rules pertaining to food4 .
some cosmetic innovations were made from time to time. There appears to be two or more versions regarding
The Three Councils held after Parinirvana the momentous Second Council held after 116 years of the
It is not strange that with the passing away of a Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha during the time of
disciplinarian his disciples pull in different directions till Kalasoka5 , (according to Dipavamsa, (v, 99.) he was the
the order is restored by some one as competent and tactful son of Sisunaga, the predecessor of Nandas) that brought a
as the Great Kasyapa. That there were dissensions in the major division in the Sangha. According to the Pali Vinaya6
Buddhist Order immediately after the death of the Buddha the Bhikkus of Vaisali of Vajjian origin promulgated the
is evident from the narratives found in some Buddhist ten points or rules as permissible.
canons. The texts1 provide information about the First The points are 1) Storing of salt in a horn, 2) Mid
Council that was held immediately after the demise of the day meal may be eaten after the sun’s shadow reach two
Buddha. A person by name Subhadra who became a fingers after noon, 3) Going into village to eat again after
member of the order in his old age said to his followers “ he had once left off, 4) Bhikkus residing in the same
Do not grieve, do not lament, we are happily rid of the monastery might hold uposhadha separately, 5) A sangha
Great Sramana. We used to be annoyed by being told, this that had not reached unity in itself might carry out an official
becomes you, this becomes you not. But now we shall be act, 6) It was permissible to a bhikku to do anything adopted
able to do what we like and what we do not like we shall as a practice by his teacher, 7) That curds might be eaten
not have to do” after finishing the mid day meals, 8) Permissible to drink
In order to obviate the dangerous effects of such unfermented toddy, 9) A rug or mat need not be of the
rebellious tendencies, Maha Kasyapa, probably one of the limited size prescribed if it had no fringe, 10) Permissible
greatest followers of Buddha, who was designated as the to receive gold or silver.
successor to the Master proposed that the brethren should The points that were once strictly prohibited
assemble to rehearse the sayings of the Master.The proposal, during the lifetime of the Master were now being attempted
was overwhelmingly accepted. Kasyapa selected 500 to be relaxed by a group of Vajjian monks. When the Vajjian
competent Arhats for the purpose to assemble at Rajagriha. monks attempted to collect donations from the lay disciples
During a seven-month long Sangiti (recital) or Council held of Vaisali the venerable Yasa, the son of Kakandaka raised
in the Sattapanni cave in the Vihara hill near Rajagriha, the objection for the permissions sought to be granted. He
Vinaya was codified by Upali and Dhamma by Ananda. endeavored to stop the iniquity of the bhikkus. The monks
Some Tibetan sources inform that there were some retaliated by excommunicating him from the sangha. He
followers like Purana or according to Tibetan sources laid his case before the laymen of Vaisali who were
*Former Director, Dept. of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of A.P.
Platinum Platform 99
convinced of his arguments. He then proceeded to being but possessing superhuman qualities. He was subject
Kausambi. From there he sent messengers to the monks of to human weaknesses like anger, old age, physical infirmities
the western country, Avanti, then the southern country. . and death.
Thus he could muster a large number of monks who met The Sthaviravadins were split up subsequently into
on the Ahoganga hill. After deliberations they decided eleven sects still remaining as Hinayanists.The
that the venerable Revata who was residing at Soreyya who Mahasanghikas, divided into seven sub sects, gradually gave
was wise in the traditions, an adept in Agamas, and who up their Hinayanic doctrine and paved the way to
knew the Dhamma, Vinaya, and Matikas by heart was the Mahayanism.Vinitadeva, the author of “Bikshu Varshagra
proper person to judge the points sought to be permitted Prchcha”9 grouped the 18 sects that included Sthaviras and
by the Vajjians Mahasanghikas into the following groups.
Meanwhile the Vajjian monks too approached A) The Staviras comprised 1) Jethavaniyas 2)
Revata for support of their ten points. Then Revata laid a Abhayagirivasins and 3) Mahaviharavasins
resolution before the assembly that a committee of four of
the western monks that included Revata, Sambhuta, Yasas, B) The Mahasanghikas comprised 1) Purvaselias 2)
and Sumana and four of the eastern monks, namely, Aparaselias (Aparamahavinaselias of
Subbakamin, Salha, Khujjasobhita, and Yasabhagamika Nagarjunakonda) 3) Haimavatas 4) Lokottaravadins
would be entrusted with the task of judging the ten points and 5) the Pragjnaptivadins
of Vajjians.The committee finally decided that all the points C) Sarvasthivadins included 1) Mula Sarvasthivadins
of the Vajjians were declared to be illegal. The assembly 2) Kasyapiyas 3) Mahishasakas 4) Dharma Guptas
that congregated at Vaisali to decide the legality of the 5) Bahusrutiyas 6) Tamrasatiyas and 7).
Vajjian points and rehearse the Vinaya contained seven Vihajyavadins.
hundred monks in all. D) Sammatiyas included 1) Kurukullakas 2) Avantikas
The Dipavamsa7 informs that after the Second and 3) Vastiputriyas.
Sangiti had been closed another council was held by the Taranatha identified the sects of Chaityaka and
loosing party. The Vajjian monks who were Purvaseliyas as belonging to the school of Mahadeva. As
excommunicated by the Theras gained many people the Chaityakas and Purvaseliyas were based only in Andhra
holding the wrong doctrine and one more assembly was it is likely that Mahadeva, a contemporary of Ashoka or
convened at Valukarama at Vaisali attended by ten thousand Kalasoka, might have been connected with Andhra. The
people. Therefore this bigger council was called the Great Mahasanghika branches were again sub divided into two
Council or the Mahasangha.It would thus appear that a groups The Mahasanghikas and the Chaityakas or
majority of the Buddhists adhered to those who brought Lokottaravadins. The Chaityakas became widely known
schism in the Sangha. as Seliya or the Andhaka schools. Out of a total of 18 sects
In the Tibetan and Chinese translations 8 of of Buddhism29 nine have bases in Andhra. They are 1)
Vasumitra, Bhavya and Vinitadeva there is a different account Mahasanghiyas or Aryasanghiyas (Nagarjunakonda), 2)
of the Second Council. It is said that Mahadeva put forward Purvaseliyas (Amaravati and Alluru) 3) Aparaseliyas
five new propositions regarding the Arhats who brought the (Nagarjunakonda and Ghantasala), 4) Rajagirika
division of the Sangha into two schools, viz., Mahasanghikas (Amaravati), 5) Chaityakas (Amaravati) 6) Bahusrutiyas
and Staviravadins. Some of the monks from Vaisali (Nagarjunakonda) 7) Mahishasakas (Nagarjunakonda) 8
vehemently opposed the propositions of Mahadeva and Uttarasailiyas (Kalinga region as at Bavikonda, Totlakonda
separated themselves from the Sangha of the elders or etc?) and 9) Saiddhantikas.
Sthaviras and organised a new one of their own calling it a
Let us make attempt to collate the respective
Mahasangha from which they came to be known as
doctrines of the major sects.
Mahasanghikas.The council alluded to by the Tibetan and
Chinese sources appears to be held during the time of The Sthavira or the Theravada was the original
Mauryan Asoka due to the fact that a Mahadeva was his school that remained out of the undivided Sangha.
contemporary, who was deputed to Mahisashaka for Alternately these were also known as Vibhajyavadins It
propagation of Buddhist Dharma. appears that the monks of the west, particulary from
Kausambi (near Allahabad), and Avanti (Ujjaini) formed
The Theravadins also known as the Staviravadins,
the core of this school. There is a reference to them in the
as discussed earlier was the oldest and the most orthodox
school of Buddhism.They believe Buddha was a human Saranath inscription of the Kushan period in pure Pali
These questions are related to the fundamental Savitri could restore her dead husband Satyavan
issues concerning the institution of Hindu marriage and back to life by her encounter with Yama, the God of Death,
herself being alive through the power of yoga. She was
its decay in the recent times. People who have faith and
also committed to the welfare of her father-in-law.
belief in the Hindu traditions, values and the institution
of marriage can only appreciate the answer here. Hindu Take the Puranic example of Sumati. Her husband
marriage assumes that both of the marital partners will, at was a leper. Still he was the husband. He desired another
all times, be with each other in realizing the four goals or woman. She wanted his happiness. She carried him and
ideals of human life, namely dharma, artha, kama, and gave him to the woman desired by him. This is a severe
moksha. test she faced in her life. No body had such a test in life. It
can not be imagined. It is difficult to serve a person
3.1 Examples of Marriage as depicted in the Epics : suffering from leprosy. Over and above this, he was
Rama, in Ramayana was an ideal son, an ideal immoral and was talking unimaginable immoral words.
Sumati’s choice of continuing to serve him cannot even
husband, an ideal king, an ideal brother and an ideal leader.
be imagined by others. It is the ultimate limit to stay in a
Why did this ideal king send his pregnant wife Sita to
dharma of her choice. Purana says that she acquired
forests, even personally acknowledging her chastity? If this
through this act the power even to stop the sun from rising.
case is presented before a family court today, Rama might
have been convicted and punished of cruelty! But these Staying firm in pativrata dharma, gave enormous
critics have to apply their mind to the following facts. Why power to such women. (e. g. Savitri, Sita, Anasuya and
did Sita never complain that an injustice has been done to Rukmini.). These women could even curse gods. This
her? She did not utter a word against this decision. Can dharma does not imply subservience to an individual. On
others take this as public interest litigation, in such a the other hand, it denotes submission to a concept, a
situation? Sons Lava and Kusa asked their mother (not system, an institution, a dharma and a principle. (Pativrata
knowing who they were) “Why did Rama abandon his = a dedicated, faithful, loyal, virtuous and chaste wife.)
innocent wife? Why is he called a great person by Rishi
3.2 Hindu Marriage Today :
Valmiki?” Sita’s replied “Dear sons, you do not know
dharma. Rama did what is expected of a king with a full Hindus today are governed by Hindu Marriage
knowledge of the intricacies of Raja dharma with all the Act, 1955 which provides for the conditions of a Hindu
layers of his mind, intellect, consciousness and ego involved Marriage where under the bridegroom should be of 21
in his decision. We do not have the competence and years and bride of 18 years, they both should be Hindus
wisdom to question his decision. It is wrong to criticize and should not be within the degree of prohibited
him.” Rama upheld dharma and Sita accepted his decision. relationship, neither party should have a spouse living nor
This shows our tradition. Sita knows the subtlety of dharma any party should be subject to recurrent attacks of insanity
and Rama’s conflict of interests as a king and as a husband. or epilepsy, either of them should not be suffering from
mental disorders or should not be unfit for marriage and
Of course, we need not always hold our head high procreation of children and both should be of sound mind
and say “We have given the highest place for women in and capable of giving valuable consent.
our culture and this level of dignity was never given to
women in any other society and culture.” The greatest As long as the institution of marriage retains its
insult to women was meted out to Draupadi in the royal character and purity, the Hindu society will survive and
We can study the contribution of Telugu to one who set a syllabus for learning Karnatic music. He
Karnatic music under three heads: also composed Suladi Prabhandas and also Ugabhogas. He
1) Telugu’s contribution to origin and evolution of is the one who prescribed Maya Malava Gowlai Melam for
Karnatic music. learning Karnatic music.
2) Treatises written by Telugu scholars either in Sanskrit These are some major reasons why the south In-
or Telugu. dian music is known as karnatic music.I don’t want to go
3) Telugu composers and compositions. further and deeper into this aspect.
The terms Carnatic music and Hindustani music Geetham Vadyam cha Ntrutyamcha triam
were used for the first time in Sangita Sudhakara by Sangeethaam uchyathe
Haripala, written sometime between 1309 & 1312. Song, instrumental music and dance put together
If we turn our attention to the word Karnataka it is known as Sangeetham according to Sangeetha Ratnakara
represented the entire peninsular India during the days of of Saranga Deva. If we go back to the origin of Indian
Vijayanagara empire. Krishna devaraya was described as music, all of us believe that the present music has evolved
prabala rajaadhiraaja veera prataapa —— from Sama Veda.
raajaparameswaraartha durgaa natesa Sama Vedat idam geetham Samjagraha
sahitee samaraangana sarvabhauma—— Krishna Pithamahaha, says, Sangeetha Ratnakara.
raayendra The earliest treatise on music available to us today, is
gajapati gajakoota paakala.. mooru raayara ganda Bharatha’s Natya Sastra, which talks about music exclu-
karnata kshiti mandladheeswara……. sively in six chapters. Bharatha mentions different re-
gional musics and mentions Andhri as one style.
One who ruled over the karnata country, at that
time the entire south India. Natya Sastra is ascribed to second Century BC.
The Sathavahanas, the Telugu kings who ruled entire In-
Kallinadha, commentator to Sangitaratnakara,
dia, during BC 184 AD 320, patronized music according
defines Karnata as below:
to inscriptional and sculptural evidences. A music instru-
Asti karnaata desam suvimala yasasaa pooritaalam ment called Eka Tanthra Veena, one stringed veena, Satha
prudhivyaah Thantra Veena, a hundred stringed Veena were shown in
Kaaveree krishnavenee tarala tara tarangaadra epigraphical evidences. The Nagarjuna sculputures show
dakshottaraamsah two other veenas, the Deva Veena and the Manava Veena,
Hrushta samslishya poorvaapara vijana pushaa the divine and human veenas respectively. Mahendra Varma
praachya pashaatya vele of Pallava Dynasty who ruled Andhra was considered to
Paadho naatha prasakti prabalita nikhila swaanga be a great vainica. There is a doubt about the nativity of
saubhaagya lakshmeeh Pallava kings, while some say that they are Tamilians some
others claim them to be Andhra. A particular region in
He refers to the entire southern India as Karnataka.
Andhra is known after them as Pallavanadu or Palanadu.
There are evidences that Krishadevaraya who ruled Mahendra Varma, is said to have left Andhra for Tamil
the vijayanagara empire during 1510-1529 visited Nadu and with him took several Telugu Musicians. In-
Purandaradasa (1484-1564) at least 3 times and paid his scriptional evidences show that his music guru was a vo-
respects to him. Purandaradasa is said to have composed calist known as Rudracharya, who discovered Sankeerna
4,75,000 compositions. Purandaradasa is known as the Jathi Tala Bhedas and got inscribed a Swara Raga on
Karnataka Sangeetha Pitamaha who laid a definite path Kudimia Malai temple premises.
for learning Karnatic music. Not only a composer, he is
*Former Director, American Institute of Indian Studies, Chennai.
Palakuriki Somanatha a great Saivaite poet of 13th Having understood the role and contribution of
Century talks extensively about music in his works, Telugu in the origin and evolution of Karnatic music and
Panditaradhya Charitra and Basava Purana. the treaties that have been authored by the Telugu musi-
cologists, let us turn our attention to composers and the
These are the same kind of compositions which compositions who have enriched the density of classicism
are defined and refined by the classicists and renamed by of Karnatic music. While doing so we will also see what
the lakshana karaas in their treatise as Ela, Prabhandam, were the lakshana granthas written contemporarily to the
Padam etc., composers. This will enable us to infer the mutual and
Somanatha in his Basava Purana mentions the reciprocal influence on lakshana and lakshya.
classification of music as Margi and Desi, Classical and If we take the repertoire of Karnatic music pres-
Regional, the seven notes and the 22 sruthis. In ently available to us, we find compositions of Telugu are
Panditharadya Charithra, he classifies Ragas, as male, fe- more than all the other three languages put together. The
male and neutral, and also Shaudava and Audava. He reason and the logic behind this, needs to be probed into.
mentions 108 Ragas and divides them into Sanga,Desanga, A logical inference reveals that at the time of the forma-
Kriyanga, Upanga and Raganga Ragas. tion of the peninsular Indian music around 13th Century
There are umpteen number of references to mu- AD and from then on until about 5 centuries, Telugu
sic in Telugu literature which flourished during the rulers have ruled the major part of South India from
Vijayanagara regime. There are at least 15 major treaties Vijayanagara, Madhura, Tanjore, Chenji and other places.
authored or commented upon by Telugu lakshanakaras. Though the rulers of Vijayanagara are not by birth Telugus,
Nrutha Ratnavali of Jayapaseenani, 13th Century AD is there are historical evidences to show that they patronized
one of the most authentic works on dance and dance music. Telugu and their official languages used to be mostly
Sangeetha Ratnakara of Saranga Deva (13th Century AD) Telugu. The greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Sri Krishna
is one of the most extensive work on music and musicol- Deva Raya authored a book Amuktha Malyada in Telugu
ogy. Sangeetha Sudha, a commentary on this work was and some works in Sanskrit. This establishes the predomi-
authored by Simhabhoopala of 14th Century AD, other nance of Telugu in the field of music for about 500 years.
important treaties are : It is during his time that at least five major lakshana
Author Century Book grandhas have come up. His predecessor, Saluva
th
Narasimha Raya patronized Annamacharya for a while.
Haripala Deva 14 Century Sangeetha Sudhakara The Nayak rulers, of Tanjore, Raghunatha Nayaka and
Vidyaranya 14th Century Sangeetha Saram Vijayaraghava Nayaka were themselves musicologists who
Kumaragiri Vasantha Raju 14th Century Vasantha Rajeeyam wrote Sangeetha Sudha and composed several Yakshaganas
(Drametergy) during 17th Century. These 400 years from 1300 to 1700
Pedakomati Vema Reddy 15th Century Sangeetha Chithamani are very crucial to the formation of Karnatic music which
Gopendra Tippa Bhoopla 15th Century Tala Deepika has synthasised rich Tamil culture, the mellifluous Telugu
Chatura Kalinatha 15th Century Kalanithi – Commentary language and the regional musics of different geographi-
on S. R cal areas into one known as Karnatic music. This is the
Annamacharya 15th Century Sankeerthana Lakshana time when the Tamil country ruled by Telugus absorbed
Bandaru Lalxminaraya 16th Century Sangeetha Suryodaya Telugu as the language of music.
Cherukuri Laxmidhara 16th Century Raga Lakshana Vivekam
Ramamathya 16th Century Svara Mela Kalanidh The first available compositions in Telugu were
Art is a product of human activity. It is used by carving, crowded compositions and various difficult poses
man and society for both religious and secular purposes. of forms are found. The figures register feelings and
Art was also used by powerful monarchs as a direct or emotions in their facial and physiognomic attitudes and
indirect means to propagate their socio-political ideas and expressions. The mature art of the Amaravati is one of the
ideologies. In Andhradesa the Buddhist art was patronized India’s major distinct styles. It is considered by many critics
and well developed from the 3rd century B.C. to 4th century to be the finest school of Indian sculpture.
A.D. The early art of Andhra is evidenced in the stupas at The Ikshvaku period of Andhra art is found at
Amaravati. The mahastupa here revealed the triratna, many Buddhist centres- Goli, Guntupalli, Gummididuru,
vriksha-chaitya in graphic art, datable to the 3rd century Alluru, Ghantasala, Ramatirtham, etc. The post-Ikshvaku
B.C. Yakshi figures and stele with carvings like events from Buddhist art is seen at Nelakondapalli, Buddham,
the life of the Buddha with label inscriptions, purchase of Sankaram, Jaggayyapeta, etc. The Buddha and Bodhisattva
Jetavana, structural complex, multi-storeyed building show images in stone from Nagarjunakonda and Buddha figures
strong resemblance to the Sunga-period reliefs of Bharhut. form Buddham are notable specimens. The life-size
Flat forms of the body and angularities are similar to the standing Buddha figure developed at Amaravati seems to
Sunga period reliefs. Amaravati art is basically have had influence on south-east Asian art. Amaravati
representational and narrative in character, which is a prescribed the standard for the Buddha figure with the
feature of early Indian art of pre-Christian centuries. The heavy physique, the robe covering the forearm, the right
flora and fauna, human sculptures carved in low relief from hand in abhayamudra pose, and the left hand holding the
here exhibit flat carving, plump limbs, smiling faces, folds of the robe near the chest, a circular mark on the
draped turbans and heavy jewellery, belong to the 2nd and forehead, and ring-like curls of hair in a top-knot.
1st century B.C. Stiff and angular style found in the figures
With evidence of the Gudimallam Siva linga dated
at Jaggayyapeta is very close to those seen at Bharhut.
to the 2nd century B.C. it can pointed that the Brahmanical
The mature art of the Amaravati has taken place art tradition is as old as the Buddhist art tradition in
during the Later Satavahana period with replacement of Andhradesa. The linga has seven sides in the middle, nut
the old railing with highly decorative one to the mahastupa. shape at the top and is square at the bottom. It looks like
Jataka stories, scenes from the life of the Buddha, flora the male organ in a state of erection. Siva as a samapada
and fauna, Buddhist symbols are composed on the railings. sthanakamurti is carved in the linga itself in bold relief.
Still narration and descriptive content dominates, pushing Interestingly, he has only two hands and no yajnopavita,
these to the background in the representation. Female “a remarkably early state in the iconographic concept of
devotees paying homage to an empty throne marked with Siva”. The fine cloth is tied below the abdomen. The creases
the Foot-Prints and a roundel showing the Buddha in and both smaller and heavier folds of the cloth are very
human form subduing a maddened elephant are also well sculptured. These characters recall the Patna yakshas.
depicted. (Govt. Museum, Chennai). It shows both the Additional waist band tied in loop-knot recalls the
enraged elephants’ charge, tossing bystanders aside with Bharhut- Amaravati arts.
its trunk and the scene where it kneels down in the sacred The Ikshvaku period sculptures of Kartikeya,
presence of the Lord. It is one of the best examples of the Gauri, Kubera, Nidhi are similar to the style of Buddhist
mature Amaravati School. The action oriented art. They are featured with an oval face, slim bodies with an
representation is remarkable for its space organization, hourglass torso, and long limbs. Several stone plaques
wealth of architectural details and human details. The head depicting the trinity are found at Konidena, Kondamotu,
of the Buddha is round, though slightly damaged, a Madugula, Duvvuru, etc. The style of depiction of human
sophisticated production is a good example of subtle figures, drapery and ornamentation resemble the art of
modulation of flowing art. (Musee Guimet, Paris). In depth Vijayapuri and Amaravati. The Duvvuru plaque depicts
*Professor of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
The Vijayanagara rule over the South India from The artists of Vijayanagara followed the features
A.D. 1336 to 1680 A.D., was a glorious epoch. The of Indian art. The six limbs of Indian art known as
Vijayanagara empire was established in 1336 A.D., by Shadangas like Rupabheda, Pramana, Bhava, Sadrusya,
Harihara and Bukkaraya of Sangama Vamsa, with the Lavanya and Varnikabanga which were his main vision.
blessings of the great spiritual master, Vidyaranya. The They were followed intensely by other features like Idealism,
empire established for the propagation of Dharma and for Naturalism, Symbolism, Mythology, Religion and
the support of Hindu ideals and reinforced by the blessings Philosophy to uplift Spiritualism. These characteristics with
of the great sage, grew in strength and spread dharmic and the individuality of the sculptor, highlightened the aesthetic
religious institutions. The Sangama Vamsa (1336 to 1471 taste of Rayas of Vijayanagara. They reflected their ideas,
A.D.) followed by Saluva (1485 to 1503 A.D.), Tuluva their society, culture and economic conditions of the period.
(1505 to 1576 A.D.), and Aliya or Araveeti (1576 to 1680 These sculptors’ succeeded in their achievements with
A.D.) Vamsas were great rulers of Vijayanagara. Sangama various kinds of stone, metal and coins. They could chistle
Vamsa kings were Virupaksha bhaktas, where as the other the hard and smooth stones to achieve their goals equally.2
three Vamsas were followers of Vaisnavism. The ICONOGRAPHY:
Vijayanagara rayas consciously promoted religion and
culture. Hampi had been a Saivite tirtha from pre- Iconography was popular and well developed
Vijayanagara times. At Vijayanagara, were incorporated during this period. Forms of Siva such as Lingodhbhava,
many cults and religious traditions, not only Hindu, but Nataraja, Gangadhara, Chandrasekhara, Somaskanda,
also Jain and Islamic. This explains the significance of Vishnuanugraha murti, Ravananugraha murti, Dakshina
religious amalgamation. Alongside these are a variety of murti, Gajantaka murti, and Tripurantaka murti, etc.
Virabhadra, Bhairava, Ganesha, Subrahmanya, Nandi,
secular themes including those depicting courtly and martial
Lingas in the round shape, Monolithic Lingas, Reliefs of
scenes. This rich inter-mixture of religious and secular
Lingas, Siva on Nandi, Kalyana Sundara Murti, Harihara,
themes make Vijayanagara art especially interesting and
Mailera or Khendoba, Mailara Deva, Chandikesvara,
different from the earlier periods of South Indian Art.
Bhringi, Nageswara, etc., forms of Siva are represented.
A new impetus was given to temple building and
Vaishnavism became very popular. Various kinds
in the large empire, which embraced Andhra, Karnataka,
of Vishnu Iconography became predominant. The two
Dravida, Kerala and Maharastra in its scope, touching even
important Vaishnava sects at Vijayanagara were Sri
Orissa, the Vijayanagara style of architecture, sculpture and
Vaishnavism and Madhavaism. Both had their impact on
painting were influenced. It fused various elements of
Vijayanagara sculptor, in which there appears certain
Chalukya and Chola art, though the Dravida element
variations or new forms and the Madanagopala image,
predominated. It was thus a continuation of the early and Krishna with in a Prabhavali, the four armed Rama, Rama
Pandya traditions, combining to some extent, in the seated like a king, Sthauna Narasimha, etc illustrate this.
Canaries and Telugu districts, Chalukya tradition that earlier There are two groups as the Chaturvimshati murtis, but
had firm roots there.1 few of these twenty four appear individually. The
Remains of Architectural sculptures and Icons are Dasavataras are very popular and appear as a group or
surviving in many places. Very famous places of individually. Some incarnations were greatly favoured and
Vijayanagara are Tirupparuttikunram, Hampi, Lepakshi, are frequently represented especially Narasimha, Rama and
Anegundi, Somapalli, Pillalamarri, Tadipatri, Penugonda, Krishna. Other forms like Venkatesvara, Ranganatha,
Kanchipuram, Chandragiri, Srikalahasti, Tirupati, Vithala, Varadaraja, were also popular. Minor aspects of
Tirvannamalai, Chidambaram, Tiruvalur, Srirangam and Vishnu like Mohini is also represented. Garuda, Hanuman,
Kumbakonam, etc. Adishesha, Dvarapalakas, Jaya and Vijaya, Vrishvaksena,
Sudarshana also appear. The two main emblems of Vishnu,
*Professor, Department of AIHC&A, Osmania University, Hyderabad-500 007, A.P.
The extention of the Chalukyan power to The spread of the Pasupata cult by 3rd century A.D.
Andhradesa made a powerful impact on the cultural scene is attested by the Caturmukha linga from Amaravati.7 We
of Andhradesa. Royal patronage to the religious institutions may consider the Ikshvaku period as the condusive period
and art traditions ete., manifested themselves in the temples for the strong Pasupata sect emerging in Andhradesa.
that were constructed. Commercial and political contacts with central and western
India brought in the Lakulisa-Pasupatism. It is characterized
During the Pre-Chalukyan period, Alampur is
by the Yoga and Bhakti worship of Siva as Mahesvara as an
known through 3rd century A.D. inscription and recent
essential element of Pasupata cult. The shrine dedicated to
excavations at Virapuram, Siddhesvaram, Kudavalli, etc.,
Pushpabhadra svami is called a Mahadeva in the epigraph.
reveal the emergence of temples of Saiva affiliation at these
The inscription in the Arkabrahma temple at Alampur
places1. The distribution of Siva temples in the villages of
refers to the shrine as Mahadeva.8
the upper Krishna and lower Krishna regions is significant.
The acculturised tribals, memebers of Sudra varna
Virapuram, Siddhesvaram and Alampur are the and also rich peasants and the nobility formed the social
points of entry into the Southern Andhra. At Siddhesvaram, support of the Pasupata sect. The Pasupata centres during
phase I revealed the excavations of shrine of Siva which this period probably were located at Srisailam, Ipurankal
can be dated to 4th century A.D.2 The Virapuram brick near Alampur and Siddavatam etc.
temples numbering fourteen belong to two phases;3 the
The growth of non-Brahmana Saiva matha and
early phase is dated to the beginning of the first century
temples were largely responsible for the increasing
A.D., while the other to the 3rd -4th century A.D. Each of
popularity of Pasupata sect and its association with the
the temple units of the first phase contains a linga, rolled
royalty and trade guilds.
river pebble of Quartzite, fixed into the floor of the shrine.
Each of the temples of the later phase possesses a linga on The process of legitimation marks the gradual
pedestal in the centre of the shrine. No other icons or niche transformation of a local ruling lineage into a regional
figures are found. The Gurzala Brahmi inscription is clear power.
evidence for the existence of the Nava-Brahma temples at There are certain historical mechanisms of the
Alampur4. religious process. Prof B.D. Chattopadhyaya opines that
We can see the growth of Saiva Kshetra net work in the related religious process the main trend was
by the 7th century A.D. While the pre-eminence of Srisaila integration of local cults, rituals and sacred centres into a
as Saiva Kshetra is indisputable, Alampur emerged as a supra local structure and the mechanism of integration was
nodal Saiva centre in the upper Krishna valley, Siddhavatam by seeking affiliation with a deity or a sacred centre which
in the central Pennar valley, Tripurantakam at the cross had come to acquire supra-local significance.9
roads near the Srisailam hills and Umamahesvaram across The Lakulisa images are found at Alampur and
the Krishna on the north. Kudaveli.10 Two unique sculptures of Lakulisa are found at
the latter site. The bigger one almost life size, is in a koshtha
The existence of Pasupatmatha near Alampur is
on the northern exterior wall face of the gudha mandapa.
known through the Amudalapadu plates which refers to
The standing nude figure is two handed, and the right hand
Sudarsanacharya who initiated Chalukya Vikramaditya into
holds a rosary and raised in abhaya and the left arm is
Saivism by performing the ceremony of Sivamandala-
broken but reveals the out line of Lakula resting against
diksha. 5 With this event the Chalukya Vikramaditya
the shoulder of the figure. At the lower region, two disciples
initiated the construction of temples at Alampur around
are shown, one each on either side in namaskara mudra. At
655 A.D. Nine temples known as Navabrahma temples
Alampur the Bhara Siva is represented in the Svarga Brahma
were built by 750 A.D.6
temple on the pillar.11
*Associate Professor, Dept of AIHC & Archaeology, S.V. University, Tirupati.
The beginnings of structural form of the temple Thus the temples at Vijayapuri square, oblong or
and its evolution through the centuries are briefly traced. apsidal on plan conformed to the Dravida tradition.
The small platforms under a tree supporting an During this Vishnukundin period the temples at
image or object and of a stone slab resting over two uprights Keesaragutta, Kudaveli etc., followed the earlier tradition.
are the most ancient types of worship. Deep-rooted cult of The seventh century A.D however brought forth sea change
tree worship among the people through the ages deserves in the architectural history of Andhradesa.
mention. The tree in railing in the pre-Christian era was
The temple form in Dravida tradition according
called as the Rukka Caitya. These are depicted in the
to the vastu texts consists of six major elements called the
Amaravati sculptures.
adhisthana the base, pada, the wall, prastara, the entablature,
The hypaetheral type of shrines were raised in griva the neck, sikhara the roof and stupi the finial. The
ancient India in the pre Christian period. In Andhradesa ground plan of the Dravida temple in Andhra desa normally
the open air type shrine is evidenced at Gudimallam. The consists of a mukhamandapa, the pillared hall, an antarala,
Parasuramesvara temple at Gudimallam, near Renigunta the vestibule and a garbhagriha, the sanctum. In the axial
airport, originally had an image of Siva-linga set on a arrangement of the temple the mukhamandapa is always
polished two stone rings and was enclosed by a limestone large in dimensions than the sanctum. Another form in
square railing. Later in the 2nd century A.D an apsidal brick vogue is the diminutive mukhamandapa fronting the
structure was raised enshrining the linga. The hypothermal sanctum as noticed in the temples at Biccavolu, Pondugula,
temple is dated to 2nd century B.C. This form’s vide Gudem etc. The incidence of apsidal temples in
prevalence can be noticed as it figures in the Ujjain coins Rayalaseema region is striking. The temple complex is
of 2nd century B.C. enclosed by a prakara and around the main shrine at the
corners either four or eight subsidiary shrines are provided;
Earliest temple form of Dravidadesa is evidenced
the former panchayatana and the latter ashtaparivara. From
in the plaque form Ghantasala dated 2nd century A.D. A
the 13th century A.D the temple complexes were studded
two storeyed superstructure is shown decorated with blind
with the Kalyanamandapa, yagasala, pakasala and matha.
doors and kutas and crowned by an octagonal dome and a
The prakara acquired a towered gate, the gopura on all sides.
stupi. The sala and gajaprastha type of roofs are also seen in
The torana gateway came into vogue from the 11th century
the structural representations in Buddhist art of Andhra.
A.D as seen at Mallesvaram, Alampur, Nandikondi etc., in
The structural temples of the Satavahana and the Telangana region. The tiruchuttimala, the cloister
Ikshvaku period are found at Virapuram, Siddhesvaram, around the prakara became popular from the 13th century
Alampur, Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda) etc. The A.D as seen in the Pancharama shrines, Simhachalam,
excavations at Nagarjunakonda revealed several temples of Bapatla etc.
3rd century A.D. The Pushpabhadrasvami temple built in
The madakara vimana – the storeyed temple,
the 14th regnal year of Ehuvala Chantanula comprises of
wherein the ground floor features a mandapa and the hall
an apsidal shrine a detached mandapa, a dhvaja stambha
enclosing the sanctum, staircase is provided beside the
enclosed in a prakara with gateway on all sides. The
mandapa to reach the upper floor. Herein lies the sanctum
gajaprshtakara vimana, 16 pillared mandapa and the dhvaja
where one can circumambulate. The towering linga that
stambha underline the temple layout.
emanates from the ground floor is awe inspiring. Two
The storeyed palatial Sarvadeva temple called as storeyed superstructure crowns the majestic structure. This
the mandapa prasada also belongs to the reign of Ehuvala temple form is seen only at the Pancharamas: The
Chantamula. Bhimesvara temple at Draksharama, Kumararama,
* Prof. B. Rajendra Prasad (July 1942), former Professor of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati,
is known for his work on Art and Architecture of Andhra. He worked in the prestigious Project of Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture. He
has authored, edited and contributed articles on Temple Art and Architecture to several reference books.
Most of the present generation feel that basic images in chapter No.67. The same Purana deals with the
sciences are less useful than computers. They do not realise science of town planning in chapter No. 106.
that ancient sciences are the roots behind the present day
If one goes through the details, certainly one feels
technology. In this connection, its not out of context or
the town planning was much better than today’s town
place to mention that most of us brush aside the fact that
planning of Metro Cities. It goes to the extent of saying
ancient Hindu scriptures are store houses of knowledge.
which community / professionals should stay where in the
They reveal facts of sciences, arts, social justice, geography,
city. It suggests that professional dancers and courtesans
gemology etc. Every scripture is a store house of knowledge.
be on the southern quarter, Brahmins, ascetics and holy
We read about Rama conquering Ravana and men be stayed in the northern quarter, army commanders
coming back to Ayodhya by Pushpaka Vimana. For most on the eastern quarter, the regiments of the army in the
of us Pushpaka Vimana is a myth, but a few know that south-eastern quarter, war material stores on the western
Pushpaka Vimana was a reality. Many of us do not know quarter, chief ministers, treasurers and architects should
about Bharadwaja Vimana Sastra which describes the be in the western direction and the judicial officers on the
elements used in building up an aircraft of those days. northern part. The physicians and army be located in all
directions. The temples be located in the western part facing
Agni Purana (AP) deals in detail several subjects the east (AP.106.7-17). One should notice here the
which include building technology – construction of importance given to doctors and army by saying that they
temples from the preparation of ground to the finishing of be located in all directions
the structure in the chapters 39 and 42..
Coming to the science of Geography, Agni Purana
The details from the ground plan to the gives description of different continents in chapter No.119.
measurements of different components like division of the It gives the dimensions of Jambudvipa wherein India is
ground into different squares, size of adhisthana (base), door located. It says “Jambudvipa extends to a lakh of yojanas,
jambs, size of the image in the sanctum, location of sub- surrounded by the oceans measuring one lakh yojanas”
shrines etc are dealt in detail. Location of Navagrahas are (AP.119.1) The same subject is dealt in the Bhagavata
also mentioned. Simple formulae like “the height of the Purana in the fifth skandha, chapter No.18. Brahmanda
tower should be a quarter lesser than that of the temple, Purana also deals on this subject under the heading length
the pedestal of the image of the deity of five cubits should and extent of the world and description of Jambudvipa.
be of a cubit” are also given(AP.42.22). It also mentions Regarding the Magnitude of Oceans and Continents and
about the height of walls, the projection measurements of about the Continents Brahma Purana mentions in Chapter
arches, height of the temple sikhara proportionate to the Nos.18 and 16 respectively.
length of the temple, location of mandapas and subsidiary
deities etc. Archery – Vilu vidya is one of the 64 arts. About
this Agni Purana narrates in chapters No.249 and 250. It
In the same Purana it gives the details of narrates that Archery is of four sections – resting on the
characteristics of a site for building. Apart from that, the warriors on chariots, elephants, cavalry and infantry. Again
Purana says what are all the plants one should have in the they are classified as ones thrown by machines and hands.
court yard of the house together with directions. Position Stones and other weapons like iron clubs thrown by means
of garden is also discussed. “ A Plaksa tree would be of hands or machines are one type, the other type are the
auspicious on the north and the vata tree on the east of the ones permanently retained by the user like swords. It says
house. Udumbara tree on the south and the Asvattha tree “battles fought with bows are excellent, those with darts
on the west are excellent. A garden should be laid on the are mediocre, those with swords are inferior and those
left of the house. Dwelling in such a house is good.” fought with hands are still inferior to them” (AP.249.6-8).
(AP.247.24-31). It also deals with renovation of decayed About the positioning of hands while handling the bow, it
*Director, Birla Archaeological & Cultural Research Institute, Hyderabad.
In Hindu culture woman plays an important role Tirumala. In another inscription, dated 1536 A.D, she is
in religious activities. Unless accompanied by wife the hus- mentioned as Tathukkonamma (IV – 66). This inscription
band is not eligible to perform Vedic rituals like certain records her endowment of 150 varahas for providing one
yajnas. In the historical period too she enjoyed great reli- tirupponakam to the same god.
gious freedom. This is well attested by several inscriptions. The liberal endowments made by Chinnadevi and
The well known example comes from the epigraphs of the Tirumaladevi, the queens of the illustrious emperor
Ikshvakus of Vijayapuri (3rd – 4th cen. A.D). The Ikshvaku Krishnadevaraya to the god Venkatesvara are too well –
kings followed Vedic religion while their queens extended known to be repeated here.
liberal patronage to Buddhism and consequently both the
In the history of the temples of Tirumala and
religions flourished simultaneously in the Nagarjunakonda
Tirupati the Vijayanagara period, particularly that of
valley. Inscriptions of the following centuries have abun-
Krishnadevaraya and his successors Achyuta and Sadasiva,
dant information regarding the participation of women in
is a glorious chapter. The temples registered all – round
temple activities. In the present paper it is proposed to
development during this period due to the liberal patron-
examine the role of women in the economic growth of
age of kings, queens, royal officials and the members of
Tirumala Tirupati Temples, based on inscriptions. These
their families as well as nobles, merchants and common
inscriptions cover a period of about nine centuries (9th to
men. For instance, Lakshmi – ammangar, wife of the
17th century). Needless to say, chiefly women figure in these
Pradhani Saluva Timmarusu, gifted 1,200 panam to the
inscriptions as dancers as also donors in the temples.
god Venkatesvara (III – 19; 1511 A.D). It is during this
The earliest epigraph, to refer to a woman donor, period that several women belonging to different social hi-
coming from the temple of Lord Venkatesvara may be dated erarchy made noteworthy contribution to the glory of the
back to about the 9th century. It records an endowment by temple of Lord Venkatesvara in different ways.
Samavai, also known as Kadavan Perundevi, the wife of the
During the period of Saluva Narasimha, in 1457
Kadava chief Sattivitankan (I – 8 and 9) *. She installed a
A.D, one Venkatavalli, a dancing – girl (emberumanadiyar)
silver image of Manavala Perumal (processional deity) in
attached to the temple of Narasimhadeva (at Tirumala),
the temple of Lord Venkatesvara and gold jewels studded
gifted 1000 narpanam for providing food offerings to the
with various kinds of precious stones. She further granted
god Venkatesvara (II – 5). As we see in the sequel many
land to perform the worship of the Lord for nine days com-
dancing girls attached to the temple of Lord Venkatesvara
mencing with ankurarpanam. This nine – day-festival was
made liberal grants to temples at Tirumala and Tirupati.
to be preceded by a two – day worship. This implies that
In 1486 A.D a tiruvidhi – sani named Valandi gifted 300
the utsavam initiated by the queen was the Brahmotsavam
narpanam for offering 30 tirukkanamadai (food offerings)
celebrated to the Lord of the Seven Hills. to the same god (II – 86). The tirukkanamadai was to be
Parantakadevi – amman, the chief queen of Chola offered at the rate of one per day during the Margali month.
Parantaka II (I – 14), gifted a pattam to Lord Venkatesvara The tiruvidhi – sani was the dancing girl who accompanied
which was studded with six rubies, four diamonds and 28 the god in procession performing dance, the theme being
pearls. In 1534 A.D. Periya Kommamma, the queen of the obviously, religious. The dancing girls were also singing
chief Salakaraja Periya Tirumalayyadeva-maharaja, gifted songs in praise of god. An inscription of 1495 A.D refers
1,300 panam for providing various offerings to the god to the practice of singing the ula of Kandadai Ramanuja –
Venkatesvara including atirasapadi to be offered on the 7th ayyangar in the sanctum while Malaikuniyaninra – perumal
festival day, during nine Brahmotsavams, on which day the and Govinda – perumal were taken on procession during
Lord is taken on the Garuda – vahana in procession along the kodai – tirunal (summer festival) (II – 134). Another
the four mada streets of the Tirumala temple (IV – 31). inscription dated in the very next year informs that an
The queen also built a mantapa and laid a flower garden at amount of two panam was paid to the emberuman – adiyar
*Professor (Rtd.), Dept. of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
Temple particularly in the medieval period played light on the welfare activities of the temples at Tirumala
a key role in the religious as well as secular life of the society. and Tirupati.
With the increase of endowments they grew rich and as
they became richer and richer they introduced more The Tirumala and Tirupati temples had their
number of festivals and festivities. Consequently they lands in several villages as evidenced by the epigraphs. The
became one of the largest employers and every section of temple authorities took keen interest in land reclamation
and development of irrigational facilities by way of
the society became involved in the temple activities and
excavating tanks or improving the canals or repairing the
benefited significantly. Another interesting factor is that
already existing ones by spending large amounts of money
women in good numbers made donations to the temple.
donated by the devotees for conducting various kinds of
Very often we find the donors making endowments to the
services in the temple. About 300 inscriptions available in
temple as stated and have been doing so for the merit of
Tirumala Tirupati state that the temple trustees undertook
their overlord or parents or other near relatives. Thus they
to spend the amount paid by the donors for the
were sacrificing the punya that they earned for the benefit
improvement of tanks and canals in the temple villages.
of others. Naturally the sentiments like respect towards For instance Lakshmi Ammangar, the wife of Pradhani
elders, loyalty to the masters, helped in building a healthy Saluva Timmarusayyangar, paid 1200 nar-panam into the
society. temple treasury for providing food service to the Lord of
The temple of Lord Venkatesvara at Tirumala and Seven Hills in 1511 A.D. The temple authorities received
those of Govindaraja and others at Tirupati were the gift amount and invested the same for the purpose of
patronized by the kings, chiefs and even common man to digging the tanks and channels in the villages to improve
a great extent. Though we find less number of donations the irrigation facilities to the temple lands.1 Similarly the
made to these temples during the time of the Yadavarayas amount of 150 nar-panam paid by a donor Tiruvenkata-
mudaiyar was utilized for the improvement of an
they became prominent. During the Vijayanagara period
irrigational channel called Tirumala-nayakkar’s channel in
particularly of Sri Krishnadevaraya, Achyutadevaraya and
order to provide water facilities to the lands situated at the
Sadasivaraya, they registered a phenomenal growth in all
devadana village Panakam.2
respects. New festivals and festivities were introduced and
new structures were added. These temples particularly of Further, temple authorities encouraged private
that of Venkatesvara gained popularity and their fame initiative also in this regard. Sometimes the donor himself
reached almost all over South India. This is evidenced by dug a new channel or caused necessary repairs to be done
the number of inscriptions [approximately 2000], engraved to the already existing one at his own cost.3 In turn the
on the walls of temples at Tirumala and Tirupati. The temple authorities bound themselves to conduct the
very existence of the Kapilesvara swamy temple, a Saivite religious services instituted by these donors, by supplying
one, at the foot of the hills shows the importance given to the necessary articles from the Sribhandaram in lieu of the
the maintenance of religious harmony. It can be safely said extra income resulting from the donor’s work. About 44
that devotees who visited the temple of Venkatesvara at epigraphs record this type of arrangement between the
Tirumala visited that of Kapilesvara also, with the brief donors and the temple trustees.4 For example, an epigraph
that ultimately Siva and Vishnu are the manifestations of of 1460 A.D. states that Tippu Nayakkar, a nattuva,
one Supreme god. This is an indirect role played by the excavated a river channel to flowdown from its head-basin
temples at Tirumala as well as Tirupati in the maintenance within the boundaries of Tiruchchukanur, passing with
of communal harmony. With the wide influence they in the limits of Mannaipundi village, to irrigate the lands
commanded these temples paid due importance to the in the temple village Padi and raise fresh crops. The temple
welfare of the society. The present paper aims at throwing authorities agreed to conduct the service of food offerings
*Associate Professor & Head Dept. of AIHC & Archaeology S V University, Tirupati-517 502.
The present Telangana region comprises 10 out of Guru Kanakaseva Bhatta 100 mattars of dry land and 1
23 districts in the state of Andhra Pradesh viz.. mattar of wet land under Bheema Samudra Tank. Khazipet
Mahaboobnagar, Medak, Hyderabad, Rangareddy, inscription of Kakatiya Beta mentions grant of certain village
Nizamabad, Adilabad, Karimnagar,Warangal and as Sarvamanya by King Dugga Tribuvanamalla son of
Nalgonda.(1). Betarasa to the Kalamukha monk Rameswara Pandita.
Telangana was ruled during the medieval period The Brahmins did not confine their activities to
by the rulers who hailed from the central part of the present religious pursuits only. As educated members of the
Karnataka state. The rulers and their sub-ordinates issued community their service was indispensable to society and
the inscriptions in Kannada language which was the official the state, to carry on the work of administration. Therefore
language at that time. An attempt is made in the present they entered the services of the state in large numbers and
paper to throw some light on the socio- religious conditions, helped the king in governing the kingdom as counselors to
based on the information given in the inscriptions. Kannada ministers and members of civil service. They entered the
inscriptions of present study give much information about army and fought the battles for their kings, several Brahmana
the Social conditions prevailing at that time. The warriors of distinction were mentioned in the inscriptions
information can be corroborated with sources such as who by dint of their merit rose to positions of highest
writing of foreign travelers who visited the courts of the command.
kings during this period.
In the Mn 49 Gangapuram inscriptions4 one
Caste System: Jayananda Bhatta was mentioned as Dandanayaka of
Society was based on caste, with all its hierarchical Tailapadeva who ruled Kandurunadu. Brahmin names
characteristics during the medieval period, even the ended within suffixes such as Bhatta, Upadhyaya, Pandita
Buddhists and Jains who originally disregarded it came sometimes as Arya if they were holding an administrative
gradually under its influence and adopted it with certain post under the king. Such as Namaya Bhatta5 [Hd 1],
modification to suit their needs. The bulk of population Nagadeva Bhatta [Mn 41]6, Prakash Bhatta [Mn 45 –
was Hindu. Society was basically divided into four main Gangapuram] who was the scholar and Guru of
castes, the Brahmins, Kshetriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras, and Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya. Nagarasi Pandita, son of
a few minor sub-castes such as Nayaks, Boyas and Reddys Sadyojata Pandita., Burugugadda inscription mentions one
who find a mention in the inscriptions. Govindarasa who was Mahapradhana of Ananthapalayya
Brahmins: sub-ordinate of Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya VI ruling
The Brahmins occupied the foremost place in from Vengi-12000. It mentions his lineage with
society. They were the leaders of thought and repositories Vipravamshottama and his conquest were mentioned in
of learning. They spent most of their time in the study and the inscription. Brahmins also acted as Mahasthanapathi
teaching of Vedas and Shastras. They were held in high of a temple who looked after the temple land’s income and
esteem by members of other castes, kings and nobles expenditure and proper conduct of temple rituals.
honored them by bestowing on them liberal gifts of land Inscription gives ample evidence in this regard. Most of the
and money. Some times the whole village was given as land or money donated to a particular temple is made into
donation known as agraharas. Several inscriptions mention the hands of the Mahasthanapathi. Inscription from
land donation to Brahmins. Inscriptions from Gangapuram Alampur shows this where Brahmeswara Bhatta
Mn 452 mentions the land grant made by Tribhuvanamalla Mahasthanapati of Brahmeswaradeva7 [A1 8, 14, 19, 22].
Vikramaditya VI to two learned Brahmins, Aditya Some other Mahastana Pathis mentioned in the epigraph
Bhattopadhyaya and Viddana Bhatta as Jyotirvritty were Barni Rasi Pandita [A1 15]. Someswararasi Pandita
[Astrological endowment] Mn 88.3 Puduru mentions grant [A1 16, 41]. Keshavarasi Pandita [A1 32]. Several Pandita
made by Mahamandalesvara of Pondura Hallavarasa to his [A 33] Dharinindrarasi Pandita [A1 37, 38]8.Thus we can
* Assistant Professor, Dept of History, Archeology and Culture, Dravidian University, Kuppam - 517425
I wish to deal with the subject, What is still left to be done 1928. The other publication, Epigraphia Indica is more valuable,
in the Telugu Inscriptions in two parts viz., (A) Retrospect and (B) because, not only the text of the inscription, but the overall
Prospect. Unless we take stock of the work that has been done so importance and a discussion of the issues raised by the inscription
far, it will not be possible to suggest what is yet to be done. Though or its relationship to other inscriptions- are available here. Here,
I may suggest some topics for further research, the knowledge of not only the inscriptions collected by the office, but important
what was done would propel others to consider what subjects discoveries made by others are also edited. For example, some of
need attention. the inscriptions edited in the Journal of Andhra Historical Research
I would take by Telugu inscriptions, not merely the Society, Bharati and other journals by different writers are re-edited
language of the inscriptions, but inscriptions issued in Prakrit and their readings checked and importance of the inscriptions is
and Sanskrit languages as well. One is aware of the fact that Prakrit re-evaluated.
was the dominant language of India from the Asokan times (3rd Apart from the publications of the Epigraphy branch of
century BC) to 3rd century A.D., when Buddhism ruled the roost. the Archaeological Survey of India, the former Hyderabad State
Prakrit was replaced by Sanskrit which continued to hold sway had its own department of Archaeology which examined
up to the inscriptions of the Vijayanagara period. Desi (or Telugu) inscriptions. It published Parts I, II of inscriptions in the Telingana
occurs sometimes in the names of individuals and places but as Districts of the Nizam’s Dominions, while Parts III and IV were
the language of inscriptions, it figures from the time of the Renati published after the creation of Andhra Pradesh. The first three
Cholas in the middle of 6th century A.D. From 9th century parts were prepared by Dr. P. Sreenivasachar and the fourth part
onwards, Telugu verse also comes into use, though literature, as was the work of Sri M. Somasekhara Sarma, but edited by Dr. R.
such, has to wait for 2 more centuries. Subrahmanyam after Sri Sarma’s demise. The Department of
(A) Retrospect : Archaeology and Museums, Government of Andhra Pradesh has
published several inscriptions under the title Inscriptions of Andhra
Inscriptions of Andhra Pradesh have been published in
Pradesh relating to the Karimnagar, Warangal, Nalgonda,
several works, an outline of which is given below:
Cuddapah (Kadapa), Mahboobnagar, Medak districts, after
The Epigraphical wing of the Archaeological survey of undertaking a village-to-village survey for inscriptions. Copper-
India has to be mentioned first. Its officials visit several places plate inscriptions lying in the state Museum have been published
and notice the inscriptions in their reports annually, called Annual long back in 1960’s in two volumes by Dr. N. Ramesan.
Report on South Indian Epigraphy, later changed to Annual Report
The Department has also brought out 6 volumes of
on Indian Epigraphy, where the summaries of the inscriptions
Epigraphia Andhrica, where several scholars contributed articles.
collected during the year are recorded, with highlighting of the
New discoveries like the Bayyaram tank inscription, re-
important records for historical reconstruction. The texts of these
interpretation of the Mangallu plates of Davarnava, symposium
inscriptions appear in a series called South-Indian Inscriptions. For
on the Koravi inscription, editing of new grants of the Chalukyas
example, the inscriptions lying in several temples (and those on
of Vengi and Mudigonda the Eastern Gangas , the Kakatiyas and
loose slabs), like those at Draksharama, Chalukya-Bhimavaram
Vijayanagara rulers have made their way. Several other
(Samalkot), Pithapuram, Vijayawada, Nadendla, Bapatla,
publications like the Select Epigraphs of Andhra Pradesh,
Mukhalingam, Srikurmam, Simhachalam etc. have been
Siddhodvaha edited by Dr. P. V. Parabrahma Sastry have come
published in Vols. IV, V and VI, along with the Kannada and
out. The work of the Department of Archaeology and Museums,
Tamil inscriptions from other parts of South India. Vol IX contains
Government of Andhra Pradesh, in respect of epigraphical
Kannada inscription of the Madras Presidency, some of which
research has much to commend, because of the direction and
hail from the Anantapur and Kurnool districts.
active work of Dr.P.V.Parabrahma Sastry and late Drs.
Vol X is exclusively devoted to the Telugu Inscriptions of the
N.Venkataramanayya, N. Ramesan and R. Subrahmanyam. More
Madras Presidency which were arranged in a chronological order.
recent is the publication of the Corpus of the Telugu inscriptions
Vol. XVI is again exclusively devoted to the Vijayanagara
of the Vijayanagara period, sponsored by the Indian Council of
inscriptions in Telugu collected by the Department from 1904-
Historical Research. The completion of the Kannada inscription
*Retd. Professor of History & Archaeology, Andhra University , Visakhapatnam .
The structure of society during the Kakatiya pe- clan. Likewise, we can see the elite who were called as
riod received a stimulus to attain positive features of equal- Brahmins as involved in many a profession like agricul-
ity, self-respect and mutual co-existence within the tradi- ture, warfare, state-craft, healing art, as lawyers, logicians,
tional heterodox composition. According to epic and priests, teachers, etc. The sudras took up military profes-
puranic stories, the Andhras were originally the inhabit- sion and rose to be the kings. Some of them entered into
ants of forest and hill areas and were identified with the trade and commerce. Thus following the circumstances of
tribal groups like pulindas, sabaras, mahisakas, nagas, etc. the day, different communities followed other professions
The Telugu country itself was referred by the Buddhists as deviating from traditional ancestral occupations.
Andhaka-ratta as it was a dark region due to thick forests. These developments mostly took place during the
The literary works and inscriptions of the Satavahana pe- Chalukyan period, especially when each caste started sub-
riod refer to eighteen castes (ashtadasa-prajalu) , which can divided due to division of labour in the fast growing in-
be seen as formed on the basis of occupation. At the same dustries and also the hegemonic expansion over different
time, we can find the shadowy impact of north Indian four- regions of South India. Even Brahmins were divided
fold caste system in Andhradesa even by 3rd century B.C.. mainly into Vaidikas and Niyogis in addition to the re-
Some references in the Buddhist Jataka stories and the per- gional sakha variations like Pakanati, Kammanati, Velanati,
formance of Vedic sacrifices by Satakarni attest to this fact. Mulikinati, etc. But it can undoubtedly be stated that the
Even the Nasik inscription of Gautami Balasri describes Chalukyas tried to bring about cultural unity among the
Gautamiputra Satakarni as the protector of caturvarna Hindus and supported the notional frame work of the caste
system in the country. But it was not so rigid and impos- hierarchy borrowed from the north. Though Saivites and
ing upon the already existing potent professional groups. Vaishnavites stood for a certain kind of equality among
Here a doubt arises why this kind of effort to im- the devotees, they could not wipe out the caste identities.
pose social system of northern part of India on the south The society continued to be organized on the basis of caste
was taken up? The political turmoil that took place in the system with a vertical division – Brahmin at the top, sudras
3rd century B.C. after the Greek invasions reminds us of at the bottom and the kshatriya and Vaisya coming in be-
the agony that was faced by Indians. This severe cultural tween.
blow made the intellectuals and the ruling class to think During the Kakatiya period, we can see the no-
about the remedies and to find ways to escape from fur- tional concepts of caturvarna and astadasa-praja, though
ther such calamities. They aimed at cultural unification as there were many a number of sub-castes. Gaurana, the
a base for political integration and even strongly believed author of Navanatha Caritra refers to the Caturvarnas as
the dire need of socio-cultural unity. The intellectuals strove Sudra, Vaisya, Rajula (Ksatriya) and Dwijula. He also gives
to achieve this and propagated the need of linguistic and the ratio of these castes in the population as : 10,000 :
structural unity of society from Setu to Sitachala. As a 1000 : 100 : 10 respectively at a particular place.1 In the
result of this, we can see the penetration of fourfold caste inscriptions, we find the names of the 18 castes as:
system into the Telugu country which was notionally ac- vyavaharikas (officers) , pancalas (artisans), kumbhalikas
cepted by the elite but could not affect the caste identity of (potters), tantuvayas (weavers), vastrabhedakas (dyers),
the people involved in material culture. tilaghatakas (oil-mongers), vastraraksakas (tailors), devanga
The fourfold caste system was adapted grouping (spinners), perikas (transporters of goods by pack-loads),
the professional communities following the line of goraksas (cowherds), kirata (hunters), rajakas (washermen)
Caturvarna system of north India. But we do not find the and Ksurakas (barbars), etc.2
existence of ksatriya varna as such in Telugu country. Those Brahmins:
who followed the military profession were praised by the As the custodians of the spiritual knowledge and
poets as belonging to either solar or lunar race of the ksatriya experts in subjects like Ayurveda, mathematics astronomy,