Documents - Tips - Cswip 322 Questions PDF

CSWIP 3.
2 THEORY PAPER Q&A

1. Signing off a product
In an engineering fabrication industry the last activity in the sequence of manufacturing is load out or
dispatch. This activity cannot be initiated unless the product is signed off. As a matter of fact signing
the product off is assurance of quality which is authenticated by a technically competent person such
as Senior Welding Inspector who makes sure that complete manufacturing of product has been
carried out in accordance with applicable standard and sound engineering practices.
However before signing the documents the senior welding inspector should make enquiry which can
give him the in sites of the past while product was being manufactured.
Typical questions can be as followed
1. What was the repair rate during production?
2. Whether any difficulties are encountered within the job?
3. Which is the critical area in this job or product?
4. Whether any concession or waiver were given, if yes why?
5. How were the weather conditions?
6. Whether there were any safety issues, fatalities, major accidents/incident etc?
7. Whether there were any labour problems?
8. What was the general moral and standard of work amongst the inspection team(s)?
Further to this he can start reviewing of documents and he should make sure that he attaches the
following documents as a minimum
1. Quality control plan ensure all stages are completed and signed off
2. Inspection check list ensure all stages are completed and signed off
3. Verify material certificates such as mill test certificates; material traceability records lap
reports etc
4. Verify the following procedures which are to be attached and have all been approved
a. Welding
e. Hardness
b. Repair
f. PMI
c. NDT
g. Hydrotest
d. PWHT
h. Coating/Painting
5. Verify the qualification level and validity of the welder and NDT personnel
6. Verify the inspection reports of following disciplines and ensure that they cover all
appropriate joints and structure
a. Visual
b. NDT
c. Dimensional control etc
7. Verify calibration certificates of equipments and instruments such as pressure gauge,
inspection tools and welding equipments etc
8. Verify hardness test reports
9. Verify PMI reports
10. Verify PWHT reports and charts
11. Verify Hydro test reports and charts
12. Verify painting and coating inspection reports
13. Verify as built drawings are completed
14. Verify weld maps are available for traceability
15. Verify name plate, rubbing details are available when applicable
16. Verify concession request, NCR, site query etc
17. Verify permit to work
As a part of his own inspection he may be obliged to witness final hydrotest, visual inspection of
completed parts. As a matter of quality assurance he may view some radiographs at random and may
even conduct radiograph audit.
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CSWIP 3.2 THEORY PAPER Q&A

Finally, transit and tie down procedures should all have been approved by the relevant engineer prior
to the final acceptance of the product and issue of any signed certificate of conformance.
2. Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector
Plan
It is an agreed pre-determined structural path way that needs specific aim. All projects inspection
needs the following planning.
a. Establishing inspection test plan and plan for all stages of inspection
b. Establish requires WPS and PQR
c. Plan for requires resources. I.e. manpower, inspection tools, etc.,
d. Developing quality control procedures
e. Plan the work schedule i.e. type of inspection and at what times.
f. Communication with superior and others.
Organize
To make all necessary arrangement required to carry out or fulfil plan, this may involve the
following.
a. Any training and certification required.
b. Staffing plan i.e. assigning work and area to inspectors
c. Procurement of inspection equipment and its calibration
d. Transportation to and fro from site
e. Accommodation and messing
f. Inspectors leave cycle
Supervise
Once the plan has been organized it is essential that controls are exercised so that the plan is
successfully implemented
a. Supervise and evaluate inspectors work.
b. Check inspection equipment condition
c. Organize the inspection activities to be completed in time
d. Take effective decision for solving quality related problems
e. Share your knowledge with technical discussion with all inspectors
f. Motivate the staff to meet standard of quality
g. Communicate with other department to improve procedure, investigate and advice on quality
problems.
h. Keep a record of day to day inspection activates and pending inspection to be completed
i. Supervise to maintain ISO related documents.
Auditing
To carry out a periodic and systematic check on a system process to ensure that it has been carried
out as specified
Staff
a. All staff to be internal audited to ensure that they are maintaining all documents as per ITP
b. Whether all ISO related documents are maintained
c. Whether all welder details are up to date
Equipment
a. Inspection tools to be checked for calibration and condition
b. Welding machine over calibration and condition
Documentation
a. Check all inspection documents are maintained as per procedure
b. Check all NDT records
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c. Check welder qualification record
d. Randomly interpret Radiographic for all personals.
3. Describe and sketch the following defects lamination, laps, bands and their differences
Lamination
Laminations are planes within the steel plate across (through thickness) which there is no metallic
bond (separated in layers). They are typically a result of non-metallic inclusions and gas pockets
formed in the ingot when it has been cast and as it solidifies.
In the steel mill the molten steel poured in moulds to form ingots. While solidification is taking place
huge amount of gases are released. It is quite possible that some of these gases and non-metallic
inclusions such as oxide coating of the bubbles, slag inclusions, refractory inclusions from erosion of
the furnace may remain trapped in the solidified steel. This ingot when rolled the gas pocket and
inclusions inside get flattened in the forms of lamination.
This discontinuity adversely affects through thickness strength of steel and is not traceable by MPI or
RT. The only way to detect lamination is UT. This discontinuity may also contribute to lamellar tear
in thicker section.
Laps
Laps are basically chunk of metal that has flown from the desired profile during operations such as
rolling and hot forming. This chunk of material is connected to the base metal at some locations and
overhanging portion of the chunk simply lies on the metal without being the homogeneous part of it.
As it is surface defect it can be found visually and can be confirmed by MPI.
Differences: lamination is a sub-surface defect lap is a surface defect. Lap can be found in visual
inspection and confirm by MPI. Lamination can be confirmed by ultrasonic test only.
Bands
As the ingot is forged and rolled the segregation are elongated and reduced in cross section. If further
processing is carried out, they may appear as very thin parallel lines of bands and is generally known
as banding. Banding is not usually significant.
4. It has come to your attention that the morale of your inspection team appears to be low,
a. What could you have observed to determine this?
b. What would occur if this was not rectified quickly?
c. What could you do to lift low morale?
Low morale can be identified by the following symptoms
1. lack of diligence
2. taking short cuts
3. ignoring safety procedures
4. not starting work promptly
5. taking long breaks
6. talking in groups and grumbling about minor matters
7. higher levels of absenteeism
8. Negligence (poor record keeping, not inspecting the weld etc...)
9. complaints from TPI/Client
Low morale may be result in the following
1. lack of control over production activities from quality point of view
2. poor productivity
3. substandard work output
4. delay in work schedule
5. lack of credibility to the organization
Observing all above, it is imperative that lifting the low morale this can be done as follows
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1. Arrange the meeting of entire sub coordinates staff for discussion on the subject matter.
2. From their response I can form a collective opinion for low morale
3. Further to this I may have private discussion with each individual which can help me to zero
in on his problems.
4. This problem is then sorted out as general problem and individual problems.
5. As regard to the personal problems I can assure the team that I will do everything possible in
my capacity to rectify it.
6. I should bring to the attention of the employees in gentle but firm manner that, their
individual problems must not affect the morale.
7. I will try to seek companys help for their personal problem.
8. These they should be noticed that the high morale will reflect in good salary rise, better
facilities etc.
9. If low morale continues then the management will be obliged warning letters, demotions and
worst case termination also
5. you suspected that a radiographic team under supervision of your inspector has radiographed
the same weld seam and only changing the lead letters
a. What would be your initial course of action? Or what action would you take to confirm
this?
b. If your suspicion is proved to be correct, what would be your further course of action?
Or what action would you take upon your conformation?
Actions to confirm
1. Conduct the radiographic audit in the batches and if similar looking radiographs are found
then they should be verified at job against the welds comparing by profile or by any parent
metal marks.
2. If many such suspected radiographs are found then the full audit of all radiographs should be
performed.
3. Physically inspect three or four joints to random mark with correct identification number and
take new radiographs by using new radiographic crew.
4. Evaluate the new radiographs and compare with the previous taken radiographs of the
respective joints.
5. The outcome of this investigation could be of two types
a. Rare case of duplication
b. Occurrence of duplication in many cases
In the first case it is most likely to be a human error; hence the matter can be resolved by
making NDT supervisor aware of facts.
In the second case it is an intentional action performed to help somebodys interest, which is
obviously a set back to the quality.
Actions upon conformation
1. Inform the occurrence to the higher authorities or supervisor and produce objective evidence
2. Identify the crew which has taken with wrong identification
3. Raise NCR
4. Arrange to remove and replace the crew immediately
5. Arrange to reshoot all joints by using new crew
6. Establish proper monitoring system to avoid reoccurrence of such problems
7. Arrange to close NCR
A meeting of all inspectors to be conducted and they should be issued a strong warning letter to
improve the level of their performance to avoid such incident in future.
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6. What is the course of investigation for vessel rupture with loud bang?
Based on the above information one can construe the failure must be catastrophic in nature, which
means in all likeness mode of failure is to be brittle. However there could be more than one mode of
failure I.e. the initiation could be the fatigue mode followed by brittle. Because of this reason it is
advisable to personality visit the venue of failure to do some visual inspection of exposed surface to
find out the mode of failure. If the failure found be brittle in nature the following will be the symptoms
1. rough and crystalline surface
2. the chevron mark having V shaped pointing towards the point of initiation otherwise if
failure initiated in fatigue mode then it will be manifested by
3. smooth surface having dull texture
4. half round crescent or beach marks
It is also important to note whether the initiation of rupture is in weld/HAZ or in the base metal then
one can further investigate the following avenues
If in base metal
1. chemical composition and physical properties certificates supplied by manufacturer (material
test certificates)
2. heat treatment records and lap test reports if any
3. hardness of the base metal and thickness in the rupture zone
4. suitability of material for the given service conditions
If in weld/HAZ
1. Check the WPS used for welding
2. Visual inspection reports and weld logs
3. Radiographic reports
4. Heat treatment records and charts
5. Hardness reports
Based on the outcome of the above investigation the reason of the failure can be judged.
7. you have overheard a conversation suggestion that a third party inspector who is under your
charge has been allowing repairs of cracks to be made without reporting them qa/qc
department
a. What would be your course of action?
b. If this is found to be correct what would be your course of action?
Since it is grave consequence senior welding inspector should go personally to the job site try to
establish facts in a diplomatic way. Once the facts are established and it is been proved beyond any
reasonable doubts, then the prevention action should be taken in such a way that it will eliminate
further occurrence of such events but will not break any relation.
For the sake of disciplinary measures first, the TPI should be summoned for a private discussion and
may be questioned about his action and omissions. It is imperative that he must be made aware of the
fact that you are aware of his omission. Further to this a meeting should be conducted for all
inspectors and they should be made alert against such instance and they should be instructed to
report such occurrence if found immediately to QA/QC department.
In order to make higher management aware of the omission of third party inspector, a strong letter
may be drafted and circulated to higher management about the omission of TPI for their information
and action.
8. What is transition joint? What are the problems occur during welding of a transition joint?
Where corrosion will occur in transition joint?
A transition joint is a joint between different thickness and or dissimilar metals. It could be of two
categories
1. different base metals
2. different thickness
Assuming that the transition joint in this discussion complied with both of the above two categories.
Following care should be taken during welding
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Transition joint with different base metal:
1. proper selection of electrode to avoid dilution of the weld metal
2. proper selection of current range and polarity type of current
3. back purging required, if any
4. cleanliness
5. pre-heat, PWHT
6. Welding process
Transition joint with different thickness
1. The thicker member should be gradually tapered off to match the thickness of thinner member
such that said taper will not exceed 1:4
2. The completed weld should be blended in such a way it will follow the gradual transition
3. Proper heat treatment should be chosen taking consideration of thickness of thicker member
On steels, the HAZ of the weld tends to be more brittle i.e. it has lower notch toughness than the
actual weld metal. The HAZ area is therefore more prone to cracking especially when hydrogen is
induced, although it must be noted that the tensile strength of the HAZ is normally high in comparison
with the weld and parent material. Unfortunately it a fusion welding process is being used then the
HAZ cannot be eliminated.
Problems occur during welding a transition joint
1. Consumable selection
2. Hot cracking due to thermal expansion of steel
3. Cold cracking due to uneven expansion and contraction of thick and thin member or different
material properties
4. Corrosion will occur in SS side in HAZ
9. What is lamellar tearing? describe briefly causes and control measures for lamellar tearing
Crack type
: lamellar tearing
Location
: below the weld, HAZ (T & Corner Joints)
Steel types
: High sulphur & phosphorous steel
Susceptible microstructure
: cold rolled
It is a step like crack occurring in the parent metal or HAZ of steel with poor through thickness
ductility, where the fusion boundary of the weld is parallel with plate surface. It is usually associated
with restrained joints on corner, tee or fillet welds joining thick plate.
Causes
1. poor through thickness ductility
2. non-metallic inclusion in the direction of rolling
3. restrained joint
4. through thickness stress
5. high sulphur/phosphorous content
6. presence of hydrogen
Lamellar tearing occurs when two conditions exist at the same time:
a. A susceptible rolled plate is used to make a weld joint
b. High stresses act in the through-thickness direction of the susceptible material
(known as the short-transverse direction)
Control
1. Reducing the size of weld
2. modify joint design
3. control restraint
4. use of forged materials for critical work
5. Grind the parent metal and fill with ductile weld metal. A buttering layer of high ductility
weld metal may be deposited where the vertical member is to be welded.
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6. Asses the through thickness ductility by short transverse tensile test
7. Inspect the plate for non-metallic inclusions
8. Carry out full chemical analysis to make sure sulphur is less than 0.05%
10. What is solidification crack describe briefly causes and controlling measures?
Cracking that takes place during the weld solidification process is termed either hot cracking or
solidification cracking and occurs in all steels which have high sulphur content - sulphur causes low
ductility at elevated temperatures.
In order for a crack to develop the solidifying metal must be subjected to a high tensile stress, this
may by present as a result of weld metal contraction combined with high restraint. Solidification
cracks usually occur longitudinally down the centre of the weld because of the segregation of
impurities and have a blunt profile.
Centreline solidification cracks tend to be surface breaking at some point in their length and can be
easily seen during visual inspection because they tend to be relatively wide cracks.
Solidification cracking occurs when three conditions exist at the same time:
1. Weld metal has a susceptible chemical composition (sulphur and phosphorus)
2. Welding conditions used give an unfavourable bead shape
3. High level of restraint or tensile stresses present in the weld area
Below causes may accelerate Solidification Crack
1. Contamination in weld joint
2. Unfavourable welding condition
3. Improper Width to depth ratio
Control measures
1. Control the sulphur content
2. Use consumable with high manganese
3. Keep manganese-sulphide: carbon ratio as low as possible
4. Minimise restraints
5. Use low dilution process
6. Weld joints are thoroughly cleaned immediately before welding
7. Maintain proper width to depth ratio
8. Use preheat
11. Explain solidification crack in ferritic steels
Solidification cracking is a hot cracking mechanism that caused during solidification of weld in
ferritic steels, containing high sulphur content. During welding sulphur in the plate may be remelted
and will fuse with iron to form iron sulphide (FeS). These iron-sulphides are low melting point
impurities, so that collect around the grain boundaries, which are under great stress due to the action
of contractional forces. The bonding between the grains may now be insufficient to maintain cohesion
and cracks will result running through the length of the weld centreline.
Causes
1. Weld metal has a susceptible chemical composition
a. High sulphur
b. High carbon
c. High phosphorus
2. Welding conditions used give an unfavourable bead shape
3. High level of restraint or tensile stresses present in the weld area
4. Contamination in weld joint
5. Unfavourable welding condition
6. High dilution process
7. Improper Width to depth ratio
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Control measures
1. Control the sulphur content
2. Limit the heat input, hence minimising expansion and contraction
3. Increase the grain boundaries by adding delta ferritic
12. Explain solidification crack in stainless steel
Solidification cracking is a hot cracking mechanism that occurs during solidification of weld metal in
austenitic stainless steels. Austenitic stainless steels have large grain structure compared to ferritic
steel grains. During solidification low melting point impurities collect around these large austenitic
grain structures in the weld centreline. These large grains have small gain in boundaries compared to
ferritic steels. This lack of grain boundary area between the grains may be insufficient to maintain
cohesion and cracks occur in the centreline of weld along its length.
Causes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Weld metal has a susceptible chemical composition (low melting point impurities)
Welding conditions used give an unfavourable bead shape
High level of restraint or tensile stresses present in the weld area
Contamination in weld joint
Unfavourable welding condition
Improper Width to depth ratio
Control measures
1. Control the low melting point impurities (sulphur/phosphorous)
2. Ensure the weld joints are thoroughly cleaned
3. Limit the heat input, hence minimising expansion and contraction
4. Increase the grain boundaries by adding delta ferritic
13. What is weld decay describe the causes and prevention measures?
Weld decay occurs in unstabilised austenitic stainless steel with 550C to 850C range of the HAZ. At
this temperature range carbon is absorbed by chromium and chromium carbide precipitated at the
grain boundaries as a metal cools down. This precipitation of chromium carbides consumed the
alloying element cause a local reduction in chromium content, which has the effect of lowering the
resistance to corrosive attack and allowing occurring.
Controlling measures
1. using of stabilised steels (with addition of Ni or Ti)
2. Use low carbon stainless steels i.e. 316L, 304L (carbon content below 0.03%)
3. Heating to about 1100C where chromium carbide will be dissolved. Then steel is normally
quenched from this temperature to stop re-association.
14. What is liquation cracking describe the causes and prevention measures?
Crack type
: Liquation crack
Location
: HAZ
Steel type
: Low quality sulphur content steels
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Liquation cracks occur in steels, which have high sulphur content. When welding low quality high
sulphur content steels, it is possible that areas containing iron-sulphide (FeS) in the HAZ will liquefy.
These low melting point iron-sulphides usually accumulate at the grain boundaries. If this melting
occurs in the presence of high contractional stress, then the boundaries will be pulled apart and
liquation cracks occur.
Causes
1. High sulphur content
2. High restraint
3. High contractional stresses
Control
1. Use high quality refined steel
2. Controlled heat input
3. Minimise restraint
4. Use preheat
15. What is reheat cracking describe the causes and prevention measures?
Crack type
: Reheat cracking
Location
: Coarse grained HAZ and weld metals
Steel type
: Low alloy steel, creep resistance steels
Susceptible microstructure
: Embrittled coarse grains
Reheat cracking is also known as relaxation cracking. It mainly occurs in HAZ of welds particularly
in low alloy steels during post weld heat treatment or service at elevated temperatures.
Most alloy of steel subject to an increase of embrittlement of the coarse grained region of the HAZ
when heated above 600C. The problem is worse with thicker steels containing Cr, Cu, Mo, V, Nb and
Ti. Sulphur and phosphorus also have an influence. Typical steels susceptible would be the 2 Cr.
Mo. V type. Example creep resistance steels
During post weld stress relief and at high operating temperature the residual stresses would be
relieved by creep deformation which involves grain boundary sliding and grain deformation. If due to
metallurgical conditions these actions cannot occur, then grain boundaries may be open up into
cracks
Causes
1. areas of high stress concentration and existing weld defects
2. the toes of badly shaped fillet welds, incomplete root penetration welds
3. high creep resistance
Control
1. toe grinding, elimination of partial penetration welds
2. rejection of poor weld profile
3. heat quickly through the susceptible temperature 450-550 C
4. use high preheat temperature and stage wise PWHT during welding large fabrication to
reduce the risk of reheat cracking in the final stress relieving
5. use of weld metal with high ductility
16. Describe the phenomenon of hic or under bead cracking and prevention measures
During fabrication by welding, cracks can occur in some types of steel, due to the presence of
hydrogen. The technical name for this type of cracking is hydrogen induced cold cracking (HICC) but
it is often referred to by other names that describe various characteristics of hydrogen cracks:
1. Cold cracking - cracks occur when the weld has cooled down
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2. HAZ cracking - cracks tend to occur mainly in the HAZ
3. Delayed cracking - cracks may occur sometime after welding has finished (possibly up to
~48h)
4. Under bead cracking - cracks occur in the HAZ beneath a weld bead
These types of cracks often originate from sub-surface locations under the weld in HAZ. Hydrogen
cracking in the HAZ of steel occurs when 4 conditions exist at the same time:
1. Hydrogen level > 15ml/100g of weld metal deposited
2. Stress > 0.5 of the yield stress
3. Temperature < 300C
4. Susceptible microstructure > 400HV hardness
These four conditions (four factors) are mutually interdependent so that the influence of one condition
(its active level) depends on how active the others three factors are.
The phenomenon of HIC is as follows
During welding small amount of free hydrogen is generated due to decomposition of moisture from
the air, electrode coating, shielding gas or contaminations on the surface to be welded. This hydrogen
can dissolve in the molten steel and from there diffuse into extremely hot but solidified base metal. If
the cooling is sufficiently slow, this evolved hydrogen has enough time to escape to the atmosphere by
diffusion. However if the cooling is rapid some hydrogen may get trapped in HAZ. This hydrogen
produces a condition called as Hydrogen Embrittlement in the locations of its entrapment, which
are dislocations and voids between grains. Also it generates very high hydrostatic pressure in the
space of its confinement. This pressure combined with shrinkage stress due to cooling produce tiny
cracks in metal immediately next to weld bead, which are sub-surface initially but eventually
propagate to surface.
Avoid or Control measures for HICC
Because the factors that cause cracking are interdependent, and each need to be at an active level at
the same time, cracking can be avoided by ensuring that at least one of the four factors is not active
during welding.
Methods that can be used to minimise the influence of each of the four factors as follows
1. Use of low hydrogen electrodes
2. Electrodes to be baked and should be stored in hot holding oven to avoid moisture pickup
3. Ensuring that the weld zone is dry and free from rust/scale and oil/grease
4. Control moisture in shielding gas
5. Avoiding stress concentrations due to poor fit-up
6. Avoiding poor weld profile (sharp weld toes)
7. Applying a stress-relief heat treatment after welding
8. Increasing the travel speed as practicable in order to reduce the heat input
9. Keeping weld metal volume to an as low level as possible
10. Procuring steel with a CEV that is at the low-end of the range for the steel grade(limited
scope of effectiveness)
11. Using moderate welding heat input so that the weld does not cool quickly (and give HAZ
hardening)
12. Applying pre-heat so that the HAZ cools more slowly (and does not show significant HAZ
hardening); in multi-run welds, maintain a specific inter-pass temperature
13. Post heat to slow down the cooling rate
17. Describe the under bead cracking and prevention measures in Q/T steels (Quenched and
Tempered)
Q/T steels are normally full alloyed steels which have high hardenability due to high carbon
equivalent. Such steels subsequent to welding if allowed cooling down rapidly produce brittle
microstructure in HAZ. In such circumstances if the hydrogen gets involved in the process and
trapped in brittle microstructure will produce a condition called as Hydrogen Embrittlement in the
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location of its entrapment which are dislocations and voids between grains. Also it generates very
high hydrostatic pressure in the space of confinement. This pressure combined with shrinkage stress
due to cooling produce tiny cracks immediately next to weld bead, which are subsurface initially but
eventually propagate to surface. (as stipulated above in phenomenon of under bead cracking and
thereby cause under bead cracks in Quench and Tempered steels.)
Prevention
1. giving sufficient heat input by means of pre heating
2. maintain proper inter-pass temperature
3. reduce the rate of cooling by means of post heating and adequate PWHT
4. Use low hydrogen process for welding
5. Performing welding in stress free conditions
18. Describe the under bead cracking and prevention measures in hsla steels
Unlike in Q/T steels, HSLA steels are ferritic in nature. The properties of these steels are achieved by
small amounts of alloying elements dissolved in their ferritic structure. For this very reason they are
soft and ductile as compared to QT steels. Such steels, subsequent to welding if cooled too rapidly,
may undergo a change of microstructure from ferritic to martensitic namely in HAZ. Once martensitic
is formed it is hard and brittle. In such circumstance if any hydrogen pick-up takes place it may very
well lead to phenomenon of HIC or under bead cracking
Prevention
1. ensure that base metals have enough ductility
2. ensure that base metals have sufficient low % of carbon, manganese and other alloying
element which cause appreciable martensite formation
3. reducing the rate of cooling of weldment
4. performing the welding in stress free conditions
5. use of low hydrogen process
19. Describe the three fracture mechanisms
Welds may suffer three different fracture mechanisms:
1. Fatigue
2. Ductile
3. Brittle
Often a complete fracture of a weldment will be a combination of fracture types e.g. initially fatigue
followed by final ductile fracture.
Fatigue
Fatigue fractures occur in situations where loading is of a cyclic nature and at stress levels well
below the yield stress of the material. Typically fatigue cracks will be found on bridges, cranes,
aircraft and items affected by out of balance or vibrating forces. Initiation takes place from stress
concentrations such as changes of section, arc- strikes, and toes of welds. Even the best designed and
made welds have some degree of stress concentration.
Following appearances of exposed surfaces manifests these kinds of fractures.
1. Very smooth fracture surface, although may have steps due to multiple initiation points.
2. It is encompassed by crescent marks or beach marks
3. Bounded by curved crack front
4. Bands may be visible indicating crack progression.
5. Initiation point opposite curve crack front
6. Surface at 90 to applied loading
Fatigue cracks sometimes stop of their own accord if the crack runs into an area of low stress. On the
other hand they may grow until the remaining cross-section in insufficient to support the applied
loads. At this point final failure will take place by a secondary mechanism i.e. ductile or brittle.
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Ductile
Occur in instances where the strength and the cross-sectional area of the material are insufficient to
carry the applied load. Such fractures are commonly seen on material and welding procedure tensile
test specimens where failure is accompanied by yielding, stretching and thinning.
A ductile fracture is an outcome of plastic deformation of material to the point of rupture. It is
manifested by
1. Surface is torn and rough
2. Shear lips at 45 applied stress
Brittle
Brittle fracture is result of composition of hard, brittle material and an impulsive snappy load. It is a
fast, unstable type of fracture which can lead to catastrophic failure.
Following factors will increase the risk of brittle fracture:
1. As the temperature (ambient or operational) decreases
2. With the type and increasing thickness of the material
3. Where high levels of residual stresses are present
4. In the presence of notches.
5. Increased strain rate i.e. speed of loading
Distinguishing features of a brittle fracture are:
1. Surface is flat and at 90 to the applied load.
2. Will show little or no plastic deformation
3. The surface will be rough and may be crystalline in appearance.
4. May show V shaped chevrons on the surface which will point back to the initiation source
Out of the above types fatigue is always the first mode of failure. If failure is in second mode i.e.
ductile or brittle, then these failures will always be following fatigue and not vice-versa. Otherwise
there could be purely ductile or purely brittle failures also which manifested by the appearance as
mentioned above.
20. Describe residual stresses
Metals contract during solidification and subsequent cooling, but if this contraction is prevented or
inhibited residual stresses will develop. Most metal products contain residual stresses, often up to the
yield point. Pipe products for example are usually very highly stressed. The tendency to develop
residual stresses when the heating and cooling are localised. So welding with its much localised
heating and the presence of liquid and solid metal contact can be expected to induce very high levels
of residual stressed. Residual stresses can be difficult to measure with any real accuracy, but a rough
guide is that when the weld metal exceeds 2 inch3 (14 cm3) then the total residual stress is about yield
point in magnitude.
Normal welds develop residual stresses:
1. along the weld longitudinal residual stresses
2. across the weld transvers residual stresses
3. through the weld short transverse residual stresses
21. Describe distortion
Distortion is caused by stress. Distortion related to the change of shape of a component, which results
from welding. This change in shape may be temporary (elastic) or permanent (plastic). If two pieces
of materials e.g. plates, which are to be joined, are free to move during welding distortion will occur.
If the two pieces of material are not free to move (restrained) the force will remain as residual
stresses (no distortion)
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Types of distortion
1. longitudinal shrinkage
2. transverse shrinkage
3. angular distortion
4. bowing
Factor which affect distortion
1. material properties and condition
2. heat input
3. Amount of restraint
4. Joint design
5. Part fit-up
6. Welding procedure
Method of reducing distortion
1. Pre-setting, pre-bending
2. Forced restraint e.g. welding fixtures, flexible clamps, strong backs
3. Using balancing welding technique e.g. back strip welding, back step welding
4. Using by design e.g. Elimination of welding, Weld placement, Reducing the volume of weld
metal, Reducing the number of runs
5. Reducing the heat input
22. Describe distortion in a simple weld with single v preparation
The action of the residual stresses in weld in welded joints is to cause distortion. Consider a simple
weld with single V preparation.
The following movements can be detected
1. contraction in the weld and HAZ along with the length
2. bowing due to the greater volume of weld metal at the top of the weld
3. peaking due to the Vee angle
4. ripple (in sheet) away from the weld
5. contraction in the weld metal and HAZ transverse to the weld
Control of distortion is achieved in one or more of the following ways
1. pre-setting or pre-bending so that the metal distorts into the required position
2. clamping to prevent distortion, but this increases the level of residual stress
3. welding sequence i.e. balanced welding, back step or back strip welding
23. Destructive testing or mechanical testing
The tests are called destructive tests because the welded joint is destroyed when various types of test
piece are taken from it.
Destructive tests can be divided into 2 groups, those used to:
1. Measure a mechanical property quantitative tests
2. Assess the joint quality qualitative tests
Mechanical tests are quantitative because a quantity is measured a mechanical property such as
tensile strength, hardness and impact toughness.
Qualitative tests are used to verify that the joint is free from defects they are of sound quality - and
examples of these are bend tests, macroscopic examination and fracture tests (fillet fracture and nickbreak).
Test objectives
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Various types of mechanical test are used by material manufacturers/ suppliers to verify that plates,
pipes, forgings etc have the minimum property values specified for particular grades.
Design engineers use the minimum property values listed for particular grades of material as the
basis for design and the most cost-effective designs are based on an assumption that welded joints
have properties that are no worse than those of the base metal.
The quantitative (mechanical) tests that are carried out for welding procedure qualification are
intended to demonstrate that the joint properties satisfy design requirements.
Tensile Test Transverse tensile tests
To measure the transverse tensile strength under static loading
1. A reduced specimen assesses the tensile strength of the joint
2. A radius reduced specimen assesses the tensile strength of the weld meta
Tensile Test Cruciform test
To measure the relative tensile strength of joints with fillet welds under static loading (Load through
welds)
All weld Tensile Test
To measure Yield Strength & Tensile Strength of (% Elongation also measured & usually also %
Reduction of Area)
1. Electrodes of filler wire / flux combinations
2. Quality of the weld metal as deposited
3. STRA Short transverse reduction areas to access lamellar tear
Bend tests (transverse and longitudinal)
To determine the
1. Soundness of weld metal
2. Weld junctions
3. Heat affected zone
All specimens to be removed and prepared without causing significant distortion or heating
Side bend test
To determine the soundness of a joint in cross section
Charpy V notch test
To determine the energy absorbed at a specified temperature to fracture the specimen.
Nick break test
To fracture the joint through the weld metal to permit examination of the fracture surface
Fillet weld fracture test
To fracture the joint through the weld metal to permit examination of the fracture surface (Swan
notch in compression)
Macro examination
To examine the whole joint for soundness
CTOD (Crack Tip Opening Displacement Test)
CTOD is a test method for the determination of a metals resistance to the initiation of a crack
resulting from notch defects.
CTOD measures the elastic-plastic toughness of the metal in the ductile-brittle transition. The
propagation of a crack in a welded structure depends upon factors including the materials used. The
size and sharpness of any notch present, operating temperature, the degree of restraint and welding
procedure requirements.
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CTOD test permits full size specimens to be used irrespective of metal thickness to which a notch of
given width and depth is applied. The specimen is subjected to a high speed resonance load cycling
on a three point bending rig. A clip gauge is fixed to the mouth of the notch accurately measures the
slow opening of the crack and a force sensing device enables the applied load to be plotted against
displacement on a graph.
24. Explain haz heat affected zone
During welding using fusion welding process there is a huge temperature difference between the weld
and parent material. Because of this temperature difference, the material immediately adjacent to the
weld undergoes micro structural changes.
This area which lies between the fusion boundary and the unaffected parent material is called heat
affected zone HAZ. The extent of changes in microstructure will depend on the following.
1. Material composition especially carbon content
2. Heat input the higher the heat or arc energy, the wider HAZ. Metallurgical properties will
also be affected.
3. The rate of cooling higher the rate of cooling, harder the HAZ especially C.E. of the steel is
high.
The HAZ in a weld zone on steel consist of up to four separate regions, starting from the area
immediately to the weld.
1. Coarse grained region heat between 1100C and melting point
2. Grain refined region - 900C to 1100C
3. Region of partial transformation - 750C to 900C
4. Region of spheroidization just below 750C
25. Describe briefly saw wire/flux + saw consumables
AWS A5.17.89 is a specification for carbon steel electrode and fluxes for SAW. The coding system
shows the flux capabilities when combined with a specific electrode.
Example coding
F7A6 EM12K or EC1 (Trade Name)
F Indicates flux
7 Indicates the weld metals minimum ultimate tensile strength in Kpsi x 10 (7x10=70Kpsi), when
using the flux with the electrode identified.
A Designates the condition of heat treatment to the weld or which test were conducted A is for as
welded and P for PWHT
6 Indicates the lowest temperature in degree Fahrenheit x 10 at which a charpy value of 27 J was
achieved.
E Indicates a solid electrode. EC would indicate a composite electrode
M This may be L, M, or H indicating Low, Medium or High manganese content
12 This may be one or two digits and nominal carbon content of the electrode i.e. 12 = 0.12%, 8 =
0.08%
K Indicates the electrode is made from semi-killed steel.
Additional flux Information
All fluxes to this specification must be of a granular nature and capable of flowing freely when used.
Particle size is to be a matter of agreement between the purchaser and supplier. The flux must permit
the production of smooth with depth of undercut. Fluxes are classified on the basis of mechanical
properties of the weld metal which they produce and therefore have to be shown in conjunction with
the electrode used. Fluxes used to this specification may contain fusible compounds of various
proportions. Some fluxes contain de-oxidisers, others do not and fluxes may react differently with
different electrodes and are voltage used. A change of arc voltage during welding will change the
amount of flux melted and may therefore change the composition of the weld metal. The effect of this
change allows fluxed to be described as neutral, active or alloy.
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Neutral fluxes
Neutral fluxes are those which do not produce any significant change in the weld metal chemical
analysis irrespective of arc voltage / arc length changes. Fluxes of this type contain little or no deoxidisers and rely on electrode for de-oxidation. They are mainly used for multi-pass welds
Active fluxes
Active fluxes contain manganese and silicon as de-oxidisers and the effect of those on the weld metal
will change as the arc voltage changes. These fluxes are used mainly for single pass welds.
Alloy fluxes
Alloy fluxes are those which can be used with a carbon steel electrode to produce a low alloy weld
metal as such they come under the scope of AWS a5.23, low alloy steel electrodes and fluxes for SAW.
Flux basicity or classification
Basic oxides tend to be more stable than acidic oxides. Fluxes for SAW may be classified as follows
1. acid general purpose use and for dirty (rusty) steel
2. neutral
3. semi basic improving quality
4. basic
5. high basicity maximum weld toughness and performance
26. Describe briefly fused and agglomerated flux for saw
Fused flux
Fused flux are manufactured as follows, the ingredients are mixed and melted at high temperature,
the mixture is then poured on to large chill blocks or directed into a steam of water to produce
granules which have a hard glassy appearance. The material is then crushed, sieved and packaged.
Advantages
Good chemical mix achieved
They do not attract moisture, (not hygroscopic) this improves handling, storage, use and weldability.
Any moisture present is easily removed by low temperature drying.
It is easy to remove impurities and fine particles etc. when recycling.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantage is the difficult in adding de-oxidants and Ferro-alloys. These would be lost
during the high temperature manufacture. The maintenance of a controlled flux depth is considered
critical.
Agglomerated flux
All the flux materials are dry mixed and then bonded with either potassium or silicate. They are then
baked at a temperature below the fusion or melting point and therefore remain as a powder, which is
sieved for size and packaged.
Advantages
Can be colour coded
Easy addition of de-oxidants and Ferro-alloys
Flux depth not co critical
Disadvantages
Tendency for flux to absorb moisture and difficult to re-drying procedure
Possibility of molten slag, causing porosity
Difficult recycling i.e. removal of impurities and sieving
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27. A failure has been occurred in service at 40c what is your evaluation on this?
Service temperature of the order of 40C tells that the failure most probably has occurred due to lack
of strength or toughness at that temperature. Compared to base metal a weld is always of irregular
shape and hence considered as irregularity or discontinuity in surface profiles. Any discontinuity
serves as a stress raiser when it comes across lines of stresses. The strength of material / metal would
drops at the locations of high stress concentration especially when temperature drops significantly. In
brief metal tends to lose its notch toughness. Hence our area of investigation should be notch
toughness of given weld at low temperature. This can be approached in following ways.
1. Verifying that WPS has recommended proper consumables to be used and all the essential
variables were adhered to.
1. heat treatment records and lap test reports if any
2. Review batch certificates for consumables used chemical composition and physical properties
certificates supplied by manufacturer (material test certificates)
3. hardness of the base metal and thickness in the rupture zone
4. suitability of material for the given service conditions
2. Location of failure should be inspected and point of initiation should be established
If the location of failure initiation happens to be without any defect viz., undercut or porosity then
failure can be attributed to sheer lack of low temperature strength and consumable giving higher low
temperature strength may be recommended and improvement in weld profile may also be advised.
However if the point of initiation happens to be a defect such as porosity or any sub surface defect
then corresponding radiograph for that section of weld may be closely examined and interpreted. In
such cases more stringent acceptance criterion may be recommended in addition to recommendations
mentioned above.
28. If you detect an arc strike what is the course of action?
If any arc strike is found on the parent metal is should be ground smooth and MPI is to be conducted
on the location, if it is a ferrous material. For S.S PT is to be conducted.
29. What are the documents required to do repair?
Approved repair welding procedure, qualified welders, method of exploration of defect, method of
defect removal, repair report.
30. What would be the result of using temperature 1300c in heat treatment?
Steel which are overheated above 1200C may suffer a permanent loss of toughness, distortion and
also forms large quantities of mill scale on their surface.
31. What are the differences between a welding procedure approval and a welder qualification
test?
The welding procedure approval test is carried out by a competent welder and the quality of weld is
assessed using non-destructive and mechanical testing techniques. The intention of the test is to
demonstrate that the proposed welding procedure will produce a welded joint which will satisfy the
specified requirement of weld quality and mechanical properties.
Welder approval test examines a welders skill and ability in producing a satisfactory weld. The test
may be performed with or with a qualified procedure, (Note: without an approval welding procedure
the welding parameters must be recorded.) welder approval must be done prior to start the welding in
production site. Welder should be qualified to do the task.
32. Can a non-approved welder be employed to perform welding test?
Yes
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33. Describe two method of producing approval procedures?
1. By using prequalified procedure
2. By establishing a procedure
3. By doing mock-up or by trial and error method
34. How to improve team spirit?
1. If there are aged and young inspectors in my team I will give more responsibility to aged one
than younger one so that everyone will get equal load with job according to their experience.
2. Off the job, play games like cricket, badminton etc. against inter department which will make
them united.
3. Once in a while call them for meeting to discuss the latest development
4. Motivate them by giving small incentives or gift at the end of project to encourage the team
work.
5. On special occasion arrange social programme against inter department.
6. Help them all personally without partiality
7. Discuss often their site problems
8. Offer them immediate rewards when they completed really risky and effective job
35. Going to sickness it has been necessary for you to replace a very experienced welding inspector
he has been responsible for carrying out all welder approval testing. his replacement has to
come from your existing staff that has not vast experience in this field
a. How would you instruct the replacement in his new duties and what critical points
would you emphasis?
Prior to assigning the job you would assess the inspector knowledge level in the welder approval test
and you would instruct to carry out and observe the following
1. Collect and go through relevant welding procedure specification and other procedures.
2. Prepare the measuring instrument those are required during the test for checking and
inspection tools like tongue tester, temperature indicating crayons, inspection mirror, torch
light weld gauges, measuring tape etc. and check their calibration validity.
3. Check the test piece material specification and dimension as per WPS.
4. Check the welding preparation for correct bevel angle, root face, root gap and mismatch.
5. Check consumable certificate such as filler wire, electrodes, fluxes and gases going to be
used for welder test.
6. Check fixing position of the test piece that is 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G and 6G etc.
7. Mark the bottom and top position in case of pipe
8. Measure heat input.
9. Final weld visual inspection
10. Mark welders name date WPS No and position
11. Prepare test report and submit to supervisor for record and NDE processing.
36. Define quantitative test and qualitative test
Quantitative Test
For measuring a quantity (quantity test = a mechanical property)
Typical mechanical testes
- tensile test
- hardness test
- charpy V notch test & CTOD
Qualitative test
For assessing joint quality (quality test = good fusion & free from defects)
Typical qualitative tests
- bend test
- macro examination (micro examination for some metals)
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-
fillet fracture & nick break test
37. What does a welding procedure consist of?

Welding procedure consist of
1. essential variables
2. non-essential variables
3. supplementary essential variables
Essential variables
A change in welding parameters which effects the mechanical properties of a weld are called
essential variables. E.g. process, type of material, electrode / flux, shielding gas, preheating, PWHT
etc
Non-essential variables
Changes in welding parameters, which will not affect the mechanical properties of the weld metal, are
called non-essential variables. E.g. groove angel, method of cleaning etc.
Supplementary essential variables
Supplementary essential variables are variables that have an effect on the impact properties of a
joint. They are classed as Non-Essential if impact testing is not required. The welding procedure shall
be attached with PQR to show the evidence that the procedure meets the mechanical properties
desired by the code / specification.
38. Give typical example of welder qualification range for a
a. thickness
b. diameter
c. process
Thickness - When welder is tested on thickness T he is qualified to weld two times the thickness
2T
Diameter when welder is tested on diameter D he is qualified to weld pipe size D/2 and above
Process welder is qualified to weld only which process he has been tested
39. Explain why the quality of the parent metal may affect the incidence of weld metal cracking?
Lower quality or dirty contaminated steels have a higher residual content e.g. sulphur, phosphorus
etc. due to the lower melting point of these impurities segregated into the centreline of the weld pool
during the solidification and will form a plane of low ductility which may crack when acted upon by
the normal transverse residual stress.
40. Explain purpose of preheat
Preheating involves heating the base metal, either entirely or just the region surrounding the joint to
a specific desired temperature, called the preheat temperature
Purpose
1. reduce the risk of hydrogen crack
2. reduce the hardness of the weld heat affected zone
3. reduce shrinkage stresses during cooling and improve the distribution of residual
If preheat is locally applied it must extend to at least 75mm from the weld location and be preferably
measured on the opposite face to the one being welded.
The selection of preheat temperature should be based on three factors listed in order of importance
1. composition and hardenability of the base or parent metal
2. the feasibility of post weld heat treatment
3. the size, thickness and configuration of the part to be welded
The temperature of the part can be checked by use of temperature indicating crayons (temp-sticks)
tough pyrometers or thermocouples.
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41. Explain PWHT
Post weld heat treatment is a process in which the metal in the solid state is subjected to one or more
controlled heating cycles after welding. This PWHT is normally carried out for the purpose of stress
relief and ensuring that the HAZ hardness is not too high for particular steels with certain service
applications. PWHT may also be used to produce certain properties such as softening after cold
working.
Few more advantages of PWHT
1. Improve the resistance of the joint to brittle fracture
2. Improve the resistance of the joint to stress corrosion cracking
3. Enable welded joints to be machined to accurate dimensional tolerances
Because the main reason for (and benefit of) PWHT is to reduce residual stresses, PWHT is often
called stress relief.
The following variables for PWHT must be carefully controlled
1. Maximum heating rate
2. Soak temperature range
3. Minimum time at the soak temperature (soak time)
4. Maximum cooling rate
42. Terms & definitions
Quality assurance
All the planned and systematic actions and activities required providing an adequate level of
confidence in a product, what is wanted?
Quality control
The operational techniques and activities used to fulfil quality. What must be done / controlled, in
order to achieve what is wanted
Quality control inspection
Quality control inspection as an activity such as measuring, examining, testing or gauging one or
more characteristics of a product or service, and comparing the results with specified requirements in
order to establish whether conformity is achieved for each characteristic.
In-process inspection
Inspection & surveillance carried out during production
Non-compliance
A written report that states that a clause or instruction in the contract documents, code or standard
cannot be or was not met.
NCR
A non-conformance report documents the details of a non-conformance identified in a quality audit or
other process review. The objective of the report is to make an unambiguous, defensible, clear and
concise definition of the problem so that corrective action can and will be initiated by management.
Concession
An agreed deviation (with the customer or client) from a pre-agreed path, or specification
Inspection specification
A document containing or referring to all information required in the level of inspection for a
product.
Certificate of conformance
A signed certificate, declaring that a product has been produced in accordance with a specification
Defect
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A welding imperfection that falls outside of a level of acceptance criteria in an applied standard
Minor defect
Unlikely to cause failure of the product
Major defect
Likely to cause failure, but small risk of loss of life
Critical defect
Extremely likely to cause failure, with high risk of loss of life
Audit compliance
It determines quality system complies with the applicable quality control procedures
Material specification
The specification applicable to a raw material which is used in the fabrication of a product
Auditor
The certified quality auditor is a professional who understands the standards and principles of
auditing and the auditing techniques of examining, questioning, evaluating and reporting to
determine a quality systems adequacy and deficiencies.
Calibration:
Operations for the purpose of determining the magnitude of errors of a measuring instrument, etc.
Validation:
Operations for the purpose of demonstrating that an item of welding equipment, or a welding system,
conforms to the operating specification for that equipment or system
Accuracy:
Closeness of an observed quantity to the defined, or true, value
43. As a team leader what steps you will take for improving quality?
a. If a member has to be replaced what all things to do?
b. What are the things you will brief in start of a job for your new member?
Actions to Improve quality
1. I conduct periodic and systematic audit, based on audit finds such non-conformance, any
other quality related issues, take preventive actions and avoid such things occur in future.
2. Conduct quality related meetings with inspectors, other department members, and look for
any ideas to improve quality or any quality related concerns they have in their job, take
necessary preventive actions.
3. Any complaints from clients / TPI or feedback from clients, take necessary preventive actions.
4. Technical information related to quality; circulate to all concern departments members
5. Conduct training programs for specialized jobs and critical jobs
6. Provide motivation, motivated employees provide a better working environment in addition to
the product or service output benefits
Actions with replacing member
Get hand over note from replacing member including the following
1. Hand over note including completed status, which was handled by him, current job status,
any quality related issues such as site query, concession request, NCR log etc.
2. Document management etc.
3. Contact details of client representative, contractor personal email address, contact telephone
numbers
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4. Contact details of replacing member for future reference
Actions for new member
1. Welcome and introduced to all staff including higher authority
2. Safety induction explain minimum PPE, emergency exit, and emergency contact numbers
3. Brief explain about work system organization chart, reporting channels etc.
4. Brief explain about project specification, quality control procedure, ITP, method statements,
safety procedures, quality management system and location available of those documents
5. Brief explain about site query, NCR log, WPS, PQR, and WQT records etc.
44. Misunderstand between NDT inspector and QC inspector, why is it rectified? How will you
rectify? explain briefly
Reasons to rectify
1. It will lead to miscommunication which will affect the quality of NDT such as wrong
identification of weld joint, wrong NDT method, wrong weld details.
2. Back log in work, substandard work output, work delay in schedule
Rectification measures
1. Conduct the meeting with QC inspector and NDT inspector
2. Open discuss with them, find actual problem
3. May have technical problem, communication problem like language problem or personal
problem like leave overdue, sick family reason
4. Analysis the root cause of problem and solve
5. Verify the correct system is followed, it not establish the system
6. Continuous monitoring the inspectors activities
45. Give brief describe of the difference between macro and micro examination also state the
purpose of the examination?
Differences
1. macro examination magnification is 10x or lower
2. micro examination magnification is greater than 10x usually 100x or higher
3. macro specimen need rough and ground with 80 grit finish
4. micro specimen need very fine grinding at 600 grit and polish / etching to produce a mirror
finish
Purpose of examination
1. Macro examination: to determine depth of fusion, depth of penetration, effective throat, weld
soundness, degree of fusion, presence of discontinuity, weld configuration, number of weld
pass etc.
2. Micro examination: to determine micro structural constituents, presence of inclusions,
presence of microscopic defects, and nature of cracking etc.
46. Describe briefly the duties of senior welding inspector
A senior welding inspector may be required to manage and control and lead a team of welding
inspectors who will look to him for guidance, especially on subjects of a technical nature. The SWI
will be expected to give advice, handle problems, take decisions and lead from the front. The SWI will
therefore require leadership skills in addition to technical experience. Senior welding inspector is
responsible for the following
1. Signing off the product
2. Prepare department budgets for personnel facilities and supplies
3. Assign work to the inspectors
4. Supervise and evaluate their work
5. Motivate staff to meet standards of quality and efficiency
6. Interlink with other departments to improve procedure and advice on quality problems
7. Receive complying item, understand the problems and establish corrective measures
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8. Review plant equipment condition, inspection reports for fitness to use during service
9. Prepare scrutinize documentation for quality
10. Participate in inspection and planning, reviewing and approve procedure which is prepared
by inspection department
11. Develop teak work, advice on training and other personnel qualification requirements
12. Ensure adequate safety precaution for all personnel
In other circumstances he may have a more technically demanding role that requires detailed
knowledge or particular activities
The technical skills required are:
1. Knowledge of technology
2. Knowledge of code of practice
3. Knowledge of planning
4. Knowledge of organization
5. Knowledge of auditing
Knowledge of technology required is similar to the welding inspector but with additional cope and
depth of
1. Commonly used NDT technique
2. Radiographic interpretation
3. QA/QC knowledge
4. Basic metallurgy of commonly used welded materials including assessment of fracture
surfaces.
Knowledge of code and practice the SWI should be aware of common standards applied in the
welding industry
Knowledge of planning planning of inspection will be required for all phase of inspection (pre-inservice-post)
Knowledge of organization organization skills are necessary to ensure their inspection requirement
of any plan can be met on time using the correct personnel for the job
Knowledge of auditing the knowledge of audit may involve in detailed checks of very limited area of
inspection to ensure that documentation produced meet the requirement of the specification
Leadership requires:
1. Ability to if so required
2. Willingness to direct
3. Acceptance of responsibility
4. Understand of problems
5. Ability to delegate willingness to trust staff
6. Commitment to oneself
47. A. on a material certificate following abbreviations APPEARS
a. What do they mean?
1. Re
2. Rm
3. Rp0.2
4. Z%
5. A%
6. CEV or CEQ
b. answer the below given questions
1. In a cross joint tensile test what dimensions and readings are taken?
2. Show how these are used to determine the tensile strength
3. Where would you normally expect the specimen to break?
Re means yield stress Reu = upper yield stress Rel = lower yield stress
Rm means ultimate tensile strength
Rp0.2 means proof stress 0.2% of gauge length
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Z% means reduction of area at the point of fracture or transverse ductility (>20% = high resistance
to lamellar tear)
A% means elongation of the gauge length or elongation ductility
To approve a butt welding procedure most of specifications such as ISO 15614 and ASME SEC. IX
require tensile tests to be carried out.
These are generally cross joint (transverse) tensile tests of square or rectangular cross section that as
the name suggests, are oriented across the weld so that both parent metals, both heat affected zones
and the weld metal itself are tested. The tensile test piece typical of the type specified by European
standards, such us EN 895, that specify the dimensions of the test pieces require all excess weld
metals to be removed and the surface shall be free from scratches. Test pieces may be machined to
represent the full thickness of the joint but for very thick joints it may be necessary to take several
transverse tensile test specimens to be able to test the full thickness.
While it is possible to measure the yield strength, the elongation and the reduction of area of
transverse tensile test specimens the fact that there are at least three different areas with dissimilar
mechanical properties makes such measurements inaccurate and unreliable, although this is
sometimes carried out purely for information purpose.
The specifications mentioned above require the UTS and the position of the fracture to be recorded.
If the test piece breaks in the weld metal, it is acceptable provided the calculated strength is not less
than the minimum tensile strength specified, which is usually the minimum specified for the base
metal material grade.
In the ASME IX code, if the test specimen breaks outside the weld or fusion zone at a stress above
95% of the minimum base metal strength the test result is acceptable.
In most situations the weld metal stronger than the parent metal it is overmatched so that failure
occurs in the parent metal or the HAZ at a stress above the specified minimum.
48. On a material certificate following terms may APPEARS:
a. normalised
b. quenched and tempered
c. as rolled
d. z quality
What are the meanings of these terms?
Normalised
It is a process of heating steel to about 40-50C above upper critical temperature holding for proper
time and then cooling in still air on slightly agitated air to room temperature. The resultant
microstructure should be pearlite. It is done for grain structure refinement, homogenization, removal
of residual stress and improved machinability. For plain steel the temperature for normalizing is
860-915C, and for alloy steels it is 870-925C
Quenched and Tempered
Quenching is a process of rapid cooling from austenising temperature, which results in the
transformation of austenite to martensite. During cooling, heat musts be extracted at a very fast rate
from the steel piece; and is possible when a steel piece is allowed to come in contact with some
medium which absorbs heat from steel within short period. The medium use for quenching is known
quench out. The quenchants used are liquids, air and gases are used in special case.
Quenching is a hardening treatment which develops maximum hardness, excellent wear resistance
and high strength levels in the steel, at the same time it adversely affects properties such as ductility.
Toughness and impact strength and also imparts brittleness because of internal stress developed by
quenching. Such a process, which consists of heating hardened steel below the lower critical
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temperature, followed by cooling in air is known as tempering. Tempering lowers strength and wear
resistance of the hardened steel marginally.
As rolled
As rolled means having improved low temperature toughness. A high strength steel plate of improved
low temperature toughness useful for making an grade line pipe provided with the addition of 0.8 -2%
by weight of nickel and 0.0005 0.0040% by weight of Ca., which may be used in the as rolled state
and manufactured through tow step controlled rolling the secondary step rolling of which is carried
out at a temperature lower than conventional rolling.
Z Quality
Z quality means low sulphur steel with a tested level of ductility through the Z axis of the plate
as opposed to the transverse on longitudinal axis, Z quality is determined by through thickness
tensile test hence sometimes known as through thickness tested plate.
49. On a construction site a member of your staff has issued an instruction that all MMA
electrodes have to be baked at 250C before use. the electrode in question are of the following
types:
a. aws 5.1 e6013
b. bs en 499 e423b (in standard packing)
c. bs en 499 e425ni b (in vacuum packs)
d. bs en 499 e352c
1. Do you agree with this instruction?
2. give reasons for your answer
I would not agree the instructions given that the above mentioned MMA electrodes to be baked at 250
degree Celsius before use
The reasons for my answer as described below:
1. the first given electrode details are AWS 5.1 E6013, it is a rutile electrode, since they have
high combined moisture and also contains up to 10% cellulose they cannot be baked as they
will not give a low Hydrogen weld deposit.
2. The second electrode is BS EN 499 E423B (in standard packing), it is a basic electrode and it
should be baked at 350 degree Celsius for up to 2 hours, since the packing is not sealed they
will not reach the end user a guaranteed low hydrogen condition, and should follow
manufacturer instructions.
3. The third electrode BS EN 499 E425Ni B (In vacuum pack), it is a basic electrode and need
no baking since it is vacuum packed.
4. The fourth electrode is BS EN 499 E352C, since it is a cellulose electrode it does not require
baking
50. Describe briefly
a. What are the principle reasons for specifying preheat and interpass temperatures in a
welding procedure?
b. how these temperature may be applied and controlled
c. Undercut has occurred along the top edge of a butt weld made by mma using 4mm
electrodes in the pc position in 25mm thick c/mn steel plate.
1. the preheat specified for the joint was 50c
2. The welder proposes to apply a cosmetic pass, to correct the defect using a
2.5mm electrode should he used no preheat, the same preheat as the original
weld or a higher preheat for this repair? justify your answer
a. the principle reason for specifying preheat and interpass temperature in welding procedure is
to reduce internal stresses and solidification cracks during and after welding
b. Preheat: before starting of the welding heat the weld face with flame /coil till the
temperature reaches to the specified in the WPS then stop the heating and start the root
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welding. If preheat is locally applied it must extend to at least 75mm from the weld location
and be preferably measured on the opposite face to the one being welded. Interpass
Temperature: Once the root is welded allow the weld to cool the job to required interpass
temperature mentioned in the WPS. And maintained the temperature till the welding is
completed for subsequent passes. This can be maintained by automatic heating system or
manual heating. The temperature range can be measured by temple sticks (Temperature
indicating crayons or touch pyrometers or thermocouples)
c. Whatever preheat temperature mentioned in WPS has to be applied even for repair
procedures also to control the weld properties.
51. List five items of information that could be recorded on an ultrasonic test report, which would
be never present on radiographic report?
a. couplant type
b. probe details: type, angle, size and frequency
c. scanning method/type
d. correction sensitivity (+2db)
e. db (disable)
52. What is the consideration for qa/qc and inspection department if it is required to increase the
toughness and tensile strength of welds on a specific type of component?
a. Select high tensile and toughness welding consumables and alloying elements which will
increase the toughness and tensile strength of the component.
b. Select the welding parameters to control the heat input and followed by PWHT, this will
increase the tensile strength and toughness.
c. Select suitable welding process.
d. Select the suitable joint design.
e. Make sure all the required parameters are followed in production.
53. Without approval of drawing piping fabrication has been completed. What will be your course
of action?
a. Raise a non-conformance report.
b. Check with approved drawing. If minor changes noted, which will not affect the product
design requirement accept as it is provided a deviation request to be raised and approved.
c. The changes to be incorporated in the as build drawing.
d. If any major changes noted compared with approved drawing, to be refabricated as per
approved drawing.
e. Concern person involved, to issues a warning letter,
f. Conduct meeting with all inspectors and make them awareness, such as things recur in future.
54. During an audit no material certificate was found. How would you proceed?
If material test certificate not available ask the supplier to provide it. If it is not available with
supplier then material should be sent to lab for verifying its chemical and mechanical properties. The
lab report shall be attached instead of MTC.
55. Why it is desirable to seal in a lamination which is found to break during edge preparation?
Lamination is to be seal welded prior to welding because these areas will open up during welding due
to the heat produced while welding.
56. In a welder approval test should the procedure be explained to the welder?
No. it is not necessary.
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57. State the objectives of

a. A reduced transverse tensile test
b. A radius reduced transverse tensile test
A reduced transverse tensile test specimen assesses the tensile strength of the joint. A radius reduced
transverse tensile test specimen assesses the tensile strength of the weld metal.
58. What is the purpose of all weld tensile test and a radius reduced tensile test?
An all weld tensile test is to measure the tensile strength of electrodes/flux combination and quality of
weld metal as deposited.
A radius reduced tensile test is to assess the tensile strength of the weld metal.
59. State three factors which contribute to or control the mechanical properties of wrought steel?
Wrought steel grain much refinement during the hot/cold working and many defects are also removed.
This improvement is marked in the rolling direction but is usually results in a loss of strength through
the thickness.
60. What is the metallurgical production cause of lamellar tearing?
Lamellar tear could cause due to the presence of inclusions of sulphur, phosphorus and higher
percentage of carbon.
61. Does a wrought plate contain residual stresses due to manufacture?
Yes.
62. Give the composition for tool steel?
0.8%Cr, 1.0%Mn, 0.4%C, 0.3%Mo + Ti or Al + residuals
63. If bend test failure has occurred what would be your course of action?
Set aside the piece, take one more test piece and repeat the test. Assess the failure, whether the failure
is within the weld metal, weld junction or in the HAZ. A retest is very much needed in case of failure.
64. In which steels can it be expected that hydrogen induced cracking is found in the weld metal if
present at all?
High strength Mn steels
65. State four mechanisms of cracking, which may be found in the weld metal of ferritic steel
weldments?
a. Hydrogen induced cracking
b. Solidification cracking
c. Solidification pipe or void
d. Reheat cracking
66. State six methods of procedure to avoid solidification or centreline cracking?
a. Control the sulphur content
b. Use consumable with high manganese
c. Keep manganese-sulphide: carbon ratio as low as possible
d. Minimise restraints
e. Use low dilution process
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f. Weld joints are thoroughly cleaned immediately before welding
g. Maintain proper width to depth ratio
h. Use preheat
67. State three methods of procedure for avoiding solidification pipe in weld metal?
a. Correct depth to width ratio
b. Correct bead shape
c. Correct surface chilling effect due to
1. No slag covers process
2. Gas not heated
3. Flow rate too high
68. State the four factors which give rise to hydrogen cracking and suggest how control can be
exercised?
Factors which raise the risk of hydrogen crack
a. Stress
b. Hardness
c. Hydrogen and
d. Temperature
Control methods
Minimise stress by
a. Pre-setting
b. Back stitch welding or back skip welding
c. Stringer bead
d. Improve joint design (using double side joint instead of single joint)
e. Reduce restraints (J preparation reduce included angle)
Minimize hardness by
a. Lower C.E
b. Limit heat input to 1.7kj/m ( avoid grain enlargement) use BS 5135 for preheat
Minimize hydrogen presence in three ways
a. Removal by a combination of preheat heat input (interpass temperature) and PWHT
b. Prevent entry by selection of process, consumable control, surface cleanliness and
welding technique (short arc)
c. Making hydrogen acceptable by control of formation of microstructure. Use austenitic or
nickel weld metal.
Temperature
a. Use post heating to maintain temperature and hydrogen defuse
b. Control the cooling rate
69. Why are austenitic SS electrodes sometimes specified for the welding of steels which might be
susceptible to hydrogen cracking?
Austenitic stainless steel can absorb more hydrogen than carbon steel.
70. In what way does the thickness of the metal influence hydrogen cracking?
Increases rate of cooling, larger volume of hydrogen and greater stress
71. In what steel group is PWHT almost always used?
Group 4 high carbon steel
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72. The high carbon no alloys the carbon content is critical. State the % of carbon which the
welding becomes very difficult?
Carbon content in excess of 0.45% becomes very difficult to weld.
73. State two results which may be expected from stress relief of welded products?
a. Will reduce internal stresses
b. Hydrogen is diffused
c. Grain refinement
74. State two types of cracking which can result from heat treatment?
a. Stress relief cracking or reheat cracking in steels containing chromium
b. Thermal cracking
75. What is the main advantage of using austenitic electrodes (for weld repair)?
The advantage of using austenitic stainless steel electrodes for repairs that hydrogen entering the
weld metal during welding is held in the weld metal and so will not diffuse in to the hardening HAZ.
Hence hydrogen cracking in the HAZ is unlikely to happen.
76. What is the main problem of weldability when using 18/8 type austenitic electrodes to repair
ferritic steels?
a. Solidification cracking
b. Weld decay
c. Reduces the corrosion resistance of weld metal
77. Why it is recommended that 29/10 is used for buttering and 18/8 is used to fill when using
austenitic electrodes for repair?
To avoid cracking, it is desirable (at least in joints with high restraint) to butter with an electrode
with high dilution tolerance and to make the closing weld with low strength electrodes.
78. Explain why the depth to width ratio of the bead is important?
To take care of residual stresses in welds which developed
a. Longitudinal along the weld
b. Across the weld
c. Through the weld
79. Outline metallurgical features of weld decay?
Weld decay: steels with high carbide forming characteristics such as these will react if the
temperature is allowed to dwell about 550C. If this occurs then the chromium is no longer available
for combination with oxygen for the reformation of the protective oxide and corrosion may result.
Weld decay: depletion of chromium carbides in stainless steel.
80. State three methods of avoiding weld decay?
a. Reduce the carbon content i.e. SS316L
b. Heat treatment 1100C and quench
c. To stabilize the steel by added Ti or Nb (to form carbides in preference to Cr carbides)
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81. Why backing gases are often specified when welding stainless steel?
a. To avoid contamination
b. To prevent formation of porosity
c. To avoid formation of oxides
82. Why carbon di oxide not normally uses as a shielding as when welding stainless steel?
To maintain low carbon
83. When stainless steel is welded to mild steel buttering is recommended why?
a. To seal carbon in
b. To stop dilution
84. When welding SS to a large root gap (3mm) are often used why?
Distortion closes gap
85. What is the essential feature of a stainless steel?
Chromium content (minimum 11%Cr is required to form SS and 29% is maximum) it react with
oxygen and produce chromium oxide which is protect the steel from rust.
86. What is the principle reason for the development of residual stresses in metals?
Metals contract during solidification and subsequent cooling, but if this contraction is prevented or
inhibited residual stresses will develop.
87. Name three directions of residual stresses in weld joints?
Normal welds develop residual stresses
a. Along the weld longitudinal residual stress
b. Across the weld transverse residual stress
c. Through the weld short transverse residual stress
88. What causes distortion in welded products?
The action of the residual stresses in the welded joints is to cause distortion
89. Give four consequences of using excessive current?
a. Excess spatter
b. Excess metal profile
c. Center line cracking
d. Undercuts
90. Give four consequences of using excessive arc length?
a. Unstable arc
b. Lack of penetration
c. Uneven profile bead
91. State the defects which occur when the tack weld is not correctly incorporated into the weld?
Lack of penetration or fusion
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92. Give three consequences of incorrect electrode angle?
a. Undercut
b. Spatter
c. Lack of penetration or fusion
93. Give one consequence of a) too fast travel speed and b) too slow travel speed?
a. Lack of penetration or fusion
b. Slag inclusion
94. What defect associated with excessively large size electrodes?
Lack of penetration
95. What defect is caused by inadequate cleaning between runs?
Slag inclusion
96. What defects can be caused by use of high welding speeds in saw process?
a. Lack of penetration or fusion
b. Undercut
97. What defects can be caused by the use of excessive gaps in saw process?
Excess penetration or burn through
98. What are likely causes of slag in the weld metal?
Slag inclusions, insufficient inter-run cleaning, poor bead profile (convex shape)
99. What adjustment must be made in submerged arc welding to reduce the bead width?
a. Lower the voltage
b. Increase the travel speed (if still within the parameters)
100.
What defects can be caused by a plate having poorly cut joint preparation?
Lack of penetration or fusion
101.
A weld is to be made on a close square butt joint with excessively high current, what defect
would occur?
Excess weld metal
102. What is the likely defect to be caused by an excessive flux burden?
Porosity
103. What is the critical level of hydrogen in a weld; can it be measured at any time or after stress
relief?
a. 5ml per 100gm of weld metal
b. All weld metal hydrogen diffusion test possible but not for the actual weldment
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104. Describe how and why hydrogen increases the incidence of hydrogen cracking?
Hydrogen in the weld/HAZ builds up internal pressure which could be higher than yield point of
metal low hydrogen would cause residual stresses.
105. Describe a heat treatment designed to remove hydrogen, when the treatment must is applied?
PWHT for 10-20-30 hours
106. Why basic hydrogen controlled electrodes must be kept at 150C?
Prevents reabsorbing of moisture (Hydrogen)
107. What are the causes of lamellar tearing?
Lamellar tearing is a defect in the parent metal of a weldment due to high through thickness residual
stresses and a low through thickness strength and ductility of the material arising from elongated
inclusions and bands within the steel.
108. Where lamellar tearing is found in a weldment?
The crack is stepped and parallel to the surface of the plate.
109. How do bands (segregation) within steel influence the incidence of lamellar tearing?
Low through thickness strength and ductility are arising from bands within the steel and of high
residual stress.
110. Can susceptibility to lamellar tearing be assessed by ultrasonic NDE?
No. (But I feel yes)
111. Can lamellar tear be detected by NDE?
Before welding cant be detected, after welding can be detected by ultrasonic NDE.
112. State three methods of avoiding lamellar tearing?
a. Reduce the residual stress by low restraints i.e. pre-setting rather than clamping by use of
gaps.
b. Buttering
c. Change the joint design
113. Name three types of stainless steel?
a. Martensitic
b. Austenitic
c. Ferritic
114. State the main weldability problem of the Fe11% chromium steels?
Hydrogen cracking
115. Name two methods of avoiding hydrogen cracking in martensitic stainless steel?
a. Control by hydrogen limitation i.e. the use of TIG welding process
b. Control by hardness, normal preheat and heat inputs, so select a very low carbon grade.
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116. Why do micro alloyed steels suffer hydrogen cracking in the weld metal?
In the micro alloyed steels the hydrogen is held in the weld metal and so hydrogen tends to be located
there also.
117. What are the factors which give rise to hydrogen cracking in alloyed steels?
In the HAZ the tensile residual stresses are across the weld, so the hydrogen cracks are along the
length of the weld. In the weld metal the tensile residual stresses are along the weld so the hydrogen
cracks are across the weld.
118. What are the two types of SAW flux?
a. Fused
b. Agglomerated
119. Why are the hydrogen cracks in the weld metal positioned across (transverse) the width of the
weld?
Hydrogen cracking is typically formed at right angles to the stress and is positively identified by its
transgranular appearance when viewed at X100 magnification. In ferritic steels hydrogen which
enters the weld metal during welding moves into the HAZ and due to, gas forming characteristics and
the residual stress, cracking may result.
120. State three items which may contribute to excessive hardness in a weldment?
a. Grain size
b. Quenching
c. C.E carbon and alloys
121. State two elements which cause centreline cracking?
a. Sulphur
b. Phosphorous
122. State the methods of minimizing solidification cracking?
a. Increase weld metal
b. Reduce the welding speed
c. Increase the manganese content of the weld pool
d. Use of cooling bars
e. Control the sulphur content
f. Keep manganese-sulphide: carbon ratio as low as possible
g. Minimise restraints
h. Use low dilution process
i. Weld joints are thoroughly cleaned immediately before welding
j. Maintain proper width to depth ratio
k. Use preheat
l. Reduce the amount of metal melted out of the parent metal by
1. skill/technique of the welder
2. reduce the amperage
123. A crack is observed along the centreline of the weld metal. Give two reasons for its formation?
When the weld metal has been deposited and its contracts during solidification it is vital that the
contraction and be fed by the depression of the outer surface
Contraction fed by the weld metal surface
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124. Give three reasons why pipe may form in the weld metal?
a. Premature freezing of the surface
b. Excessive depth of bead related to width
c. Bad bead shape
125. Give three reasons which contribute to premature freezing of the weld pool surface?
Premature of the surface due to
a. No slag covers i.e. the process
b. Gas not heated
c. Flow rate too high
126. Why ferritic material is usually added to austenitic electrodes?
To avoid centreline cracking
127. Why are austenitic electrodes used for welding carbon manganese steel?
To control the hydrogen level i.e. making the hydrogen level acceptable to avoid hydrogen cracking
128. When ferritic is added to electrodes what are two possible consequences?
It tends to avoid solidification cracking it does induce magnetism and makes the weld metal avoid so
reducing the corrosion resistance.
129. Why are small stringer beads usually recommended for SS weldments?
To reduce the level of heat input and avoid cracking
130. Describe the thermal conditions which give rise to weld decay in austenitic SS weldments
550 degree C for six seconds
131. State the special mechanical properties of 25%Cr in Fe alloys?
Ferritic SS is poor weldability due to cracking brittleness and temper embitterment. It is a single
phase alloy which is ferritic at all solid temperatures, so solidification cracking is a problem.
132. What is a specification?
Specification is a description of what to use in the making of a product i.e. type of material type of
process and type of consumables.
133. What is the extent of approval in a procedure?
Extent of approval is the range over which certain variables may alter without requiring new
procedure i.e. when there is a limitation in the welding qualification i.e.
a. The minimum and maximum diameter of the pipe that the test sample covers e.g. two inch
test piece would allow down 1 and upto 4
b. The test may only allow welding of consumables in the same grouping, any other
consumable would require retest
c. The use of set electrical characteristics would not allow change without retest
d. The direction of welding if changed may require retest
e. Change of material to be tested would require retesting
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134. When is a procedure to be re-established?
When there is change in following essential variables
a. Change of welding process
b. Change of shielding gases or fluxes
c. Change of direction of welding
d. Change in parent metal to be welded
e. Change in joint design
f. Change in welding consumables
g. Change welding parameter range
135. State the four factors which must be satisfied for good welds:
Fusion welding factors
a. Fusion (melting) the metal must be melted which requires a high intensity of heat
source.
b. The process must remove any oxide and other contaminants from the joint faces
c. Contamination by the atmosphere must be avoided
d. The welded joint must possess adequate properties
136. If visual examination of weld is not possible how will you ensure that the joint is okay?
It can be examined by appropriate NDT methods like RT or UT etc
137. What are minor defects?
Misalignment (linear & angular), slag, porosity etc
138. What are the major defects?
Lack of side wall fusion, overlap, lamination, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of penetration and
incomplete fusion
139. What is the course of action if the weldment has been accepted or rejected?
Inspection results to be recorded in an approved format. If the sample is rejected then the type of
defect and the location has to incorporated in a sketch and the report to be given for further remedial
action
140. What features of steel determine its weldability?
Carbon content & carbon equivalent
141. What is the main advantage of using 29/10 type austenitic electrodes to repair ferritic steels?
The defects of dilution will be lower the alloy content of the weld metal during cooling so it is
advisable to use it.
142. What is the difference between inspection for quality control and inspection for fitness for
purpose?
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143. Describe the relationship between the four essential factors involved in the formation of
hydrogen induced cold cracking.
144. Discuss the reasons for the existence of arc blow and state possible methods of minimising arc
blow.
145. Welder used cellulose electrode instead of low hydrogen electrode. Suggest corrective action
and your course of action in it?
a. Raise Non conformity report
b. Further investigation to be done to identify any other joints welded.
c. Analysis and identify the root cause for this incident
d. Check with approved drawing, product specification and welding procedures specifications.
If welding procedure specification available for this electrode and product design
requirement accept as it is provided a deviation request to be raised and approved.
e. If the specifications not allowed, the entire joints which is identified to be refabricated as per
approved specification.
f. The changes to be incorporated in the as built drawing.
g. Move welder for training and requalification
h. Issue a strong warning letter to Concern person involved.
i. Conduct meeting with all inspectors and make them awareness, such as things recur in future.
j. Document all the above and close the NCR
146. Name four commonly used NDT methods and list their advantages and disadvantages?
NDT METHOD
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Inexpensive Highly portable Immediate Surface discontinuities only Generally
Visual
results Minimum training Minimum
only large discontinuities
part preparation
Misinterpretation of scratches
Portability
Locates surface breaking defects only
Dye Penetrant
Inexpensive
Little indication of depths
Sensitive to very small discontinuities
Direct visual detection of results
Simple to use
required
Quick results
Penetrant may contaminate component
Can be used on any non-porous
Surface preparation critical
material
Post cleaning required
Low operator skill required
Potentially hazardous chemicals
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Magnetic
Particle
Eddy Current
Ultrasonic
Radiographic
Test
Can be portable
Low cost
Sensitive to small discontinuities
Immediate results
Moderate skill required
Detects surface and subsurface
discontinuities
Relatively fast
No harm to test piece
Portable
Detects surface and subsurface
discontinuities
Moderate speed
Immediate results
Sensitive to small discontinuities
Thickness sensitive
Accurate conductivity measurements
Can detect thorough several layers
Can be automated
Can detect thorough surface coatings
Little pre-clean required
Portable
Inexpensive
Sensitive to very small discontinuities
Immediate results
Little part preparation
Wide range of materials and thickness
can be inspected
Permanent record
Internal flaws
Can be used on most materials
Direct image of flaws
Real time imaging
Minimum part preparation
Surface must be accessible

Rough surfaces interfere with test Part
preparation required (removal of
finishes and sealant, etc.)
Semi- directional requiring general
orientation of field to discontinuity
Ferro-magnetic materials only
Part must be demagnetized after test.
Surface must be accessible to probe
Very susceptible to permeability
changes
Only works on conductive materials
Will not detect defects parallel to the
surface
Not suitable for large areas and /or
complex geometry
Signal interpretation required
No permanent record (unless
automated)
Skill and training required
Surface must be accessible to probe
Rough surfaces interfere with test
Highly sensitive to sound beam
discontinuity orientation
High degree of skill required to set up
and interpret
Couplant usually required
Health hazard
Sensitive to defect orientation
Limited ability to detect fine cracks
Access to both sides required
Limited by material thickness
High degree of skill and experience
required for exposure and
interpretation
Relatively slow
Depth of discontinuity not indicated
High capital outlay and running costs
147. Explain hardness and hardenability

a. Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation,
penetration, indentation, and scratching.
b. Hardenability is a term used to describe a material's ability to be hardened when it is exposed
to heat and then quenched, or cooled rapidly.
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