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In this case, they form no hydrogen bonds, no dipole interactions, so they rely of London forces.
They both have the same number of electrons, however butane is more able to pack together
because of it's straight chain. 2-methly-propane has a side chain which will not allow to pack as
well as the butane. Therefore the London forces are stronger in butane, so it has a higher BP.
2-methlypropane and Butane
In this case it's pretty simple as NH3 forms hydrogen bonds with itself because of the electron
negative nitrogen bonded to the hydrogen. Whereas CH4 only forms weaks london forces between
the molecules. Remember that NH3 will still have London forces, however the hydrogen bonds
is the major factor.
Do they hydrogen bond? Do they form normal dipoles IMF? How strong are their London Forces?
NH3 and CH4
Experimental Error
Why might the lattice energy be higher than expected expermientaly compared to the
theoritcal model?In ionic compounds which have polarisation of the anion (happens in Silver
compounds, eg AgI), by the cation, they will have a degree of covalent bonding. Covalent bonding
isn't considered in the theortical model, so is lower.
Why might a standard enthalpy of combustion be lower than expected compared to book
values?
Firstly, there will be heat lost to the surroundings, because as you burn the substance, heat is
beating lost by the water. Some heat may be absorbed by the container, however this can be
minimilsed. Another aspect is that it may produce water in the gas state. Water is liquid is standard
conditions. In the gas state it will have a higher enthalpy, so if we measure the change when in
gas state, we go a less exothermic reactions, as we haven't considered the energy that would be
released when water condenses to a liquid.
The manganate(VII) ion is a purple colour. In the reaction it will be reduced to a brown Manganese
(IV) ion (in an oxide compound). So the reaction will turn from Purple to Brown.
In the reaction between aqaous KMn2O7 and an Alkene, what colour change would be seen
as the reaction progresses? And Why?
Ion Colours
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Catalysts
There are groups: homogenous and hetrogenous.
How do homogenous catalysts work?
They provide an alternative mechanism/route of reaction, which has a lower activation energy.
The catalyst is restored at the end of the mechanism. It follows in hess's law that the reactions
will have the same overall enthalpy change, however it has gone by a different route. The lower
activation energy means more successful collisions occur which increase the rate of reaction.
How do hetrogenous catalysts work?
They work by providing active sites on which molecules of different states reaction. They can
decrease activation energy by have polar groups which polarises the bonds (enzymes use this
method often). Overall it increase the rate of collision and activation energy, so increases rate of
reaction.
Under standard conditions (298K, 1atm pressure), 1 mole occupies 24Dm3. = 24000cm3 = 0.024
M3
One mole of Gase always occupy the same volume (if at the same pressure).
Therefore 100cm3 = 0.1 Dm3!
1dm3 = 0.001M3
1cm3 = 0.001Dm3
How do you convert between Cm3, Dm3, and M3? (useful stuff)
I've just began remembering when I work with something like I2, I need to consider I have two
iodine atoms. sigh
Lattice Energy
The enthalpy change of a substance when one mole of solid substance is formed from its gasous
ions which are an indefinte distance apart.
eg Mg2+ (g) + 2Cl-(g) --> MgCl2(s)
What factors effect Lattice Energy?The size of the ions. Smaller ions have larger lattice energys.
This the attraction between the smaller ions is stronger, due to the smaller ionic radius as less
shielding occurs in bonding.
The degree of polarisation. In compounds such as AgI(s), when it forms it's ionic lattice, the
polarisation of the iodide ion for the Ag+ ion, will cause a degree of covalent bonding which is
additional to the ionic attraction.
The arrangement of the ions. If there is a small anion, and a large cation, it would have a different
ionic coordination number, compared to a compound with a two large ions.
The charge of the ions. A Cl- ion, will feel a greater attraction for a Mg2+ ion, rather than a Na+
ion, (even though they are isoelectronic), because of the extra charge. MgCl2, has a much higher
lattice energy than NaCl.
ALKENES produce a DIRTIER flame than ALKANES (due to carbon ratio higher in alkenes).
Mg - No colour Ca - orange Sr - Red Ba - Apple green
Li - Red Na - yellow K - Lilac
NOW FOR FLAMES
MORE COLOUR
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Why might ethane be a product? two CH3* radicals can colide to form C2H6! Crazy.
Cl* + Cl* --> Cl2 CH3* + Cl* --> CH3CL
What is this stage called? propogation! Why do we know this happens?! No H* radicals form
CH4 + Cl* --> HCl + CH3* CH3* + Cl2 --> CH3CL + Cl*
Why wouldn't this reaction happen in the lower atmopshere?! Not intense enough UV! What
type of bond breaking is this called?! homolytic!What stage is this called?! initiation!
Cl2 --> 2Cl* (imagine the star is a dot for free radicals). UV LIGHT NEEDED.
The most interesting bit of alkane chemistry. All a bit dull really...
Describing Reactions
Always a bit tricky.
What would you SEE, as Mg(NO3)2 is heated?!
The equation would be... 2Mg(NO3)2 --> 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
So, the white salt MELTS (a white solid would form ias MgO, however you wouldn't see this until it
cools). NO2 is a BROWN gas. O2 is invisible, sad :( Although we all know the test for oxygen YAY!
What would you SEE, as you add Bromoethane, water and Silver nitrate?!
Without know the equations you can guess that a bromide ion will reaction with the Ag+ ion, to
form a cream precipitate!
CH3CH2Br + H2O --> CH3CH2OH + Br- + H+ Br- (aq)+ Ag+ (aq)--> ArBr (s)
Alcohol Oxidations
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Thermal Stabilty
Touched on some thermal decomposition there...
Nitrate Decompostion.
In Group 1 --> Nitrite forms and oxygen. Except in Li+, (more polarising, smaller ionic radius etc),
which forms NO2 and O2 and Li2O
In Group 2 --> Form NO2, O2 and the metal oxide. (more polarising, greater charge, more
distoration of bonds, which weakens them)
Carbonate decomposition
Group 1 --> Only Li is polarising enough to allow thermal decomp. It follows the equation:
Li2(CO3) --> Li2O + CO2
Group 2 --> All are polarising enough.Do test form limewater, and the salt melts (but MgO forms
as a white solid) Follow the equation:
Mg(CO3) --> MgO + CO2 (bit dull).
Teritary > Secondary > Primary Iodo > Bromo > Chloro NOTE: PRIMARY CHLORO's REACT
VEYRY SLOWLY WITH WATER.
Speed of reactions are similar to the hydroxide subs as easiler.
The section is a precipitate reactions. The Br- ions are formed from the first reaction.
This first reaction is a nucleuphilic subsitition.Water can act as a nucleuphilc because it has a
donateable lone pair of electrons. (Well, two really but we only need one).
Iodine you get yellow Chloride you get white!
Br-(aq) + Ag+(aq) --> AgBr(s) (cream precipitate)
CH3CH2CHBrCH3 + H2O --> CH3CH2CHOHCH3 + H+ + Br - (hydrobromic acid is mostly
dissociated in water)
Throw all these in together and you get...
Group 7 Properties
Chlorine - A gas at room temperture. Pale Green. Toxic. And it's pale green as a solution also.
Quite reactive as it has quite a smaller atomic radius which allows it to attract electrons nicely. In
Hexane it is also pale green.
Bromine - Bit of a mix at room temp. In a dynamic eqilibrium in a closed system, with brown gas
and a brown liquid interchanging. In hexane it is orange. In water solution it is also orange.
Iodine - Purple solid at room temp. In aqua it's brown. In hexane it's violet.
HALIDES DISSOLVE BETTER IN HEXANE/NON-POLAR SUBSTANCES. If you mix Bromine
in water it will be an orange liquid. Now add a hexane layer on top and shake. The water layer will
become colourless as the bromine dissolves in the hexane. The hexane layer will become orange.
Add NaI and Br2 in aqua solution and the solution will turn brown as the I2 molecules form. Add
hexane and shake and the bottom layer will become colourless (Halide ions themselves have no
colour, as the I- and Na+ will be (aq) ions). The hexane layer will become violet.
Metal with WaterMg + 2H2O --> Mg(OH)2 + H2 (more vigerous down the group) (group 2
hydroxides become more soluble down the group and more vigerous reactions)
Oxide with waterMgO + H2O --> Mg(OH)2 (magnesium hydroxide)
Metals decomposition2Mg(NO3)2 --> 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2 MgCO3 --> MgO + CO2 (how boring)
Test with limewater. To test speed of Decomp, collect gas over water.
Metal oxides are BASEMgO + 2HCl --> MgCl2 + H2OMgO + H2SO4 --> MgSO4 + H2O
I lie. Here are some lovely Group 2 Reactions which are pretty dull :(