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    Hydrothermal Minerals and Microstructures

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    Hydrothermal Minerals and Microstructures

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    Hydrothermal Minerals and Microstructures

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    Hydrothermal minerals and microstructures in the Silangkitang geothermal field along the Great Sumatran fault zone, Sumatra, Indonesia D.E. Moore* S. Hickman DA, Lockner US. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA P.F. Dobson’ Unocal Geothermal and Power Operations, Santa Rosa, California 95401, USA ABSTRACT Detalled study of core samples of slllte (uff recovered from three geothermal wells along the strike-slip Great Sumatran fault zone near Silangkitang, North Sumatra, supports a model for enhanced hydrother- mal circulation adjacent to this major plate-boundary fault. Two wells (A and C) were dritied nearly vertically ~1 km south- west of the eastern (Le. the principal) fault trace, and the third, directional well (B) was dritled eastward from the site of well ‘A to within ~100 m of the princlpal fault trace. The examined core samples come from depths of 1650-2120 m at measured well temperatures of 180-320 °C. The sam- ples collected near the principal fault trace hhave the highest temperatures, the largest ‘amount of secondary pore space that cor- relates with high secondary permeability, fand the most extensive hydrothermal min- eral development. Secondary permeability, and the degree of hydrothermal alteration decrease toward the southwestern margin. of the fault zone. These features Indicate eplsodic, localized flow of hot, possibly CO;tich flulds within the fault zone, The microstructure populations Mentified In the ‘core samples correlate to the subsidiary fault patterns typical of strike-slip faults, ‘The geothermal reservoir appears to be centered on the fault zone, with the prin= cipal fautt strands and adjoining, highly Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA. fractured and hydrothermally altered rock serving as the maln condults for vertical fluld flow and advective heat transport from deeper magmatic sources. Keywords: hydrothermal conditions, Indo- nesta, mineral assemblages, strike-slip faults, Sumatra, INTRODUCTION ‘The Great Sumatran fault zone isan active, nonhwest-trending, rightlateral strike-slip fat that accommodates the are-parallel com= ponent of oblique subdoction at the Java ‘Trench (Fig. 1). The fault is close to the axis ‘of the magmatie are on Suara, and the con centration of features such as hot and warm springs, fumaroles, and altered rock inthe vi- city of the fault zone suggests its potential san important source of geothermal energy (Hochstein and Sudarman, 1993), In 1993, ‘Unocal entered into a contract with Peramina ‘and PLN, the Indonesian state-owned oil and ‘power companies, respectively, for explora- tion and development of geothermal energy in ‘the Sarulla area of North Sumatra (Gunderson ct sh, 1995, 2000). Unocal subsequently af- forded the US. Geological Survey the oppor- tunity to examine petrographically 13 core somples recovered from three exploratory ‘geothermal wells. ‘Much recent emphasis has been placed on the possible role of fluids in the earthquake cycle and conversely the role of fault zones in focusing fluid flow in the crust (Hickman et al, 1995, and references therein), Many ofthe observations used to model the hydrologic (GSA Balen; September 2001; v. 113; no. 9; p. 1179-1192; 13 figures; | table For persia w copy cont eng @ gsc ng "© 201 Gell Soe of Ameren propenies and mechanical behavior of fauit zones at depth are derived from exhumed futs (e.g Chester etal, 1993; Evans et al 1997; Schulz and Evans, 1998) whose mineral assemblages, microstructures, and physical properties may have been modified since the time of active faulting. Unocal’s Sitangkitang ‘core samples, akhough few, afford usa unique limpse of an active strike-slip, plate-bound- ary fault zone and its environs at depth. The specific objectives of this study are to (1) ‘characterize the distribution and nature of by- ‘cause the solubility of anhydrite decreases with decreasing pressure, it may precipitate in areas where pressure drops rapidly (Rimstidt, 1997), and the anhydrite in well B occurs preferentially in the larger open fractures and void-tich breeciated zones, In well A, as noted previously, ‘change in Quid chemistry may have led to the crystallization of traces of pyrite and other sulfurbearing minerals. Other, possibly tem- perature-elated changes in well A samples in- Clude the increase in An content of hydro- thermal plagioclase with time and the transition from Kemica + TiO, to chlorite + Aitaite assemblages after biotite with increas ‘ng depth and perhaps with time. Fracture Types and Orientations within ‘the Great Sumatran fault zone Subsidiary shears with characteristic offset irections and orientations in. simple-shear systems have been identiied within natural and laboratory fault zones (Fig. 11) (eg. Lo- gan et sl, 1979; see summary by Sylvester, 1988), In a series of rotary shear experiments employing photoelastic sensors, Mandl et al. (1977) demonstrated that in a simple-shear system, ¢, is reoriented such that it makes a 45° angle to the shear direction at the time of peak stress. Tensile fractures (T) form parallel to 6,, and the R, Y, and P traces all have the same sense of offset as the shear zone (Fig. 1). ¥ traces are nearly parallel tothe overall strike of the fault zone, whereas R and P trac es make small o moderate angles of opposite sign relative tothe strike of the fault zone. The Rand R’ traces are generally equated with Coulomb shears (Hansen, 1961; Morgenstern and Tehalenko, 1967; Tehalenko, 1970). Dur- ing laboratory faulting experiments, the R. traces typically form fist, followed by P and. then Y traces (e.. Morgenstern and Tehal- ‘enko, 1967; Manal et al, 1977). As discussed by Tehalenko (1970) and Wallace (1973) the intemal features of a fault zone may be scale invariant, that is, the same geometry develops. at scales ranging from millimeters to kilome- ‘ters. Fortis discussion, we consider the Great Sumatran fault zone to span the 46-km-wide Geological Society of America Bulletin, September 2001 HYDROTHERMAL MINERALOGY AND MICROSTRUCTURES ALONG GREAT SUMATRAN FAULT Figure 11. Letter4abeling scheme that Is commonly used fo refer to subsidiary faut traces with specie orientations and offset directions relative to the overall strike of ‘the fault zone, adapted from Logan et al (1979). The YR, and P traces are typically the most commonly observed traces In a sven fault zone, and they have the same sense of displacement as the fault. The ¥ traces are subparalel to the strike of the fault zone, and both Rand P traces typ cally are oriented at angles of <35", but vith opposite sins to the fault strike, Frac- tures labeled T are tensile cracks. The R and R! teaces are considered to correspond to Coulomb shears. The X traces were add- ed by Logan et ah. (1979) principally for symmetry; such traces are rarely found In cliher natural ar laboratory full. zone between the western and eastern fault strands (Fig, 2B) and all Unee wells to be af- fected by the stress flelds within the fault zone, This assumption is consistent with re- Cent repors ofa rotation ofthe maximum hor- onal stress associated with the San Andreas fault in central and southern Califoria from, ~60°-50" to the strike of the fault in the far field to ~40°-50° in a zone a few kilometers” ‘wide centered on the fault (e.8. Provost and. Houston, 1999; Hardebeck and Hanksson, 1999). From comparison with Figure 12, the lef slip fractures in Figure 7 may correspond to IR" traces, and the right-slip ones, with their wider range of orientations to R, ¥, or P trace es. This correspondence suggests that poten ly the core sample can be oriented relat to the strike of the Great Sumatran faut zone, according to the relationships in Figure 11. ‘The process is tustrated in Figure 12, A and B, forthe A-4 and C-1 stereonets of Figure 7, respectively; an average strike of N38°W for the fault zone neat Silangkitang was assumed, and each stereonet was rotated about a verical axis until the tensile microcracks made a 45° angle to the strike of the fault. The arrange- ‘ment of shear planes in Figure 11 tooks the same when the figure is rotated 180% thus, ‘wo possible matches exist for each piece of ‘core, the one illustrated andthe second at 180° Figure 12. Microstructural data from Figure 7 reortented such thatthe tensile microcracks (1) are at 45° to the strike of the Great Sumatran fult 2one (GFSZ), shown as a dashed line. Letter labels are assigned to the offset arrows according to the scheme in Figure 11. Samples: (A) A-f; (B) C-1; (C) and (D) attempts to restore the stereonet for B-B (core from the deviated well to Its possible original orientation (see text). For C, the stereonet ‘was first rotated 12° clockwise, followed by a second rotation to make the core dip 60° in. the dicection S84°E. In D, the initial rotation was 82° + 180° clockwise, and then the core ‘was rotated to a 60° dip. The relative ages of the macroscople fractures in B-8 are noted fn the same way as in Figure 7. rotation to the first. For A-4 and C-1, which ‘come from wells that were drilled neatly ver- tically, the 180° rotation only affects the di- rection of dip of the macroscopic fracures, which are plotied as great circles on the ster cones, In the absence of borehole image data from these wells against which to compare our relative fracture orientations, three-limension- al information on the micrafault orientations ft paleomagnetic messurements might aid in the identification of a single preferred orien tation for a given core sample, but such an analysis Is beyond the scope of this sty. ‘An additional step is required in the atempt to orient the well B samples, because the orig- Jnl fracture measurements assumed a verical core axis, whereat well Bis inclined at ~60" inthe diection S84"E. To produce Figure 12C from Figure 7B, the steeonet first was aligned roughly consistent withthe strike ofthe Great 51 Society of America Bulletin, September 2001 ‘Sumatran fault zone by rotating it 12° elock- ‘wise about a vertical axis, The sterconet was ‘then rotated 30° counterclockwise about a hor- izontat axis trending N6°E, to account for the inclination of the well, For Figure 12D, the stereonet was first rotated 12° + 180° clock- ‘wise about the vertical axis and then 30° coun terclockwise about the N6°E horizontal axis In both cases, the second rotation about the horizontal ais shifted the strike ofthe tensile cracks by 1 (Overall, the macroscopic fractures in Figure 12D dip moore steeply than those in Figure 12, making Figure 12D more consistent with the fracture patterns ofthe well A and well B ‘examples (Fig. 12, A and B), Moreover, the four relatively young macroscopie fractures in Figure 12C not only are relatively shallow dipping (20°=60"), but they ate aso oriented at large angles t0 the strike of the Great Su- 1189 ‘matran fault zone la contrast, those same four fractures in Figure 12D have dips of 60°-80°, and thee strikes are similar to that ofthe fault zone. The second case (Fig. 12D) may there- fore be the more reasonable choice of the two. One addtional feature of Figure 12D is tht, witha couple of exceptions, the strikes ofthe rmacroscopie fractures shift in a countercloe ise direction from oldest to youngest. The significance of such a trend isnot clear at this In laboratory shearing experiments, which typically are conducted at elevated confining pressures, R’ and P traces are relatively un ‘common features (e.g., Moore and Byerie, 1991, 1992), and Vialon (1979) and Gamond (1983) have suggested that the development ‘of P and R’ traces is suppressed in fault zones. Where dilaton is inhibited, As illustrated by the arrangement of offset arrows in Figure 12, the microcracks with measurable offsets clude several lef-lateral R’ traces as well as some rightIateral traces. whose orientations correspond most closely to P traces. This find ing is consistent with the location of the wells Within the extensional environment ofthe Sa- nulla graben (Gunderson et al., 2000), ‘The Hydrothermal System and the Great ‘Sumatran Fault Zone Figure 13 illustrates the possible relation- ships between wells A and B in a schematic, east-west cross section (section fine shown in Fig. 2B). The fluid reservoir for the Silang- kiting geothermal feld has an elongate form, ‘underlying the 1 km X 4 km band of surface feothermal features that follows the main trace of the Great Sumatran fault zone (Fig. 2B). The well B core samples, therefore, may lie directly above the reservoir, and ther high secondary permeability, which provides a con- duit for the geothermal fluids, can be ex- plained by their postion within the fault zone. Extumed strike-slip fault zones in erystalline rocks tend to be characterized by a narrow, ‘gouge-bearing core surrounded by a wide damage zone of fractured country rock (€-., Chester and Logan, 1986; Chester et al 1993). Within the damage zone, fractures are reopened or new ones created during succeed- ing earhquakes. Lockner et al. (2000) mea- sured the permeability of core samples from the Nofima fault zone of Japan, which rup- tured during the 1995 Kobe earthquake. They found that the matrix permeability of gran iorite from the damage zone, which con tained abundant grain-scale microcracks, is four to five orders of magnitude higher than that of the country rock. Interaction between, 1190 MOORE eta Elevation (m) ‘ecreasng secondary permeabty Upward, focus flow lof hyrochermal Mus Figure 13, Schematic, east-west crass section near wells A and Bi (section tine shown In Fig. 28), Two subsidiary fault strands crossed during the drilling of well I are situated ‘between well A and the principal trace; the more easterly strand is Interpreted to be the ‘one encountered ~40 m west of sample Ret. Tertlary (T) sedimentary rocks were en~ ‘countered In the lowermost 100 m of well A, und the Paleozoic (Pz) sequence may begin ~100 m below well A. Arrows at the top show secondary permeability and the Intensity (of hydrothermal overprint decreasing westward from the principal trace stepwise changes ‘may occur at the two fault strands. Ascent of hot, hydrothermal flulds from a large res- cervole Is focused between the eastern subsidiary trace and the principal ult trace (see ‘Gunderson et al, 1995, 2000). The Intensity of fracturing (Indicated by the concentration of short, slid tines) appears to diminish away from this primary fault zone and could in ‘part account for the lower amount of water-rock internetion observed in well A. the principal fault trace and the subsidiary {fault strand immediately west of it may further enhance the permeability ofthe examined well B samples (cg. Curewitz and Karson, 1997). Given their positions farther from the prin- cipal trace, the well A and well C core sam- ples would be expected to have permeability closer to that of the country rock than those from well B, which is in general agreement tbe petrographic observations. The well CC driting ste is closer to.@ mapped subsidiary fat trace than the well A sie, which may explain is slightly higher inferred fracture permeability. On the basis ofits hydrothermal rineral assemblage, the well C sample has in- teracted with fvids whose composition was similar to those present in well B but to & lesser extent and at a lower temperature. If wells B and C do receive fuids from the same reservoir, smaller amount of id that large~ ly moves in a diffusive manner through the primary rock porosity could account for the lowertemperature alteration of well C. ‘The somewhat distinctive alteration mineral assemblage of well A suggests that this part of the Silanghitang geothermal system may Geological Society of America Bulletin, September 2001 rove saquioidag “upaung souauy Jo Ayo0$ 1248002 ay jd yo gua pr Ae IE Sheen ee en fd ge p99 ony sndey ote gtd SotEO 2 3 rina apubono sadn pe sae) “ae WTS POE NH SEATED "A TS" stl 4 95 ABHEAD HSH | ‘aan wean po Hmpomey HELIA “Sine eer ny “OY rg por a'y “onder oon ny vo Hew roe ‘Sos anor Jo seg 30 Veat F HN "ree 18-1 erm mais Kas nny oo “oy Mond napa ox ee sy Pow Ba, ‘pt bot pe INS ae" Sete moi pow soos Same eat =F 24 ‘avrg sg 4b wenoje op or spade ‘exons sf rs) tuum Sey UUs) "VE ADEN ‘Oa “dr a soRungan sims Jon Sirngmn eot “s Smmees por eR oneti-hsch “wo gumoy option Jo rug oo ‘pi yo mous} unary. 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ASHE Simandunal, TO. and Baer A, 1996, Conran ‘eri ule Inthe Renee cron eo

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