UNIT I

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Introduction to analog pulse communication system:
1. Define pulse modulation.
It may be defined as a modulation system in which some parameter of a
train of pulse is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal.In this system, waveforms are sampled at regular intervals
and the information is transmitted through the sampling rate.
The parameters of the pulses which may be varied are : amplitude, width
(or duration), position and time etc.
2. List out the various types of analog pulse modulation systems.
The Pulse modulation may be subdivided as
(i) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
(ii) Pulse time modulation (PTM) .
There are two type of PTMs.
(a) Pulse width modulation (PWM) or Pulse duration modulation (PDM) or
pulse
length modulation (PLM).
(b) Pulse position modulation (PPM).
3. Define Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
In this, amplitude of a pulse train (carrier) is varied according to the
amplitude
of the modulating signal. It converts an analog signal into a pulse-type signal.
There are two types of PAM:
(i) Natural PAM
(ii) Flat top PAM.
4. What are the advantages of PAM?
It is very easy to generate and demodulate PAM.
5. List out the disadvantages of PAM.
(i)The BW required for transmission of a PAM signal is very large as
compared to
the maximum frequency present in the modulating signal.
(ii) As the amplitude of the carrier pulses is varied according to the amplitude
of
the modulating signal, noise is maximum in the PAM wave.
(iii) As the amplitude of the PAM signal is varied, this also varies peak power
required by the transmitter.
6. Define Pulse Position Modulation and List out its applications.
In this, position of pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied according to
the modulating signal. PPM may be obtained from PWM by using a
monostable multivibrator circuit.
Pulse position modulation is especially used in RF (Radio Frequency)
communications. For example, pulse position modulation is used in remote
controlled aircraft, cars, boats, and other vehicles and is responsible for
conveying a transmitters controls to a receiver.

7. List out the advantages and disadvantages of PPM.

Advantages of PPM:
(i) As the amplitude and width is kept constant, the transmitter handles
constant power.
(ii)As amplitude is constant, It is less noisy.
(iii)The signal and noise separation is easy.
(iv)Due to constant pulse width and amplitude the transmitted power
for each pulse is same.
Disadvantages:
(i) It needs synchronization between transmitter and receiver.
(ii) Large B.W. is required as compared to PAM.
8. Define Pulse Time Modulation. Mention its types.
Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) is a class of signaling techniques that
encodes the sample values of an analog signal onto the time axis of a digital
signal. There are two main types of PTM:
(a) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
(b) Pulse position modulation (PPM).
9. Define Pulse Width modulation and mention its applications.
PWM is also called Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM). In this width
(depth/length) of the carrier pulse train is varied according to the modulating
signal.
PWM's field of application includes Class D audio amplifiers, DC motor
speed control, and light dimmers common in homes. Pulse width modulation
is widely used in voltage regulators.
10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of PWM?
Advantages of PWM:
(i) Noise is less in PWM as the amplitude is kept constant. Note that PAM
is
noisy.
(ii) The signal and noise separation is easy.
(iii) The PWM does not require synchronization between transmitter and
receiver.
Disadvantages:
(i) Large BW is required for PWM communication as compared to PAM.
(ii) The transmitter should be able to handle more power (equal to the
power
of the maximum width pulse).
Digital Communication System : Functional Description
11. Give the advantages and disadvantages of digital communication.
Advantages of Digital Communication
(i) Allows encryption.
(ii) Dierent types of data may be merged and transmitted over a common
digital system.
(iii) Resistance to channel errors.
(iv) Error correcting codes may be used.

Disadvantages of Digital Communication

(i) Wastes bandwidth.
(ii) Synchronization is required.
12. Draw the block diagram of digital communication system.
Information
Source & Input
transducer

Formatter

Source
Encoder

Channel
encoder

Baseband
Processor/
Bandpass
Modulator

Channel

Output
transducer &
output signal

Deformatter

Source
Decoder

Channel
Decoder

Baseband
Decoder/
Bandpass
DeModulator

13. What is the function of formatter and deformatter block in digital

communication system?
The formatter block essentially samples, quantizes and encodes the analog
signal. Thus it converts the analog signal to digital signal.
Deformatter performs the reverse process of Formatter. It converts back
the digital data to analog form.
14. List out the objectives of source encoder and decoder.
The objective of source coding is to eliminate or reduce redundancy so as
to
provide efficient representation of the source output. The primary benefit
gained
is reduced bandwidth requirement.
Source decoder estimates the digital signal from the information source.
The
difference of this estimate and the original digital signal is distortion
introduced
by the system.
15. What are the objectives of channel encoder and decoder?
The combined role of channel encoder and decoder is to provide reliable
communication over a noisy channel.This is satisfied by introducing
redundancy in a prescribed fashion in the channel encoder and exploiting it in
the decoder to reconstruct the original encoder input as accurately as possible.

16. What is meant by base band signal and band pass signal?
The base band is the original signal that is intended to be transmitted
without modulation. It has a spectral magnitude near the origin (i.e. f = 0) and
zero elsewhere.
The band pass communication signal is obtained by modulating a base
band signal onto a carrier. It has spectral magnitude which is nonzero in a
band of
frequencies (i.e. fc) where fc > 0. fc is the carrier frequency.
17. Define base band processor.
The transmitters job is to convert the information source into a waveform
suitable for transmission. In low speed wired transmission, for proper
detection in the receiver and to combat noise and interference, line coding is
used. Some pulse shaping is also done to combat interference. All these are
collectively calles base band processor.
18. Define band pass modulator.
For transmission of high speed digital data, the signal needs to be
modulated,
i.e., frequency translated. The primary purpose of band pass modulator is to
map
the digital signal to high frequency analog waveforms.
Channel classification & Performance measure:
19. What is meant by channel?
The physical medium that is used to send the signal from the transmitter to
the receiver
(i)
e.g., the atmosphere (free space) in wireless transmission
(ii)
e.g., in telephone systems wire lines, fiber optic cables, and
wireless (microwave radio).
20. List out the mathematical models of communication channel.
(i)
Additive noise channel (Gaussian channel)
(ii)
Linear filter channel
(iii)
Linear time-variant filter channel.
21. Define multipath fading.
The term multipath refers to the fact that the transmitted signal arrives at
the receiver via multiple propagation paths at different delays. Multipath
fading will occur if the signal components arriving via different propagation
paths may add destructively.
22. What is meant by distortion less transmission?
In communication systems, in order to have distortion less transmission,
the channel should be noise free or distortion less. This implies that the
channel output is just proportional to a delayed version of the input.
For distortion less transmission, the transfer function will be

Y(f)
H(f) = ------ = A e-j2fTd
X(f)
23. What are the conditions to be satisfied for distortion less transmission?
In communication systems, in order to have distortion less transmission,
two conditions must be satised:
(i) When the amplitude response is at, then there is no amplitude
distortion.
(ii)When the phase response is a linear function of frequency, then
there
is no phase distortion.
24. Define Bit Error Rate (BER).
In digital transmission, the bit error rate or bit error ratio (BER) is the
number of bit errors divided by the total number of transferred bits during a
studied time interval. BER is a unit less performance measure, often expressed
as a percentage.
i.e., BER = number of errors / total number of bits sent
25. Which parameter is called figure of merit of a digital communication
system and why?
In digital communications, we use Eb/ = b a normalized version of SNR,
as
a figure of merit. Eb is bit energy and can be described as signal power S times
the bit time Tb. is noise power spectral density.
For a digital waveform the average power goes to zero and the symbol
energy is a more useful parameter for characterizing digital waveform. Hence
instead of SNR, Eb/ or b is more frequently used as the figure of merit.
26. Define Spectral Efficiency.
This is given by the number of bits per second of data that can be
supported by each hertz of bandwidth.
=R/B (bits/s)/Hz
where R is the data rate and B is the bandwidth.
Geometric Representation of Signal:
27. What are the properties of physically realizable waveforms?
Physically realizable waveforms satisfy the following properties:
1. Signicant non zero values over a composite time interval which is nite
2. The spectrum has signicant nonzero values over a composite frequency
interval which is nite
3. A continuous function of time
4. Finite peak value
5. Has only real values. (no complex values for any time)
28. Define and give an example for time limited and time unlimited signal.

A signal x(t) is called time limited if there exists a time period T > 0, such
that
X(t) = 0, for all |t| T. Time limited means band unlimited. Example: a
Rectangular pulse and its spectrum.
A signal x(t) is called time unlimited if there exists a bandwidth B > 0,
such
that X() = 0, for all || B.Time unlimited means band limited. Example:
sinusoid of the form
Theoretically, it is not possible for an absolutely bandlimited waveform to
be absolutely time limited and vice versa.
29. What is meant by basis function and basis set?
Basis functions are the collection of functions necessary to represent a
given
signal. Basis functions are independent. They are always orthogonal to each other,
i.e., the projection of one basis function on any other basis function is zero.
Basis set is the collection of basis functions. Any arbitrary signal in the
space
can be generated by a linear combination of these basis functions.
30. Define signal space and signaling set.
Signal space: The complete set of all signals is called signal space. The
minimum number of basis function used to represent a signal is called the
dimension of signal space.
Signalling set: A signal waveform used to transmit each logical level of
the input signal in a digital communication system is called signaling set.
31. Why we go for Gram Schmidt orthogonalisation procedure?
Consider a message signal m. The task of transforming an incoming
message
mi=1,2,..M, into a modulated wave si(t) may be divided into separate discrete
time and continuous time operations. The justification for this separation lies in
the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure which permits the representation
of any set of M energy signals,{si(t)}, as linear combinations of N orthonormal
basis functions.
32. What is GSOP?
The procedure for obtaining the basis set from the original set is known as the
Gram-Schmidt orthogonalisation procedure. It permits the representation of any
set of M energy signals,{si(t)}, as linear combinations of N orthonormal basis
functions.
Bandwidth:
33. Define bandwidth.
Bandwidth is defined as a band containing all frequencies between upper cutoff frequencies and lower cut-off frequencies.

34. Define half-power bandwidth.

The interval between the frequencies at which the spectrum of a rectangular
bandpass digital pulse has dropped to half power or 3dB below the peak value.
35. Define Noise-equivalent bandwidth.
Noise equivalent bandwidth WN is defined as WN = Px / Gx(fc) where Px is the
total signal power over all frequencies and Gx(fc) is the value of the maximum
spectral component.
36. Define Null-to-Null bandwidth.
It is the most popular measure of bandwidth for digital communication. It is
defined as the width of the main spectral lobe, where most of the signal power is
contained.
37. Define Absolute bandwidth.
This is the interval between frequencies, outside of which the spectrum is zero.
It
is used to define an ideal system.
38. State Dimensionality Theorem.
A real waveform may be completely specified by N independent pieces of
information where N is given by
N = 2BT0
Where N is called the dimension of the waveform in signal space, B is the
bandwidth of the signal and T0 is the time over which the signal waveform is
being described.
39. What is meant by symbol rate?
A digital signal is represented by N points which are transmitted over an
interval of T0 second. So, the symbol rate Rs is given by
Rs = N/T0 = 2BT0 / T0 = 2B.
where B represents the bandwidth of the signal.
40. Write the expression for bandwidth of the digital signal.
The bandwidth of the digital signal is B = Rs/2 where Rs represents the
symbol
rate. Sometimes, the symbol rate is also represented as baud rate (D). So in
general the bandwidth of the digital signal is given by,
B D/ 2

UNIT II
BASEBAND FORMATTING TECHNIQUES
Sampling:
1. State sampling theorem for low pass signals.
A band limited signal having no spectral components above fm hertz can be
determined uniquely by values sampled at uniform intervals of
Ts 1/2fm sec.
2. State Nyquist criterion and Nyquist rate.
The sampling rate fs = 2fm is called the Nyquist rate.
The statement fs 2fm is known as Nyquist criterion. The Nyquist criterion
is a sufficient condition to allow an analog signal to be reconstructed
completely from a set of uniformly spaced discrete time samples.
3. What do you understand by the term aliasing?
When the sampling rate is reduced such that f s < 2fm, the replications of
signal spectrum will overlap and some information will be lost. This
phenomenon due to under sampling is called aliasing.
4. State band pass sampling theorem.
If a waveform has a non-zero spectrum only over the interval fL < |f| < fH,
where the transmission bandwidth BT is taken to be same as absolute BW,
BT=fH-fL, then the waveform may be reproduced by its sample values if the
sampling rate is fs 2BT.
5. Why is prefiltering done before sampling?
An anti-aliasing filter is a filter used before sampling, to restrict the
bandwidth of a signal to approximately satisfy the sampling theorem.
6. What should be the pass band for antialiasing and smoothing filters used
with pulse modulation systems?
The antialiasing filter should have a pass band equal to the signal
bandwidth (2fm) plus the transition bandwidth (ft). This additional spectral
interval ft does not represent any useful signal content; rather, it protects the
signal by reserving free spectral interval between two spectral replicas.
7. Define transition bandwidth.
All realizable filters requires a non zero bandwidth for the transition
between the pass band and the stop band, commonly known as transition
bandwidth.
8. A band pass signal has the spectral range that extends from 20 KHz to 82
KHz. Find the acceptable range of sampling frequency fs.
The bandwidth BW = 82k 20k = 62 KHz.
The acceptable sampling frequency fs = 2 BW = 124 KHZ.

Quantization:
9. Define Quantization.
Quantization is the process of taking continuous samples (analog signal)
and converting them to a finite set of discrete levels.
10. What is meant by quantile interval?
The step size between quantization levels is called quantile interval. It is
denoted by q.
11. Define uniform quantizer.
When the quantization levels are uniformly distributed over the full range,
the quantizer is called uniform quantizer.
12. What is quantization error or noise?
The approximation (rounding off) of each sample values of analog base
band signal to a quantization level gives rise to an error called quantization
noise given by eq(t) = m(t) mq(t).
Where m(t) is sampled analog signal,
Mq(t) is quantized signal.
13. Define quantization noise power.
Quantization error is bounded by half the step size i.e., q/2. For any
uniformly distributed random variable in the range (-q/2 to q/2) the average
power (variance) is given by q2/12.Hence, quantization noise power or mean
square error is given by q2= q2/12, where q is the quantile interval.
14. Give the expression for peak SNR of quantized signal.
Generally noise power is expressed on an average basis, whereas the signal
power may be peak power or average power. For peak SNR (i.e. peak signal
power to average quantization noise power ratio),
(S/N)q = 3L2
where L represents number of levels.
15. Define non uniform quantization.
Nonuniform quantizers have unequally spaced levels. The spacing can be
chosen to optimize the Signal-to-Noise Ratio for a particular type of signal.
It is characterized by:
a. Variable step size
b. Quantizer size depend on signal size
16. Why non uniform quantization is preferred for processing human
speech?
For human speech, uniform quantization would be wasteful because it
would give rise to low average SNR due to significance of low amplitude
signals. Hence to improve the overall SNR non uniform quantization is used
where quantization of the low amplitude portion of a speech is done more
finely than the larger amplitude portion.

17. What is meant by companding?

The complete process of Compressing and Expanding the signal before
and
after uniform quantization is called Companding.With companded systems,
the higher amplitude analog signals are compressed prior to transmission and
then expanded at the receiver.
18. Name the two types of companding techniques.
There are two standard logarithm based companding techniques
a. US standard called -law companding
b. European standard called A-law companding
Encoding Techniques:
19. Mention the various types of encoding techniques for analog sources.
a. Temporal waveform encoding
b. Spectral waveform encoding
c. Model based coding.
20. Define temporal waveform coding.
A speech or an image source produces signals that vary with time. To
digitize those signals, we need to digitize some time varying parameters of the
time waveform representing the source. This process is known as temporal
waveform encoding. Examples are Pulse coded modulation (PCM),
Differential PCM, Delta modulation (DM), Adaptive DM.
21. Define Pulse Code Modulation.
A message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which is
accomplished by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and
amplitude.
The basic operations are
i. Transmitter : sampling, quantization, encoding
ii. Receiver : regeneration, decoding, reconstruction
22. What is the advantage of PCM over analog pulse modulation systems?
The advantage of PCM over analog pulse modulation methods is that in
PCM, the information does not lie in any property of the pulse waveform;
rather it lies in the presence and absence of the pulse. Thus, the noise
immunity of a PCM signal is much more than any analog pulse modulation
signal.
23. List out the applications of PCM.
i) PCM can be used for storage systems such as CD recording, hard disk
recording, etc.
ii)
PCM can also be used for baseband transmission of
the signal.
24. List out the advantages of PCM.
The advantages of PCM are:
a. Relatively inexpensive digital circuitry may be used extensively.

b. In long-distance digital telephone systems requiring repeaters, a clean

PCM waveform can be regenerated at the output of each repeater,
where the input consists of a noisy PCM waveform.
c. The noise performance of a digital system can be superior to that of an
analog system.
d. The probability of error for the system output can be reduced even
further by the use of appropriate coding techniques.
25. What are the various sources of noise and interference present in PCM?
i) Aliasing noise
ii)
Quantization noise
iii)
Channel noise
iv)
Inter symbol Interference.
26. What is the minimum transmission bandwidth of PCM system?
The transmission bandwidth of PCM in terms of the signal bandwidth is
BT(PCM) Rs / 2
For a sampling frequency fs, the symbol rate Rs = l fs where the encoder
converts each sample to a l digit word.
27. Write the expression for SNR of PCM for quantization noise.

where

is the peak quantization level of uniform quantiser.

is the power contained in the signal m(t).

28. What is the SNR of PCM system if number of quantization levels is 28?

Where, M = 2n = 28
= 4.77 for peak SNR
= 0 for average SNR
(S/N)dB = 6.02 X 8 + 4.77 = 52.93 dB.
29. Define PCM word size.
It represents the minimum number of bits/sample that should be used in
digitizing the analog waveform. It is given by the relation,

where p represents a fraction of peak to peak analog voltage Vpp

30. An analog signal is quantized and transmitted by using a PCM system. If
each sample at the receiving end of the system must be known to within
0.5% of peak to peak full scale value. How many digits must each
sample contain?

The minimum number of bits/sample that should be used in digitizing the

analog waveform is given by the relation,

p = 0.5/100 = 0.005
l log2 (1/0.01) log2 (100) 6.64
Hence we can take l = 7 bits / sample
31. Why compressors are used in PCM?
It is used for having better signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at lower bit rates.
The SNR of a companded PCM is independent of signal strength which improves
the dynamic range of the system.
32. State the principle of DPCM.
Differential pulse code modulation is a derivative of the standard PCM
It uses the fact that the range of differences in amplitudes between successive
samples of the signal is less than the range of the actual sample amplitudes.
The difference signal needs only fewer bits to represent the signal than PCM.
Thus DPCM can efficiently remove the redundancy in the encoded signal.
33. Define Delta modulation.
If we over sample (typically more than 4 times of Nyquist rate) a signal,
the correlation between adjacent samples increases and as a result, the
prediction error decreases. If this prediction error is small enough, it can be
encoded by only one bit. DM is basically a 1-bit DPCM where no extra
encoding effect is needed thereby simplifying the circuitry.
34. What are the limitations (or disadvantages) of delta modulation?
The two types of quantization errors are slope overload noise and granular
noise.
35. What is meant by slope over load distortion?
If the step size is too small for the staircase approximation u(t) to follow
a steep segment of the input waveform x(t), with the result that u(t) falls
behind x(t). This condition is called slope over load, and the resulting
quantization noise is called slope over load distortion.
36. Define granular noise.
Granular noise occurs when the step size is too large relative to the local
slope characteristics of the input waveform x(t), thereby causing the staircase
approximation u(t) to hunt around a relatively flat segment of the input
waveform.
37. Define Adaptive Delta Modulation.
Adaptive delta modulation (ADM) or continuously variable slope delta
modulation (CVSD) is a modification of DM in which the step size is not
fixed. Rather, when several consecutive bits have the same direction value, the
encoder and decoder assume that slope overload is occurring, and the step size

becomes progressively larger. Otherwise, the step size becomes gradually

smaller over time.
38. List out the advantages of ADM.
i) ADM reduces slope error, at the expense of increasing quantizing error.
This error can be reduced by using a low pass filter.
ii)
ADM provides robust performance in the presence
of bit errors
39. What is meant by spectral waveform encoding?
The coding is done by decomposing the signal in various frequency
subbands and separately encoding the signal in each subband. There are two
types: (i) Subband Coding (SBC) in which the time waveform in each
subband is encoded separately. (ii) Adaptive Transform Coding (ATC) is done
on the frequency domain of the corresponding time domain waveform in each
subband.
40. Why QMF filters are used for implementing Subband coding?
Quadrature mirror filter (QMF) can deliver alias-free response due to its
perfect reconstruction property. By using QMFs in subband coding, the lower
frequency band of the speech signal (which contains most of the spectral
energy of speech) is frequently subdivided into factors of two.
41. What is meant by wavelet processing?
The process of implementation of Quadrature Mirror Filter (QMF) as
digital filter is called wavelet processing. With wavelet processing, much
flexibility can be achieved for decomposing the signal as well as encoding it.
42. Define model based encoding.
The aim is to characterize the signal in terms of its various parameters and
then encode those parameters, not the signal. For estimating its parameters, a
signal to be observed over an interval of time during which its statistical
properties do not change.

UNIT III
BASEBAND CODING TECHNIQUES
Error control codes:
1. Define Channel coding.
Channel coding adds redundancy in the signal so that the error caused by
the noisy channel can be rectified. The combined goal of channel encoder and
decoder is to minimize the effect of channel noise.
2. State Channel coding theorem.
The channel coding theorem states that if a discrete memoryless channel
has capacity C and a source generates information at a rate less than C, then
there exists a coding technique such that the output of the source may be
transmitted over the channel with an arbitrarily low probability of symbol
error.
3. What are the limitations of channel coding techniques?
Due to addition of redundant bits with message bits,
i) The transmission bandwidth increases.
ii) System complexity increases especially the implementation of
decoding operation in the receiver.
4. List out the objectives of channel code.
The four broad objectives of channel code are:
a) To have the capability to detect and correct errors.
b) To be able to keep the overhead of error control and correction as
minimum as practicable.
c) To be able to encode the symbol in a fast and efficient way.
d) To be able to decode the symbol in a fast and efficient way.
5. Classify the various types of error control methods.
The error control methods are of two types:
a) Error detection and retransmission The most common type is ARQ
(Automatic Request for retransmission) method used in computer
communication.
b) Error detection and Correction It is known as forward acting error
correction (FEC). Error correction codes (EEC) belongs to FEC.
6. List out the various types of error correction codes.
The error correction codes are divided into two basic categories:
a) Block codes : The various types of block codes are i) parity check
code, ii) Linear block code, iii) cyclic code.
b) Convolution code
7. Define codeword and a systematic codeword.
In block codes, each block of k information bits is encoded into a block of
n bits (n > k). This n-bit block is called codeword. The n-k check bits are
derived from the message bits.

When the k information bits appear at the beginning of a codeword, the

code is called systematic codeword.
8. Define parity check code.
The simplest block code is the parity check code where number of check bit
is 1 only and the check bit is derived to generate a particular parity in the
codeword. Parity may be of two types: Even parity and odd parity.
9. Define hamming distance and calculate its value for two code words 11100
and 11011.
The hamming distance between two code words is the number of places the
code words differ.
d(11100,11011) = 3.
10. Define hamming weight and calculate the hamming weight of the codeword
0110101.
The hamming weight of a codeword is equal to the number of non-zero
components in it.
w(0110101) = 4.
11. Define minimum distance and minimum weight.
The minimum distance of a code is the smallest hamming distance between
any pair of code words in the code. It is denoted by d* (or) dmin.
The minimum weight of a code is the smallest weight of any non-zero
codeword and is denoted by w*.
12. Define code rate.
The code rate (r) of an (n,k) block code is the ratio k/n. It denotes the fraction
of the codeword that consists of the information bits. It is always less than unity.
13. Define code efficiency.
It is the ratio of message bits in a block to the transmitted bits for that block by
the
encoder. i.e.
Message bits in a block
Code efficiency =
---------------------------------Transmitted bits for the block
14. What are the error detection and error correction capabilities of Hamming
code?
Hamming showed the relationship between the minimum distance and the
error control capability of the code. In general, if d* is the minimum distance of a
block code, then
a) (d*- 1)/2 errors can be corrected if d* is odd.
b) (d*- 2)/2 errors can be corrected and d*/2 errors can be detected if
d* is even.
Linear Block Code:
15. Define linear block code.

A block code of length n and 2k code word is called a linear (n, k) block code
iff its 2k code words form a k-dimensional subspace of the vector space of all the
n-tuple over the field GF(2). {Note : GF(2) means Galois field of two elements. It
is the smallest finite field}
16. Write the features (or properties) of linear block code.
A linear code has the following properties:
a) The sum of two codewords belonging to the block code is also a codeword
belonging to the block code.
b) The all-zero word is always a codeword.
c) The minimum distance between two codewords of a linear code is equal to
the minimum weight of the code.
17. Check whether the given block code is linear or not. The block code C =
[000,010,110,100].
a) The sum of two codewords (010 + 110 = 100, 010 + 100 = 110, 100+110 = 010)
is
also a code word.
b) An all-zero code word is there (000).
c) d* = 1, w* = 1. Thus d* = w*.
The block code C satisfies all the properties of linear block code. Hence the
given code C is linear.
18. What is meant by nearest neighbour decoding?
A noisy channel randomly transforms some of the symbols of the transmitted
codeword into some other symbols. If a received word is not identical to any of
the valid codeword, then the transmitted codeword would be decided in favour of
the codeword whose Hamming distance from the received codeword is minimum.
This strategy is called Nearest Neighbour Decoding.
19. Define complete decoder and incomplete decoder.
In nearest neighbour decoding, if more than one codeword are at the same
Hamming distance from the received word, then the receiver can do either one of
the following:
i) It can randomly decide in favor of any one of the equally distant
neighbours. These decoders are called complete decoders.
ii) It can request the transmitter for retransmission. These decoders are called
incomplete decoders.
20. How will you find the minimum distance d* of a linear block code from the
given Parity check matrix (H)? Also find the minimum distance of the given
H matrix.

The minimum distance d* of a linear block code is given by the minimum

number of columns of H (or, the rows of HT), whose sum is equal to the zero
vector.

For the given parity check matrix, the sum of three columns (for example,
columns 1, 4 and 7) can produce zero. Hence for this code d* = 3.
21. Define a perfect code.
A perfect code is one which has equal radius disjoint spheres centered at the
codewords, completely filling the entire code space. Hamming codes perfect
codes.
22. What is meant by syndrome of a linear block code?
The receiver has the task of decoding the transmitted code vector c from the
received code vector r. The algorithm commonly used to perform this decoding
operation needs a 1-by-(nk) vector called error-syndrome vector or simply
syndrome.
The Syndrome is given by [s] = [r] [HT] = [e] [HT] where r = c+e
If [s] is non-zero, it means an error occurred.
23. How is syndrome computed for block codes?
The Syndrome is given by [s] = [r] [HT]
where r = c+e
= [c] [HT] + [e][HT]
= [e][HT]
where c is the transmitted word, r is the received word and e represents the
error word.
If [s] is non-zero, it means an error occurred.
24. List the important properties of syndrome.
i) The syndrome depends only on the error pattern and not on the transmitted
code word.
ii) The syndrome s is the sum of those columns of the H matrix corresponding
to
the error location.
iii) All error patterns that differ at most by a code word have the same
syndrome.
25. Define repetition codes.
A repetition code represents the simplest type of linear block codes. In
particular, a single message bit is encoded into a lock on n identical bits,
producing an (n,1) block code. There are only two code words in the code: an allzero codeword and all-one codeword.
26. Define Hamming code.
The Hamming code is capable of correcting all the error patterns with a single
error or of detecting all the error patterns of two or fewer errors.
For any positive integer m 3, there exists a Hamming code with the
following parameters :
Code length:
n = 2m 1
Number of information symbols:
k = 2m m 1
Number of parity-check symbols:
nk=m
27. Determine the generator matrix for a rate 1/3 repetition code.
For the given repetition code, k = 1, n = 3. The generator matrix [G]kXn is
given by,

Cyclic codes:
28. What are the fundamental properties exhibited by cyclic codes?
A binary code is said to be a cyclic code if it exhibits two fundamental
properties:
i) Linearity property: The sum of two code words is also a codeword.
ii) Cyclic property: Any cyclic shift of a code word is also a code word.
29. Show that the code C = {000,100,011,111} is not cyclic.
The cyclic shift of 100 is 010 which is not a code word. Hence C is not a cyclic
code.
30. List out the properties of cyclic code.
i)
The generator polynomial of an (n,k) cyclic code is unique in that it is
the only code word polynomial of minimum degree (n-k).
ii)
The generator polynomial g(x) and the parity check polynomial h(x)
are factors of the polynomial 1+xn as shown by h(x).g(x) = 1+xn.
31. What are the steps involved in the encoding procedure for an (n,k) systematic
cyclic code.
Step 1: Multiply the message polynomial d(x) by xn-k.
Step 2: Divide xn-k d(x) by the generator polynomial g(x) and obtain the
remainder (x).
Step 3: The code word polynomial c(x) is obtained from c(x) = xn-k d(x) + (x).
32. What are the advantages of cyclic codes?
i)
The implementation of encoders and decoders for cyclic codes are
simple.
ii)
Cyclic codes also detect error burst that span many successive bits.
33. List out the important classes of cyclic codes.
i)
Cyclic Redundancy Check codes (CRC code).
ii)
Golay codes.
iii)
Reed-Solomon codes (RS code).
iv)
Bose-Chaudhuri-Houquenqhem (BCH) codes.
34. What does mean by RS coding?
These are nonlinear BCH codes. The encoders for RS codes operate on
multiple bits simultaneously. The (n, k) RS code takes the groups of m-bit
symbols of the incoming binary data stream. It takes such k number of symbols
in one block. Then the encoder adds (n-k) redundant symbols to form the
codeword of n symbols.
35. What is meant by BCH code?
BCH code is a powerful cyclic code. It can correct any number of errors based
on the specifications of error correcting capability the code can be designed.

Hamming code is a special case of BCH code whose error correcting capability is
1.
36. Define CRC codes.
CRC codes are specially designed for detecting burst errors. In any event,
binary (n, k) CRC codes are capable of detecting the following error patterns:
i)
All CRC error bursts of length n-k or less.
ii)
A fraction of CRC error bursts of length equal to n-k+1. The fraction
equals 1 2-(n-k-1).
iii)
A fraction of CRC error bursts of length greater than n-k+1. The
fraction equals 1 2-(n-k).
iv)
All combinations of d* -1 (or less) errors.
Convolutional codes:
37. What is convolutional code?
A convolutional encoder operates on the incoming message sequence
continuously in a serial manner. Fixed number of input bits is stored in the shift
register and they are combined with the help of mod-2 adders. This operation is
equivalent to binary convolution and hence it is called convolution coding.
38. Explain the fundamental difference between block codes and convolutional
codes.
In block coding, the encoder accepts a k-bit message block and generates an nbit code word. Thus, code words are produced on a block by block basis.
In convolutional coding, the encoder operates on the incoming message
sequence continuously in a serial manner.
39. What is meant by constraint length of convolutional code?
Constraint length (K) is the number of shifts over which the single message bit
can influence the encoder output. It is expressed in terms of message bits.
40. Draw the diagram of convolutional encoder of rate with generator
polynomial: g1(D) = 1 + D + D2 and g2(D) = 1.
Info
bit

K1

K2

K3

2 bit code

41. How will you define coding gain with reference to error control codes?

Coding gain has been dened as a comparison of distance to - energy for

two systems, a coded system and an uncoded system. For convolutional code, the
coding starts becoming successful when dfreeRc > 1. Hence,
Coding gain = dfreeRc
where Rc represents the code rate (i.e. k/n) and dfree is the free distance.
42. Define free distance of a convolutional code.
The free distance (dfree) of a convolutional code is defined as the minimum
Hamming distance between any two code words in the code.
Line Code:
43. Define line code.
Line coding is the procedure used to convert an incoming bit stream to
symbols which are then sent as pulses on to the channel. Line code is used for
digital base band transmission. The line coding technique affects the properties of
the transmitted signal
44. Classify the various types of line codes.
i)
Non return to zero (NRZ)
ii)
Return to zero (RZ)
iii)
Phase encoded
iv)
Multilevel binary.
45. Define Manchester coding.
Bi-phase-level (Bi- L) is popularly called Manchester coding. A one is
represented by a half bit wide pulse positioned during the first half of the bit
interval whereas zero is represented by a half bit wide pulse positioned during the
second half of the bit interval.
46. List out the desirable properties of line codes.
The desirable properties of line codes are DC component, self
synchronization,
detection, Bandwidth compression, differential encoding,
Noise immunity, Spectral compatibility with channel and transparency.
47. What is meant by transparency with respect to line codes?
A line code should be designed that the receiver does not go out of
synchronization for any sequence of data symbols. A code is not transparent if for
some sequence of symbols, the clock is lost.
48. Draw the NRZ code for the digital data 1101001.

UNIT IV
BASEBAND RECEPTION TECHNIQUES
Noise in communication systems:
1. List out the various noise that affects the communication systems.
The important sources of noise that affects the communication systems are,
i)
Noise occurs during sampling Timing jitter.
ii)
Quantization noise.
iii)
Channel noise Additive white Gaussian Noise(AWGN) and Inter
Symbol Interference (ISI)
2. Define timing jitter.
In analog to digital and digital to analog conversion of signals, the sampling
frequency is normally assumed to be constant. Samples should be converted at
regular intervals. If there is a slight timing error (jitter), the sampling is no
longer uniform in time.
Receiving Filter:
3. What is a matched filter?
A filter whose response is a time reversed and delayed version of some signal
j(t), is said to be matched to j(t). It is a linear filter to provide maximum
signal to noise ratio.
4. How is the transfer function of matched filter related to the spectrum of the
input signal?
In frequency domain, the magnitude spectrum of the matched filter and the
signal are same. The transfer function of matched filter is given by,
where S*(f) represents the spectrum of the input signal.
5. List out the properties of matched filter.
i) If a signal s(t) gets corrupted by AWGN, the filter with impulse response
matched to s(t) maximizes the output SNR.
ii) The matched filter impulse response is the mirror image of the signal.
iii) Matched filter does not contribute inter symbol interference.
iv) In frequency domain, the magnitude spectrum of the matched filter and the
signal are same.
6. List the applications of matched filter.
Matched filters are commonly used in radar, in which a known signal is sent
out, and the reflected signal is examined for common elements of the out-going
signal. Pulse compression is an example of matched filtering. Two-dimensional
matched filters are commonly used in image processing.
Equalizing Filter & ISI:
7. What is the need for equalization? (or) Why do we require equalization for a
communication system?

The transmission of digital symbols through non-ideal channel at a

transmission rate
exceeding the channel bandwidth W results in interference
among a number of adjacent symbols. The block at the receiver which tackles this
inter-symbol interference is called equalizing filters.
8. What is inter - symbol interference (ISI)?
The transmission of digital symbols through non-ideal channel at a
transmission rate
exceeding the channel bandwidth W results in interference (or
overlap) among a number
of adjacent symbols. This overlapping is called intersymbol interference.
9. What are the two steps needed to combat ISI?
The strategy for combating ISI is always two fold:
i) The first method is to employ best possible signals and systems that can
prevent ISI.
ii) The second measure used to cancel the residual ISI present in a system is by
using
special types of equalizing filter called transversal filter.
10. How does pulse shaping reduce ISI?
As we are trying to detect the pulse stream by sampling it at time instant T s, it
is
possible to avoid ISI, if we can force ISI to vanish at the sampling instants. ISI
at other
instants does not hamper our detection process.
11. What is the condition for zero inter-symbol interference?
The necessary and sufficient condition for the pulse p(t) to satisfy,

for all integers k, where Ts is the symbol period.

12. Give the Nyquist criterion for zero ISI.
The Nyquist criterion states that the sum of all individual pulse spectrums
always
adds upto a constant value at each sampling instants m/Ts. The Nyquist
theorem says that
this is equivalent to:

where P(f) represents the Fourier transform of the pulse p(t).

13. What does the term equalization refer to? Explain how it is carried out by using
transversal filters?
Equalization is techniques used to combat inter symbol interference. The
transversal
filter is the most popular form of an easily adjustable equalizing filter
consisting of a
delay line with T-second taps (where T is the symbol duration).
The tab weights could be
chosen to force the system impulse response to zero at
all but one of the sampling times,
thus making the transfer function of the
equalizing filter He(f) correspond exactly to the
inverse of the channel transfer
function Hc(f)

14. What is meant by duobinary signaling?

In the second type of Nyquist pulse shaping method, controlled ISI is
deliberately introduced at a fixed number of adjacent sampling instants, and this
known ISI is taken care of at the time of detection. In the process, the stringency of
realization of the
equalizing filter is reduced. This technique is called duobinary
signaling also referred to
as correlation coding.
15.

A TDM signal with bit time of 0.5s is to be transmitted using a channel

with raised cosine roll off factor of 0.5. What is the bandwidth required?
Baud rate of the raised cosine filter in terms of the roll-off factor is

Where,

Roll off factor r = 0.5

Hence, the required bandwidth W is,

Eye Pattern:
16. How is eye pattern obtained on the CRO?
The received signal is fed to the vertical deflection plates of an oscilloscope
and to apply a sawtooth wave at the transmitted symbol rate R = 1/T s to the horizontal
deflection
plates. The waveforms in successive symbol intervals are thereby
translated into one
interval on the oscilloscope display. The resulting display is
called an eye pattern because of its resemblance to human eye.
17. From the eye pattern, how is the best time for sampling determined?
The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over which the received
signal can be sampled without error from ISI. The best sampling time is the instant
where the vertical opening of the eye is the largest.
18. What is an eye pattern (or eye diagram)?
It is an experimental tool to evaluate the combined effect of noise and inter
symbol interference on overall system performance. It is defined as the synchronized
superposition of all possible combinations of signal, noise and ISI in the system,
viewed between particular symbol intervals.
19. What is the purpose of using an eye pattern? (or) Give the application of eye
pattern.
i) Eye diagrams reveal the impact of ISI and noise
ii) Eye diagram can also give an estimate of achievable BER.
iii) Eye diagram is a means of evaluating the quality of a received digital
waveform

20. What do you infer from eye pattern?

An eye pattern provides a great deal of useful information about the performance
of a digital transmission system.
i) The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over which the received
signal can be sampled without error from ISI. The best sampling time is the instant
where the vertical opening of the eye is the largest.
ii) The height of the eye opening, at a specified sampling time, defines the noise
margin of the system.
iii) The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure
of eye as the sampling period varied.
Synchronization & Detector:
21. Why synchronization is required in the receiver (or) What is the need for
synchronization?
In baseband receiver, the output of the receiving filters needs to be sampled
periodically, atleast once per symbol interval. For this, the sampler should
have accurate knowledge of when a symbol started and when it was finished. If an
error is committed in determining these timing marks, both noise and ISI immunity
of the system suffers. This requires synchronization between transmitter and
receiver.
22. What are the various types of synchronization used in digital communication
system?
i)
Symbol or bit synchronization
ii)
Carrier synchronization
iii)
Frame synchronization.
23. What is called symbol or bit synchronization?
In a matched filter or correlation receiver, the incoming signal is sampled at the
end of one bit or symbol duration. Therefore the receiver has to know the instants of
time at which a symbol or bit is transmitted. The synchronization of a received
symbol with the transmitted symbol is called symbol synchronization.
24. What are the two methods of symbol synchronization?
i)
Open loop synchronizers
ii)
Closed loop synchronizers.
25. Define carrier synchronization.
In bandpass systems, a coherent receiver needs to have an exact replica of the
transmitted carrier for successful detection of the signal. The replica should be
identical
in frequency and phase. This is called carrier synchronization.
26. What is called frame synchronization?
It is a higher level of synchronization, where data is organized in frames. The
receiver has to know when a particular frame starts and when its individual message
bits starts. This type of synchronization is called frame synchronization.

27. What is the need for demodulator in case of baseband signaling when the
received waveforms are already pulse like forms?
The arriving baseband pulses are not in the form of ideal pulse shapes, each
one occupying its own symbol interval. The filtering at the transmitter and the channel
typically causes the received pulse sequence to suffer from inter symbol interference
(ISI). The goal of the demodulator is to recover a baseband pulse with the best
possible Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), free of any ISI.
28. Why digital detection is superior over analog detection process?
If a noise contaminated digital signal have enough signal energy to noise
energy ratio then it can be properly detected, and thereafter noise has no bearing on
its processing. On the other hand, in case of analog detection, the in band noise cannot
be fully eliminated because the detection is not based on any discrete value of
signal energy; rather it depends on the shape of the signal as well.
29. What is meant by maximum likelihood detector?
A detector that minimizes the error probability for the case where the symbols
are equally likely is known as maximum likelihood detector. For equally likely
signals, the optimum threshold o passes through the intersection of the likelihood
functions.
30. What is meant by a posteriori probability?
If the symbols are not equally likely, for a received signal sample value of r,
compare the following two probabilities:
a)
The probability that the symbol 1 was transmitted and
r has been the received signals sample value.
b) The probability that the symbol 0 was transmitted and r has been the received
signals sample value.
The greater of the two probabilities give us the most likely symbol was
transmitted. The probabilities a & b is called a posteriori probability.
31. Define MAP detector.
A detector based on choosing the symbol whose a posteriori probability is
maximum is known as MAP detector (Maximum a posteriori probability detector).
32. Bipolar pulse waveforms gi(t) (i = 1, 2) of amplitude 1V are received in the
presence of AWGN that has a variance of 0.1V 2. Find the optimum detection
threshold of MAP detector, if the a priori probability is p(gi) = 0.5.
The optimum threshold detection of MAP detector is given by,

Given that 02 = 0.1V2, amplitudes a1 = 1V, a2 = 1V, p(g1) = p(g2) = 0.5.

33. Define bit error probability.

The bit error probability pe is the expectation value of the Bit error
rate(BER). The BER can be considered as an approximate estimate of the bit error
probability.

UNIT V
BANDPASS SIGNAL TRANSMISSION & RECEPTION
Memoryless modulation methods:
1. State the difference between base band and band pass transmission.
Baseband transmission sends the information signal as it is without modulation
(without frequency shifting). In baseband transmission, line coding is utilized,
resulting
in a pulse train or pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) signal. This is
typically used over non-filtered wires such as fiber optical cables and short-range
copper links.
Bandpass transmission shifts the signal to be transmitted in frequency to a
higher frequency (modulation) and then transmits it, where at the receiver the signal
is shifted
back to its original frequency (demodulation). Passband transmission is
typically utilized
in wireless communication.
2. What are the advantages of digital modulation techniques?
i) Spectral efficiency use of a narrow bandwidth to send a large amount of
data. Effective use of limited frequency resources.
ii) Good privacy and security features - Digital encryption techniques
may be
employed.
iii) Lower power consumption.
iv) Reduced device size.
3. Define memoryless modulator.
If the analog waveform {gm(t)} is mapped from the digital sequence {an}
without any constraint imposed by the previously transmitted symbols, the
modulated signal is called
memoryless.
4.

List out the various memoryless modulation techniques.

ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying), PSK (Phase Shift Keying), FSK (Frequency
Shift Keying, QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) and QPSK (Quadrature
Phase Shift Keying).

5.

State the difference between coherent and non coherent binary modulation
techniques. (or) Differentiate coherent and non-coherent detection.
Coherent detection: In coherent detection, exact replicas of the possible arriving
signals are available at the receiver. This means that the receiver has exact knowledge
of the carrier waves phase reference, in which case the receiver is said to phase
locked to the transmitter. ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK are examples for coherent
modulation techniques.
Non Coherent detection: In non coherent detection, the knowledge of the
carrier waves phase is not required. The complexity of the receiver is thereby
reduced but at the expense of an inferior error performance, compared to a coherent
system.

6.

Define Amplitude Shift keying (ASK).

ASK is an amplitude modulation scheme in which digital information is
transmitted through the discrete amplitude changes of the carrier signal. The simplest
form of ASK operates as a switch, using the presence of a carrier wave to indicate a

binary one and its absence to indicate a binary zero. This type of modulation is called
on-off keying (OOK).
7.

List out the features of ASK.

i) Susceptible to sudden gain changes
ii) Inefficient modulation technique
iii) On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200 bps
iv) Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.

8.

Draw the ASK waveform for 10110100.

9. What is signal constellation diagram?

A signal constellation refers to a set of possible message points.
A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal modulated by a
digital modulation scheme such as quadrature amplitude modulation or phase-shift
keying. It displays the signal as a two-dimensional scatter diagram in the complex
plane at symbol sampling instants.
Also a diagram of the ideal positions, signal space diagram, in a modulation
scheme can be called a constellation diagram.
10. Define Frequency Shift Keying (FSK).
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which
digital information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier
wave. The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK).
11. Draw the FSK waveform for 10110100.

12. What are the features of FSK?

a) Less susceptible to error than ASK
b) On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200bps
c) Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio transmission
d) Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs that use coaxial cable.
13. Define Phase Shift Keying.
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by
changing, or modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave).
14. Draw the PSK waveform for 10110100.

15. Enumerate the advantages of FSK over ASK.

Frequency Shift Keying is used much more than ASK because of the
following
advantages
a) Noise immunity in FSK in more than ASK.
b) Improved SNR ratio that helps in reducing the effects of interferences.
c) Coding is inexpensive and simple, easy hardware implementation.
d) The FSK receiver can amplify the received signal without AGC as in FM receiver
because Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is similar to frequency modulation (FM).
16. Why is PSK always preferable over ASK in coherent detection?
ASK is on-off signaling whereas the modulated carrier is continuously
transmitted
in PSK. Hence peak power requirement is more in ASK whereas it is
reduced in the case of PSK. Hence PSK is always preferred over ASK in coherent
detection.

17. Define QPSK.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a form of Phase Shift Keying
characterized by the fact that the information carried by the transmitted wave is
contained in the phase. In particular two bits are modulated at once, selecting one of
four possible carrier phase shifts (0, /2, , and 3/2). Each possible value of the
phase corresponds to a unique pair of bits called dibits.

18. Give the signal space representation of QPSK.

19. Explain how QPSK differs from PSK in terms of transmission bandwidth and
bit information it carries.
For a given bit rate 1/Tb, a QPSK wave requires half the transmission
bandwidth
of the corresponding binary PSK wave. Equivalently, for a given
transmission bandwidth,
a QPSK wave carries twice as many bits of information
as the corresponding binary PSK
wave.
20. Define QAM and draw its constellation diagram.
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is both an analog and a digital
modulation scheme. In this modulation, the carrier experiences amplitude as well as
phase modulation. Thus the resulting waveform is a combination of both Phase
Shift
Keying (PSK) and amplitude-shift keying (ASK).
The constellation diagram for 16-QAM is,

21. Define bit rate and baud rate.

Bit rate is defined as number of bits per second (bps). Baud rate is the number of
signal elements per second.
22. Define probability of symbol (bit) error PE.
A measure of how well the demodulator and decoder perform is the
probability of bit errors. The probability of the detector making an incorrect
decision is termed as PE.
23. Define bandwidth efficiency.
It is defined as the ratio of data rate to channel bandwidth; it is measured in
units of bits per second per hertz. With the data rate denoted by Rb and the channel
bandwidth by B, the bandwidth efficiency can be expressed as,
= Rb / B (bits/s/Hz)
It is also referred to as spectral efficiency.
24. A binary shift keying system employs two signaling frequencies f1 and f2, the
lower frequency is 1200Hz and signaling rate is 500 baud. Calculate f2.
The binary FSK contains two discrete frequency components located at
f1 = (fc 1/2Tb) and f2 = (fc + 1/2Tb).
Given that f1 = 1200 Hz, baud rate = 1/Tb = 500,
fc = f1 + 500/2 = 1200 + 250 = 1450 Hz.
Therefore f2 = 1450 + 250 = 1700 Hz.
25. How the bit error rate is related to the probability of symbol error?
The bit error rate is related to the probability of symbol error by simple
formula

26. Comparison of probability of error of various digital modulation techniques.

Error performance (Probability of Error)
Memoryless
In terms of error function
In terms of Q function
Modulation

techniques
Coherent ASK
Coherent FSK
Coherent PSK
Coherent QPSK
Non coherent ASK
Non coherent FSK
Where, Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit
represents the noise spectral density
The figure of merit b = Eb /
27. Write the expression for bit error rate for coherent binary FSK.
In general,

For binary FSK, M = 2, Hence BER = Pe.