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Romanticism and Realism (1800-1890)

In the late 1700s in Europe and a few years later in America, numerous
advances in the sciences led to new ideas about how the Earth was
formed and about the position of humanity in relation to the universe and
our own world. Forward looking people began to realize the Earth is an
ancient place. A new fascination arose regarding the natural world. Also,
as people migrated to the larger cities, people wanted to be reminded of
the beautiful countryside, far from muddy city streets full of horse
droppings, running sewage, and air full of coal soot and smog. Most of
todays modern cities are clean and livable in comparison. Innovation
created new wealth, and these people wished to adorn their walls with
objects of beauty including landscape paintings. This new outlook created
the perfect conditions for landscape art to assume the highest position in
the minds of the wealthy art collectors. Religious themes assumed a less
important role as a result.
A new generation of landscape painters arose not only to meet the
demand, but also to create landscape art for its own sake. During the first
half of the 1800s, landscape art became more realistic, even reaching
levels of hyperrealism as artists strove to bring back dramatic vistas from
every corner of the world. In the second half of the century, photography
began to have an impact on landscape painting and changed it forever.
The first movement of this century in landscape painting was
Romanticism. The irony is Romanticism was a reaction against the stark
realism of modern science during a period of scientific advancement! It
emphasized emotions such as awe and rapture. So the move into nature

that occurred because of scientific discoveries led to a deeper probing

into human emotion regarding our natural surroundings.
The second movement of the century in landscape painting was Realism.
This happened at the same time as Romanticism but usually with
different artists in different places. While some painters were seeking
romance in the landscape, others were precise students of the form and
function of the natural world. Todays photographers also fall into similar
categories at times. The realists strove to faithfully record the landscape,
plants and animals for posterity. Even the Realists would embellish their
works by combining the best things from different locations into a single
canvas. But accuracy in the details was important. The ironic twist of fate
is that during this latter part of this period, photography inspired a new
drive to produce realistic works of art because painters could take photos
to serve as replacements for sketches. Then, photography replaced much
of the market for realistic paintings as time went on.
The third movement of the century was Impressionism. Impressionism
became a new way to create an emotional reaction in the mind of the
viewer. It was a reaction to the stark realism that some people felt lacked
emotional impact. To them, a landscape meant nothing. This later led to
Cubism and Surrealism and other modern art forms as people stretched
their imaginations further and further.

Caspar David Friedrich (1774 1840) Germany

Friedrich is considered to be the most important painter of the German
Romantic Movement. He emphasized dramatic sublime moments in his
works and also the contemplative moments as well. He often did this by
placing human figures admiring the view into the painting so the viewer

could take the place of the figure and experience the moment as well. His
popularity had its ups and downs both in his life and afterwords. He died
penniless, because his style of painting went out of favor in his later
years and he was considered out of touch with more modern styles of
art. After that, his work fell into obscurity but was rediscovered by a new
generation of surrealist and other artists. Then, the Nazis, used his art for
their own purposes and after World War II, his work fell out of favor once
again. Currently, theres a resurgence of interest for his impressive works
as people remove the baggage surrounding his art and see it for the
astounding work which it is.

Chalk
Cliffs on Ruugen, Caspar Friedrich (1818)
This unusual composition was possibly done to commemorate the artists
honeymoon, with his brother tagging along on the right side of the
canvas. Friedrich seems to be looking over the edge either to admire the

view or to retrieve something which had fallen. His posture increases the
feeling of being on the edge of a tall cliff, which is further enhanced by
the brilliantly lit and jagged cliffs themselves. This scene is almost like
something you might see in a computer generated landscape, or a scene
from a movie on an alien world. When you see an extraordinary view like
this, photograph it! Always make sure you take your camera wherever
you go because you never know what will happen.

Evening
Painting, Caspar Friedrich (Year unknown)
Friedrich used the light to probe the normally dense forest in a way which
could only be done at this time of day. Imagine photographing this scene
at mid-day with the sun high in the sky. The forest would be dark while
the light would be on the outside of the scene and only in the tops of the

trees. Use the light to your advantage by positioning yourself at the best
place where the light can show the structure and form.

The Abbey in the Oakwood, Caspar Friedrich (1808)

Could this look any more modern? It was not popular in his time, but
today we can feel the dark and eerie heaviness which can send chills
down the spine. Not all landscapes have to be pretty to be effective.
Friedrich painted many such scenes, especially as he got older. In
landscape photography, we can capture such scenes when its dark and
foggy, or even at night. The weather should be bad and the light should
be low. The best photos are often created when you would least like to be
outside!

The
wanderer above the sea of fog, Caspar Friedrich (1818)
In whats possibly his most famous work, we see the wanderer (hiker) in a
contemplative moment. Much has been written about this painting, but it

seems to be about reaching the pinnacle, looking out and gazing at the
grandeur of it all. Its a metaphor for any accomplishment. He uses
almost every element that a landscape can have. Today, this hiker might
be the photographer, perhaps getting to the best spot, ready to get out
the camera and begin working. Put on a ten second delay and
photograph yourself in a similar circumstance!
Perhaps he hiked through a dark and hopeless fog before sunrise to reach
this spot in the hopes of finding this sublime light and atmosphere. Half of
the fun of doing landscape photography is seeing beyond the obvious. In
this case, a thick fog halfway up a mountain might make most people
turn around and go back to the warmth of the campfire or hotel room. But
a great photographer will press on in the hopes of seeing the sublime!

The Sea of Ice (The Wreck of Hope), Caspar Friedrich (1818)

This painting was inspired by the famous expedition by William Edward
Parry from 1819 to 1820 in search of the Northwest Passage. Due to the
prevailing artistic tastes of the time, this painting went unsold until after
his death in 1840. Today its recognized as a masterpiece. The lesson to
be learned here is when you show someone or a group of people your
photography and they dont approve, dont despair because tastes
change. If you like it, thats what counts!

The Stages of Life, Caspar Friedrich (1835)

Here we see children, parents and a grandmother enjoying an afternoon
out. We also see small boats and larger seagoing vessels. One good
theme in landscape photography is showing different phases of the lives
of plants, animals or even geologic evolution. This could be younger and
older plants or trees. It could also be young sharp mountains in contrast
to older weathered hills. Juxtaposing the young and the old is a great way
to show realism and inspire thought in the viewer of your work.

The Giant Mountains, Caspar Friedrich (1835)

This classic view is a textbook example of how to show distance in a
painting. The foreground is full of contrast and color, while in the
background; color and contrast fade away. This atmospheric effect gives
the impression of ever-increasing distance. Hazy and humid days are
perfect for creating depth in a landscape photograph. Be on the lookout
for it, but you must first plan out your composition. Since many of the
best views require a long hike, you may want to scout out your locations
ahead of time when the light and conditions arent right. Use Google
Earth and other software. In this way, you will be prepared to capture the
best moments.

Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775 1851)

Turner was Englands leading romantic painter at the same time Caspar
Friedrich was popular in Germany. Unlike Friedrich however, Turner
evolved with the times and became increasingly impressionistic as the
years went by. Turner was also renowned for his fantastic watercolor
paintings when he was young. He was known as The Painter of Light.
Even back then, this phrase had been overused but it certainly applied to
Turner. His paintings not only used light in dramatic ways, but they
evolved to become only about the light. Some art critics call him the
greatest landscape painter of all time. Of course everyone can have an
opinion but he was certainly one of the best at what he did. In the eyes of
the public, he put landscape painting into a position of being the highest
form of painting. This completes the evolution of landscape painting from
being just used as a background, to being the entire reason for creating a
painting! Art for arts sake.

Transept of Ewenny Priory, Glamorganshire, Joseph Turner (1797)

watercolor
This isnt a landscape and not an oil painting unlike most of the other
examples in this book. However, its a perfect example of a classic use of
lighting effects which can be used to photograph cityscapes or deep
canyons. The light and smoky mist casts an atmospheric glow from right
to left while a second light source enters the frame from the left side. This
creates the feeling of an enormous and cavernous place. Mist and fog are
nearly essential when it comes to the construction of a photograph
featuring architecture or cityscapes. Its good to call a composition,
a construction because the photographer is constructing the image from

nothing. If you wish to create a good image, you should have as many
tools available as possible. And this includes mist and fog.

Buttermere Lake, with Park of Cromackwater, Cumberland, a

Shower, Joseph Turner (1798)
Many of Turners paintings were rough and lacking in detail, but done in
such a way that the viewer is left with an internal feeling and impression

of the place. The best photos of this lake convey the same sense of
grandeur which you see here. Over the next 100 years, landscape
painters studied Turner and went on to become even more
Impressionistic and later, Surrealistic. When creating a landscape
photograph, dont be afraid to try new things, even if people dont like
them. Your vision is as valid as anybody elses. Perhaps someone will see
something in your work which will inspire them to reach to new heights.
Why not be the giant whose shoulders someone will stand on?

Lake Lucerne, Joseph Turner (1802)

This is a classic use of atmosphere and mist, which makes the viewer feel
like the distant mountains are far off in the distance. It looks a little like

the classic older paintings and sketches from China and Japan shown
earlier in this book. Turner was a great student of the masters. You can
easily see people in the foreground, which also enhances the feeling of
depth since only the biggest features can be seen in the background. The
steam boat and the arc of reflection in the lake are also important
elements of this painting. When photographing the landscape from a high
vantage point, its still important to move around to find the best
composition. If you were photographing this scene, moving to the left
would allow the foreground to block the reflection in the lake. Moving to
the right would eliminate the foreground entirely! So this composition is a
good compromise. thats why this scene is so well composed.

Hannibal and his Men crossing the Alps, Joseph Turner 1811

This rough view is also all about mood. We can see the men in their
perilous march across the Alps. This feeling comes from the
overwhelming black storm clouds which nearly block the light completely.
Sometimes the best landscape photographs are created when the
weather is at its worst. So resist the urge to stay inside when the action is
outside! However, since storms can last for a long time and have no good
light at all, you have to time your outings for when the storm is just
beginning or just ending. Usually, the best conditions are at the end of a
storm. In this way, you have bad weather, mist, rain, and possibly sun or
moonlight all in the same photograph. More drama often leads to better
photographs.

Dido Building Carthage aka The Rise of the Carthaginian Empire,,

Joseph Turner (1815)
The photo of this painting is overexposed, but you get the point. This
scene may look somewhat familiar to a few paintings earlier in this book.
In fact, Turner was a big admirer of Claude Lorrain. Turner supposedly
once cried as he looked at a Claude painting. He announced that he will
never be able to create a painting like that.
Turner wanted to be buried after being wrapped in this painting!
Thankfully, his estate fought to not allow this to happen and they
succeeded. Turner sure came close to Claude Lorrain in this work. It

shows that although Turner was known for his rough painting style, it was
only a style. He was capable of incredible detail and realism. In landscape
photography, the same thing can happen. You may become excellent at
creating realistic landscapes and yet move on to long exposures,
selective focus, HDR, Photoshop manipulation, or other styles of
landscape. And thats fine!
Also, dont be afraid to imitate the style of a photographer or painter you
admire as you are learning photography. Nobody owns a particular style,
view or composition. And the simple act of imitation will often lead you to
learn quickly and move on to new forms using your own newly-found
vision. If Turner can do it, so can you!

Crossing
the Brook, Joseph Turner (1815)
Supposedly, Turner used his daughters as models for this Claude Lorrain
inspired painting. No model release required! Dont hesitate to use willing
family members in your photography. And again, dont hesitate to imitate
the masters.

Eruption of Vesuvius, Joseph Turner (1817)

Once again, Turner almost splashes the paint onto the canvas in a violent
way, which is perfect for translating the violence of Vesuvius onto the
canvas. It seems like the world is ending. And for those people in AD 79,
it was! If you are confronted with harsh conditions, dont be afraid for the
photograph to end up looking harsh too. Not all landscapes are pretty or
subtle. Let your image tell the story of how it felt out there.

The Burning of the Houses of Lords and Commons, Joseph Turner

(1835)
Can a disaster look beautiful? Turner makes this conflagration into a
beautiful work of art for sure. He includes the firelight reflecting off of the
Thames and the bridge. And the light also helps to silhouette the people
watching it all unfold. The lesson for the landscape photographer here is
to always have your camera with you, so you can capture the
unexpected. Technically, Turner didnt have to personally witness this
event. Many other artists did renditions of this fire and most didnt

witness it. They can either paint from memory or even from imagination.
But in landscape photography, its assumed you were there and the
camera recorded the event as it happened. So be ready for anything. It
doesnt have to be a disaster, but possibly a great sunset, or a tornado.
You just never know what will happen.

Rain, Steam and Speed The Great Western Railway, Joseph

Turner (1844)

Despite the small amount of detail in this painting, it still stands today as
one of the most memorable landscape paintings in history in the minds of
many. At the time however, many art critics were quite harsh in their
opinions. This was a new form of art. It was not a landscape in the
traditional sense, but rather an impression of the feeling of the speed of
the new technological innovation of the steam powered locomotive. Over
the next 20 years or so, more artists began to paint in an impressionistic
sort of way, but not until after 1870 in Paris did impressionism become a
critically accepted form of art.
The most striking elements in this painting arent only the train
approaching through the mist, but the light under the arch of the bridge
and the feel of technological innovation. You can apply this lesson to the
cityscapes of today as major cities grow increasingly vertical. Why not
show them off in the most dramatic way possible? So wait for a foggy or
misty day with the sun breaking through the mist, and head to the city to
make some dramatic cityscapes!

John Constable (1776 1837) England

John Constable is today regarded perhaps as Englands best-known
landscape painter, though he was not financially successful during his
lifetime. He wished to paint pure landscapes, which were still not as
economically popular as portraits and older themes. Today, even the best
landscape photographs dont get the attention of a revealing portrait or
other more human oriented artistic genre. Visit a fine art photography
gallery selling expensive works. Youll rarely see beautiful landscapes. So

perhaps times havent changed as much as we would like to think! Still,

landscape art and photography is a much beloved form of expression.
Constable specialized in local scenery because not only did he know it
best, but he could also be there to witness the best light. He said,
painting is but another word for feeling. This is a common and
important theme in landscape photography too. The best-loved
photographs convey the feeling of what its like to be there.
He believed in painting directly from nature instead of from memory or
from composite sketches and studies. This went against the prevailing
fashion trend of the time, which inspired artists to create art from
imagination. As a result, he had to be there at the scene to witness the
light before he could paint it. An important lesson which landscape
photographers can learn from John Constable is, the best photographs
can be made locally, right where you live and work. This is simply a
matter of odds. If superb light occurs on only one day per month, chances
are you wont see it during a two-week vacation or even a serious photo
expedition. However, you can be ready for good light on every day of the
year in the place where you live!

Dedham
Vale, John Constable 1802
This is a classic view of the landscape of central England which can still
be seen today in some of the less developed rural areas. It implies a
warm summers day which might be spent on a picnic with friends and
family. Although Constable painted accurate scenes, they still inspire the
imagination to come up with ideas such as a picnic in the open air. That

same imagination can be inspired when viewing a landscape photograph.

Therefore, choose an idyllic location for your photo with an open view into
the distance as we see here.

Lock and mill in Dedham, John Constable (1820)

This view contains a nice mixture of the natural landscape with the
human element of industry. The mill grinds the grain, which is harvested
in the more natural fields beyond. Its still possible today to capture such
a scene photographically whenever you visit a small agricultural town. Try
to include bits of the natural and the human world in a harmonious way.

The Hay Wain, John Constable (1821)

This classic view seems to have it all, from the glorious sky all the way
down to the dog watching it all happen. It seems idyllic yet you can see
the difficulty of living the simple life. Today, this painting inspires
nostalgia for a simpler time, but back then, it was just life. Constable
adeptly showed an open view of the fields where the hay was grown, and
the cart, which will transport it to market. Then, when you consider the
cottage with the people and dog, this painting shows the entire life cycle
of the time. In landscape photography as well as fine art painting,
showing the entire cycle of something is a common and successful

theme. So, try to find cycles of things. It could be the water cycle as we
see several times in this book, or any other cycle.

Study of an Elm Tree,

John Constable (1821)
This is an absolutely stunning work in its clarity and near photographic
realism! Yet, its just a simple tree trunk with a forest behind. Few people
would mind this painting being on their wall because it brings nature
indoors. A good landscape photograph doesnt have to be complex to be

good. When you are looking for something to photograph, try to visualize
it on your wall. Does it work for you?

Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishops Grounds, John Constable

(c. 1825)
This painting shows a lot of planning and forethought. The composition is
pleasing because of the way the trees naturally frame the cathedral, and
by the way the people and animals are interacting with the environment.
The couple on the left is enjoying the view, while the animals are living

off the land. And all of this is set under a sky full of billowing cumulus
clouds which reflect light across the canvas.
As a photographer, it might be easy to walk right past this view in search
of something even more grand. However, a few steps to the left or right
would render the view chaotic and not as pleasing.
Yet, with your camera (or Constables eye and canvas) in this exact spot,
the results are perfect. Composition can never be underestimated. You
could be on a workshop with 20 people, and when the photos are
reviewed later, you will find that no two people took the same shot even
if they were just a few feet apart. The lesson here is even a few inches
can matter, so try to be conscious of your composition. Every detail
counts.

Johan Christian Claussen Dahl (1788 1857) Norway

Dahl is regarded as the father of Norwegian landscape painting because
he brought the classic techniques of the old masters back to Norway from
Germany. It was essential for aspiring painters from across the world
painting in all genres, to make the pilgrimage to places like France, Italy,
Holland, England and Germany. There, they studied the great works and
developed their own vision. Fortunately today we can all do this via the
internet! Then, after studying, we can go immediately to the field to work
on our photographic technique.

Avaldsnes Church, Johan Dahl (1820)

In addition to the open composition and view, what first catches the eye
is how this captures that brief moment when the sun is just below the
horizon, yet the last rays are catching the clouds and even the top of the
Church. As always, the light plays a big role here, yet its a unique role
because light is always different from season to season and moment to
moment. In landscape photography, the last or first moment of sun
provides an almost unique opportunity, but only for a moment. So be
ready!

Outbreak of the Vesuvius, Johan Dahl (1826)

Nearly every serious landscape painter during this time period had his or
her version of an erupting Vesuvius. This one is different in that the
viewpoint is from the backside of the mountain. Most paintings show the
view from the harbor in the middle right of the frame. When you are
doing landscape photography, dont shy away from the icons. Nobody
owns these views, so just try to do something new with them. The
difference could be the perspective, the composition, the light, or any
number of elements.

Lyshornet in Bergen, Johan Dahl (1836)

Its unknown whether Dahl painted this view en plein air, or from
sketches or memory. He would have to climb thousands of feet with his
gear in rugged terrain to reach this spot. And then the weather would
have to cooperate. Regardless of how he did it, its an excellent view that
was well worth the effort. Little details like the goats in front of mist, and
the lakes bring this view alive. Take your camera along on your hikes
because you never know when you may witness something special. Its
rare to see a good landscape photograph from such an inconvenient

place, though travel is easier now than back when this painting was done.
There may even be a tourist pullout on this spot today!

Frogner Manor, Frogner,

Oslo, Johan Dahl (1842)
Its almost as though the manor is intentionally tucked into the trees on
top of the hill, but this was a choice of composition. Dahl placed the
manor there by moving around to get the viewers eyes focused on it so
we can then look down the brightly lit hillside and across the lake to the
bridge. When planning your photo, take command of the situation and
guide the eyes of your viewers to the most interesting places.

Fjord at Holme Beach, Johan Dahl (1843)

Once again, Dahl is capturing the sun right on the horizon but theres still
enough light to reflect across the water. Its a perfect moment of serenity.
If you wish to capture a scene like this, its best to plan it out ahead of
time. The sun is only like this for about 30 seconds, so get there ahead of
time and compose your view. Then you will be ready to press the shutter
release at just the right moment. If you have to rush, all might be lost.

Copenhagen Harbor by Moonlight, Johan Dahl (1846)

As we have seen in earlier examples, moonlight presents unique
opportunities to add drama to a scene. Here, Dahl shows how the
accustomed eye can see a moonlit landscape almost as well as during
the day. Light reflects off the building to the right, which frames the
scene. Even with the technology of today, we would need a long
exposure of more than a few seconds to capture enough light. And then,
the people would be gone or appear as apparitions. Still, we can use
moonlight to our advantage in landscape photography. Learning night
photography is a matter of trial and error. You must experiment to learn
the subtle techniques of nighttime photography. And you must go out
often to get enough practice. This is one area where landscape painters
still have an edge over photographers. New advances in high ISO imagery

will eventually allow us to make a short-exposure photograph at night

which looks like this.

Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot, (1796-1875) France

Corot was a late bloomer, only taking up painting after the age of 20. This
is unusual for such a well-known master painter. However, once he took
up painting he did little else for the rest of his life. He enjoyed painting in
a realistic manner, faithfully reproducing what he saw before him. He was
also one of the first artists to take up photography, which led him to use
an almost monochromatic palette. He didnt enjoy bright and shocking
colors, which were becoming popular with the impressionists later in his
life. He liked accuracy, composition, form and tone more than anything.
Eventually after many years of not being recognized, he became well
known and wealthy from his art. For a landscape photographer, the
lesson from Corots life is you can start at any age and that you dont
have to crank up the saturation to produce fine works of art!

Venice, La Piazzetta, Jean-Baptiste Corot (1835)

This view of the much-photographed plaza in Venice almost appears as a
photograph created in the late afternoon sun. The light and composition
do all of the work since the colors are muted. In cityscape photography,
the angle and quality of light are important even if not much of the sky is
shown because of the tall buildings. Also, the position of each building is
important. One thing many people may notice in this painting is how
much this area has sunk in the 175 years since this painting was made! It
commonly floods now. Photographs are also an excellent way to preserve
and record the past. If you see something thats changing, like a glacier

or a growing city, create a landscape which will remind you of how it used
to be.

Memory of Marissel,
Jean-Baptiste Corot (1866)
Few things are more mysterious than a path through a forest leading to
something half hidden in the distance. The tower makes the viewer wish
to travel the path up to the front gate. In landscape photography, a path
to mystery is a great way to engage the viewer.

Ville dAvray, Jean-Baptiste Corot (1867)

Corot placed people in many of his landscapes. He was trained to do that
by his teachers, whom were inspired by the likes of Claude Lorrain.
Human figures are a controversial subject in todays landscape
photography discussions. Some viewers and critics like people in
landscape photos because they make them feel more real and show
scale. Others think people in a landscape are a distraction since there are
other ways to show scale. Theres no correct answer, so make up your
own mind and tell the story as you see fit. Another thing to notice here is
how theres a bit of impressionism in the form of little splashes of pure

paint. This was 1867 which was when impressionism was beginning to
grow in popularity. However, Corot kept realism at the center of his focus
during his entire career.

Landscape Castelgandolfo, Jean-Baptiste Corot (1870)

This is also a little impressionistic, with the daubs of paint everywhere. It
feels like a summer breeze is blowing. Dont forget to use wind as your
ally in a landscape photograph. Nothing has to be static. You can use a second or even 1-minute exposure to let the trees and plants blow

around a bit. This creates a photographic form of impressionism which

lets the view imagine the blowing breeze on a summers day.

Thomas Cole (1801-1848) United States

Thomas Cole was born in Lancashire England and moved to America with
his family when he was 17. He was a romantic painter but also a realist
who studied nature down to the extremely small details. He was the
founder of the Hudson River School which was devoted to the showing of
an idealistic view of the American landscape and beyond to the newly
wealthy patrons in America. He may be the most well known American
landscape painter, along with his student Frederic Church, and Albert
Bierstadt who are included in this text below.

Expulsion Moon and Firelight, Thomas Cole (1828)

This is an extremely unusual composition, yet the numerous light sources
and intricate structures are impossible to overlook. It just grabs the eye
and nearly forces the viewer to be transfixed. Dont be afraid to create a
landscape photograph which violates the rules of composition.
Sometimes its for the best!

The Garden of Eden, Thomas Cole (1828)

Here is another example of a common theme, which Cole decided to call his own. Even
though it had been done a thousand times before, he created a unique version which makes
you look at the story in a new light. Instead of a Middle Eastern Garden of Eden, he went for
the Tropical Jungle below the Andes type of look and feel with the towering palms and
mountain peaks framing the scene. Dont be afraid to make your own version when you are
photographing famous locations. It just may be just as good as or even better than the most
famous views! Then probe deeper for more unique perspectives.

Distant View of Niagara Falls, Thomas Cole (1830)

This is the kind of scene which made Cole famous among the newly rich back in the city of
New York. He traveled up and down the Eastern Seaboard of the United States creating
idealistic interpretations of scenes, which the city dwellers might only see once in their
lifetime during a big vacation. Cole brought these exotic views and memories back to
civilization. When doing landscape photography, try to visit exotic locations and bring back

memories which inspire the imagination to dream. Even a local beach can be exotic if seen
with excellent light. And your local locale might be considered exotic by those in far away
places.

The Course of Empire Destruction, Thomas Cole (1833-36)

This is the fourth in a series of 5 incredible paintings. Go online to see the rest. The series is
a must-see. It follows the evolution of an empire from a pastoral setting to the peak and
decline back to nature again. Notice the enormous statue on the right has no head! The
powerful have fallen.

As a landscape photographer, a series is a great way to show change and perspective in a

way no single picture can convey. You cant help but feel strong feel emotions when you
follow this series from beginning to end! All that work and effort, lost. Emotions are
important in landscape photography too as we see again and again.

The Oxbow, Thomas Cole (1836)

Every grade-school child learns about erosion, where a young and turbulent river matures
into a peaceful winding stream in a wide-open valley. Cole shows the entire erosion cycle all
in one picture. The rain falls, which erode the hills and knock down trees, feeding an
increasingly silt-laden river. He also has the canvas split into a stormy side and a sunny side,
which allows the eye to explore the difference between the two extremes. A good theme in

landscape photography is to show geological processes in action. It can be big waves

striking a rocky shore, or a waterfall eating away at a cliff. These sorts of scenes are
fascinating subjects for a photograph.

The Return, Thomas Cole (1837)

Its difficult to witness, yet alone photograph this kind of light in real life. Painters have the
luxury of not having to witness the entire grand scene. Yet on this canvas, Cole manages to
render the scene so realistically that he must have witnessed similar light at various times.
An example of the adept use of light is how he painted one dark horse with the feet in front
of the light while a white horse is against a darker background. What a masters touch! He
does similar things with the people and everything else in the scene. This shows complete

mastery of the light. Although landscape photographers have the luxury of not having to
personally render every pixel, we do have to witness it all happen at once. So look for areas
of contrast where you can highlight important things just as Cole does in this painting.

View of the Mountain Pass Called the Notch of the White Mountains (Crawford Notch)
, Thomas Cole (1839)
A landscape painting or photograph can teach us a lot about geology, like how the water
carved this notch. Cole includes some fog in the notch just to bring more detail to the area.
This is a tranquil and idyllic setting which looks even better because of the mist and light.
Those two things should be pursued when photographing the landscape. The best time to see
a scene like this is most likely at dawn just as a storm begins to clear. If you just endured a
stormy night, look out the window at first light and go out if things look promising. You

never know when you will witness something special. Have locations scouted out ahead of
time, since theres little time at sunrise for experimentation and investigation.

The Voyage of Life Manhood, Thomas Cole (1840)

This is the third in a series of four masterpieces showing our cycle of life. This series is also
a must-see on the internet. Not only are these paintings dramatic as a series, but also each
one stands strongly on its own. When doing a series of landscapes, make sure there isnt a
weak link in the chain. Each stage is important and a weak image will spoil the feel of the
entire series.

Ivan Aivazovsky (1817 1900) Armenian /Crimea

Ivan Aivazovsky was a financially successful landscape and seascape artist who painted
more than 6,000 works during his lifetime. He was unusual in that he was prolific and each
work was highly detailed and of the highest quality. His timeless seascapes and landscapes
bring millions at auction today. Some artists like Picasso were also prolific, with Picasso
himself referring to some paintings as afternooners, meaning he took just an afternoon to
complete them. One Picasso just sold for over US $100 million! And many of Picassos
works look like they were done with a few strokes of his brush.
The works of Aivazovsky however are so imaginative and finely polished that its difficult to
figure out how he could have done even half of them in a single lifetime. As a landscape
photographer, dont feel like you have to produce quality and quantity like Aivazovsky. Just
go at your own pace. Quality should be the first goal.

The Ninth Wave, Ivan Aivazovsky (1850)

This is the Wikimedia commons image which was chosen for the cover of this book/series.
The cover shows the center section because the book cover has a portrait orientation. The
potential survivors of this shipwreck probably arent enjoying the incredible light show
because they are fighting for survival by clinging to the one remaining mast. This depicts a
classic theme when thinking about the sea. It can be beautiful and deadly, often at the same
time. When photographing the seascape, try to show the beauty and the beast of the sea.
Time the waves for that small moment when the light pierces through the waves, as it does
in this painting. Its extremely difficult to do, but give it a try. And never turn your back to
the sea!

Chumaks in Little Russia, Ivan Aivazovsky (1870-1880)

In this painting, a warm and glowing light almost hides the fact that it must be extremely
cold for this long wagon train which seems to stretch back into an infinite horizon. The angle
of light is perfect for showing the detail of the cottage and illuminating the people standing
in front of the darker shadows. In painting and in landscape photography, the beginning or
end of a journey is a successfully time-tested theme. It doesnt have to be a journey like we
see here, but a journey of anything from water in a river to the mysterious rocks on the
Racetrack of Death Valley, California.

The Black Sea, Ivan Aivazovsky (1881)

The endless sea is a fascinating and self-contained topic. It shows us how small we are
compared to the immensity and power of nature. Theres no need for a foreground rock or a
background focal point. This is all about something timeless. Try doing this yourself from a
bridge or other high vantage point. To make a successful seascape photograph which looks
like this, you will need some extra good light on the sea and a superb cloudscape above. Big
waves and wind can help too, as well as a place to shelter the camera. Without anything solid
as a reference point, these other elements need to be extra strong to draw the viewers
attention and hold it on your photograph.

Ship in the Stormy Sea, Ivan Aivazovsky (1887)

This painting has all of the elements of a dramatic seascape. The storm is whipping up
dangerous waves which are beautiful yet deadly at the same time. The people are
abandoning ship, yielding to the power of nature in the hopes of surviving to see the next
day. The ropes are frayed and snapping. The seagulls are better adapted to a life at sea than
humanity, so they are doing just fine. Perhaps they are waiting for the cargo to spill out so
they can have a good meal. Or perhaps they are just riding the roller coaster of turbulence
created by each wave. In the foreground is a mast, perhaps the last remnant of a previous
shipwreck at this same location.
It would be nearly impossible to capture a scene like this with a camera. The salty spray
would cover the lens in a second and the rain and wind would drive water into the camera
and shake it so violently that no sharp image would be possible. It would seem as though no
sane photographer would dare volunteer to go shooting in these conditions. However, there
are some insane photographers who might give this a try! A waterproof housing might help
here. The most difficult conditions sometimes yield the most dramatic images. So taking at
least some moderate risk is something to consider.
One good way to deal with salty spray is to bring a clear plastic bag to cover the camera and
lens. While the bag is still over the camera, you can get your settings correct for a good
exposure. Then, remove the bag only briefly when the moment is right for an exposure. In
this way, you dont have to clean off your lens and filters as often. And its nice to clean
them off while still under the bag and be ready for the next shot.

Frederic Edwin Church 1826-1900 United States

Frederic Church was born in Connecticut and became a young student of Thomas Cole. He
became successful at a young age. That success attracted a benefactor who financed a trip to
South America so Church could produce art which attracted more investors to the
benefactors business ventures. Church returned to America and began to produce huge and
finely detailed paintings of exotic locations which astonished viewers and brought him
financial success. That success led to more travels and more painting. One thing led to
another.
Many of Churchs paintings are so impressive its difficult to believe a human being could
produce such works. They have the fine detail of a 10-inch wide painting created with a fine
detail brush, combined with the dramatic impact which can only be seen from 10 feet back
or more.
Church once placed a painting in a window frame with curtains and special lighting so
viewers could sit on a bench and imagine looking out a window to the Andes Mountains.
This was the closest thing that people had in those days to modern movies and other high
visual impact activities. He sold that painting for US $ 10,000, which was the highest price
of an American painting to that date. You could buy a big house in a wealthy neighborhood
for that amount of money back then.

Storm in the Mountains, Frederic Church (1847)

This painting almost has a photographic perspective to it. Its the kind of view which
couldnt be imagined in a studio but must have been seen in person. We can imagine the
sturdy looking tree snapping in hurricane force winds during an intense storm. Then the
storm clears and a peaceful mist is illuminated in the valley below. Many great landscape
photographs also tell stories of dramatic weather, so when a storm strikes, be prepared to
head out as soon as it clears. Find the damage and evidence. There are opportunities out
there just waiting for you.

The Cordilleras, Sunrise, Frederic Church (1854)

To someone living in the American Northeast or in Europe, this must have been an exotic
vision. Church makes the fruiting palm tree a bold focal point, made even more dramatic by
the fact that many northern viewers had never even seen a palm tree out of doors. The
pathways and the water allow the viewers to navigate this landscape in their minds,
transporting them to this faraway place. These days, its difficult for a landscape
photographer to impress viewers by an exotic location. Millions of camera carrying tourists
scour the planet on their vacations and upload these views to the internet for all to see. So,
an exotic location isnt all it takes impress people these days. You need the location and a
sublime moment. The soft light and the pleasant composition in this view are still impressive
to this day.

Tequendama Falls, Near

Bogota, New Granada, Frederic Church (1854)

Waterfalls are a popular topic for classic paintings as well as contemporary photographs.
This view even looks like a photograph. Notice how Church has the mist in the sunlight with
only reflected light in the foreground? This enhances the drama of the falls to the point
where it almost seems to be moving. When attempting a photograph like this, the foreground
may often be almost completely black because the camera cant capture the dynamic range
in brightness between the brightest and darkest parts of a view. So only attempt this when
there are a lot of clouds in the sky, reflecting light into the darker areas. Experiment with
different exposure times too.

Niagara Falls, Frederic Church (1857)

Church chose a high vantage point looking away from the sun to show the entire falls and
include a bit of rainbow and light striking the falls in the background. This is carefully
composed to allow the viewer to get a sense of the grandeur of this place. When
photographing a waterfall, you may have to scout around the entire thing before finding a
good composition with a good angle of light. Or you must wait for the right time of day. The
extra effort will be worth it. Dont just settle for the standard views with all of the other
tourists! But dont ignore the standard views either. There might be a good reason why an X
lies on the ground ordering you to make the photo on this spot!
Also, the panoramic orientation was a good choice for this painting.

The Heart of the Andes, Frederic Church (1859)

This is the first in a long series of enormous, yet finely detailed canvases Church executed
depicting an exotic location which must have stirred the imagination of every viewer.
Church shows the entire water cycle, originating in the snow-capped Andes and flowing
down the valley to the tropical lowland waterfall. Cant you almost smell the humidity?
A grand landscape often includes wide-ranging elements which tie together into a single
unified package. When creating a landscape photograph, you can accomplish this by using a
wide-angle lens and consciously moving around to make sure you have everything within
the frame. Could you imagine if Church had only painted the right half of the distant snowcapped mountain peak, cutting off the left side? Make sure to not cut in half any important
elements! Its easier to do than you think when you are in the excitement of the moment.

Twilight Wilderness, Frederic Church (1860)

This is another photo-realistic painting thats both subtle in color, yet dramatic in its
grandeur. Church waited for the sun to set on the land but still illuminate the high clouds,
which reflect into the water. High clouds are best for that dramatic last splash of red. Lower
and middle clouds dont have the same effect. Remember this when waiting for a sunset. If
you have lower to middle clouds, dont expect a dramatic red sunset unless high clouds are
above them. The best light with those lower types of clouds is more like hour before
sunset. The thicker the cloud cover, the more likely the best light will be with the sun higher
in the sky. Also, the light is affected by what lies beyond the horizon. If theres a high cloud
in front of the sun just below the horizon and out of view, it will shade out the clouds which

you can see, rendering them dark. Here, Church shows the best conditions for a red sunset, a
clear open sky to the west allowing the sun to illuminate the underside of high clouds.

The Icebergs, Frederic Church (1861)

This was another extremely exotic subject to paint during this period of time. Even here,
Church includes lots of extra interest above and beyond mere icebergs in perfect light.
Notice the arch in the lower right with the light coming through it? See the reflected light on
the ice on the left side and what looks to be the mast of a shipwreck in the foreground?
These are extra details Church added to go above and beyond what was required in a
standard fine-art painting. When searching the landscape for a good view, go above and
beyond simply recording the view. Include extra elements which will surprise your viewers
and make them point and say to a friend, Hey, look over here!

Cotopaxi, Frederic Church (1862)

Church didnt visit Vesuvius in Italy, but there are a few nice volcanoes in the new world
such as Cotopaxi in the Andes of Ecuador. He left out all signs of human habitation in favor
of a view of nature in its most raw and powerful state. It looks so accurate that he must have
seen this volcano (or one like it) erupt in person. The composition flows nicely both up from
the peak and down to the falls with some nice symmetry between the plume of ash and the
cliffs to the right. Symmetries work well in landscape photography. They can be from
reflections or from more hidden relationships such as the ash and cliffs here which seem to
frame the sun and its reflection. Sometimes they arent obvious, so you have to search them
out. Sometimes they are so subtle you dont recognize them until you get home and review
your photographs. It may have just felt right at the time and only later do you realize why.

Chimborazo, Frederic Church (1862-66)

This original painting is over 7 feet long, yet when you look at it from 1 foot away; you can
see things inside of the hut and even individual blades of grass behind it! At first when you
look at this, you dont even notice the subtle but immense snow capped peak in the distance.
Then once you notice, you cant ignore it. Church used the technique of lowering the
contrast on distant objects to imply a sense of depth. Landscape photographers can do this
on a hazy, foggy or misty day. This depth makes you realize the mountain must be enormous
to appear so large from such a long distance away.
Church became extremely analytical at this stage of his life and this painting is the result of
extensive studies of this mountain and the jungle in oil paint, pencil and also notebook from
numerous angles, times of day, and weather conditions. He wanted realism and not just a
pretty picture, though this painting is a composite of his studies. All of that effort surely paid

off. When you see this painting, which is at the Huntington near Pasadena in LA, its easy to
appreciate the workmanship.
Extra effort can pay off for the landscape photographer too. Dont hesitate to return to a spot
over and over under a wide variety of conditions to study a place and obtain the best view
possible from that location. Of course, the best view isnt always practically possible, but its
enjoyable to try.

Aurora Borealis, Frederic Church (1865)

With Frederic Church, every time you think he could never paint a more exotic painting, he
proves you wrong! The aurora almost glows with a radiant light, which seems to help this
ship navigate through the ice clogged waters. If you ever travel to near the North Pole or the
South Pole, dont hesitate to get outside at night, even if its cold. You may have to do a long
exposure with noise reduction turned on to avoid extra blobs of noise. Even if its
uncomfortable, give it a try! You may have to try several times before you get it right, and
that effort may take an hour or two, so dress warmly. Also, dont forget to find an interesting
view to go along with the sky. If its too dark at night, you may want to find a good
composition while its still light outside.

Rainy Season in the Tropics, Frederic Church (1866)

If you wish to photograph a rainbow, many things need to happen simultaneously. First, the
sun should be behind you of course, but the rain needs to be in front of you. This often
means you need to get wet first before the sun comes out to illuminate the raindrops. And its
often still raining when the rainbow comes out. So bring an umbrella and something to cover
the camera. A clear plastic bag works wonders because you can set a proper exposure time
while its still raining because the light comes through the bag. A wide-angle lens allows you
to capture the entire rainbow rather than just a portion of it. A full rainbow is usually more
dramatic than a partial one.
Also, you should scout out a good view and composition in advance, so you arent fiddling
around during the few seconds when the rainbow is at its strongest. Be careful with
polarizing filters. Sometimes if they arent turned correctly, the rainbow disappears or they
look too strong and unnatural. Its best to not use a polarizer so the photograph looks natural.
Thats good advice in general unless you want to see detail under the surface of water.
Of course, theres a lot more to this painting than the rainbow. The view contained within the
rainbow is perfectly lit by the mist and sun working together. The brightest spot appears to
be a large waterfall, which is a great way to show the water cycle and how it happens. The
brightest spot in the photo of this painting is overexposed. In the actual painting in San
Francisco, theres plenty of detail in the bright areas. This shows how limited the dynamic
range is in modern cameras!

El Rio de Luz, Frederic Church (1877)

Can you feel the humidity and mist rising into the fragrant tropical air? Can you even hear
the monkeys and birds? Part of what makes a photograph resonate with people is what they
can imagine. Notice the open view to the distance lining up with the Moon? That conjures
up the need for a canoe and oars to go see whats beyond the opening. Create a sense of
mystery in your photos and you will want to look at them over and over even though you
created them yourself!

Albert Bierstadt, (1830-1902) United States

Albert Bierstadt was born in Germany and moved to the United States with his parents when
he was just three years old. He later studied painting in Germany and then with the Hudson
River School painters in New York.
While Frederik Church was on his adventures in Central America and the arctic North after
1850, Bierstadt headed west to paint the vast American West. At this point, the west was just
opening up due to the California gold rush. He was one of the first painters to expose
viewers back east to the wondrous landscape of the west. And he did it in a big way, creating
enormous paintings with extreme detail and accuracy while using artistic license to add
some dramatic elements.

Looking Down Yosemite Valley, California, Albert Bierstadt (1865)

One big advantage to the accuracy of Bierstadts work is you can go back to the same spots
today and see how things have changed. He accurately shows El Capitan and the Cathedral
Rock spires, but whats striking is the lack of tall pine trees and the wide open view. When
this painting was done, Indians inhabited this area and they used to burn the fields, keeping
down the growth of pine trees. Also, natural fires would burn unchecked all summer during
the dry season. They wouldnt die down until the cool rains of the winter season. Today,
such a view isnt possible because the US national Park Service stops fires as soon as
possible, so the sparse trees have grown into dense forests. Sometimes that leads to intense
and unnatural fires due to a buildup of unburned dry wood over the decades.
The striking part of this painting is the realistic and dramatic use of sunlight filtering into the
valley and how it strikes the cliffs and landscape below. Even the water is reflecting the

light. When people back east first saw Bierstadts work, they must have been in awe,
thinking it to be a case of artistic license gone awry! Today, people speak the same way
about the use of Photoshop. Sometimes a photo is so good people wont believe the camera
actually captured it in the way presented. So, when processing your photos, try to keep
things as natural as possible. Keep the drama isolated to what you can capture in the camera.
If you do decide to create a fantastic artificial world, let people know about what you did.
Theres nothing wrong with doing anything you want in Photoshop. However, you must be
honest with yourself and others. Many people enjoy seeing a surreal and high quality
manipulated image, as well as the work of a surrealist painter like Salvador Dali.

Looking up Yosemite Valley, Albert Bierstadt (1865)

This is a view looking back towards the spot where the previous painting was conceived.
When creating landscape photographs, move around and show landmarks from different
angles and perspectives. Make them into a series. Show them at different times of year as
well.
Again, the open view shown here with a few scattered oaks is completely closed off now by
a tall forest of pines. You can see a few pines in front of the bottom of the falls. From this
spot today, the pines have grown much larger and nearly obscure the falls completely. By
2040, you wont be able to see the falls at all! You can still see El Capitan and the last bit of
falls from the shore of the Merced River This view must have been visualized in the late
morning judging from the angle of light. If you want to see an open view today, you need to

go right up to the river in the middle distance. See below for what the closer to the river
view looked like in 2009.

Valley View #1, Patrick Smith (May, 2009)

Today, a road and a dense forest exist directly behind this spot, so this is currently the best
open view. The camera here is in the middle foreground of the previous painting. Bierstadt
did make the cliffs and falls look taller, though he was standing further back and higher in
elevation, which resulted in a more compressed perspective than the super wide-angle view
shown here. The middle half of this photo represents the view in Bierstadts painting above

this. Still, you can see how much the trees have grown. Amazingly, the river seems to be in
the exact same spot as it was 150 years ago. Notice the field of grass just beyond the river?
Look at it above and in Bierstadts painting. You can see the same slight slope of the river
versus the flat field of grass behind it. Again, unchanged in 150 years!

Storm in the Rocky Mountains, Mount Rosalie, Albert Bierstadt (1866)

It seems as though Bierstadt intentionally hiked up to an open vantage point (at least in his
mind) to get this view. Then he carefully composed the painting so the light coming through
the parting clouds to the lake silhouetted those trees in front of the lake. If you wish to
accomplish this photographically in the real world, you will have to do a lot of planning
ahead of time. You would need to climb up to a point where you hope you would get a good

open view of the light and then have the composition ready when the light finally is right.
This is easier said than done since you often dont know where the light will open up. You
could wait all day!
Or is this supposition entirely correct? Actually, there are places which seem to collect
clouds and other places where if theres even a small opening in the clouds, a big gap will
appear. This is because some mountains can literally block the clouds, allowing for openings
to appear in the same spots again and again. If you study the patterns of cloud formation
around mountains, you may be able to anticipate where to go and be there at the right time.
The trick is to arrive early and study the sky for a while. Watch for patterns and the direction
of the clouds. After a while you might be able to anticipate how the light will behave.
Become a student of the weather and you will be surprised at how lucky you can become!

Among the Sierra Nevada Mountains, Albert Bierstadt (1868)

In this view, Bierstadt gets right down to lake level, which makes the reflected light on the
lake an important element in the entire painting. Then when the light comes streaming
through the clouds, he is ready to capture the light from above and below. These days, lake
reflections are a popular theme in landscape photography. If you wish to make your
photograph special, make sure to give the foreground some interest near the water. Arrange
rocks and grasses along the shoreline by moving into a good spot. Also compose your view
to get the trees to appear lit from behind. Its possible to take charge of random elements and
make them your own with some extra effort.

Seals on the Rocks, Farallon Islands, California, Albert Bierstadt (1872-3)

In this painting Bierstadt takes some artistic license to add drama to this scene. The Farallon
Islands are about 17 miles west of the Golden Gate and they do have sea lions, seals, steep
cliffs and big waves. So one can suppose this sort of a scene is possible, but to have it
happen all at once and be able to paint it is close to impossible. He probably created this
painting from studies or memory. However, this is a good example of how important its to
get close to the action and show a wide view when creating a landscape photograph. The sea
lions in front look like you could almost touch them. The wave looks huge, which make the
gulls and cliffs look far away. Good luck trying to capture light through a wave. Its difficult,
but give it a try. Get ready to shoot and run!

California Spring, Albert Bierstadt (1875)

This seems to be a view of the Central Valley of California from the start of the Sierra
Nevada foothills, where gold was discovered 26 years earlier. This sort of grand light is rare
in California and only occurs just after a storm in the winter or early spring when the afterstorm showers begin. The light can appear suddenly and disappear within a minute or so
and might spotlight small groups of cattle or trees for perhaps a few seconds. With split
second requirements like this, you must be ready. And you must be willing to stand in the
exact place of your ideal composition for possibly hours just for those few special moments.
Its up to you to decide whether all that time is worth it. After all, you may wait for hours
and never see good light! However, if you dont try, you will never succeed.

The Golden Gate, Albert Bierstadt (1900)

This view must be from Baker Beach, on the Pacific Ocean side just south and west of
where the Golden Gate Bridge now stands. It was built 35 years after this painting was
completed. Bierstadt has taken some significant artistic license to pull this off. But the
results are dramatic and awe inspiring. Its accurate in that there are still sea lions on this
beach, and the waves can be huge here. The Marin County Headlands in the distance can
look like this at sunrise, and there are cliffs to the right leading to the location of the bridge
where the light appears to originate. However, this is an impressionistic interpretation
compared to reality or compared to his earlier hyper realistic works. The lesson here is you
must allow yourself to evolve and change. Take risks with your photography and unexpected
things may happen.

Realism 1861- 1914 (American Realism 1865-1890): An artistic movement begun in 19th
century France. Artists and writers strove for detailed realistic and factual description. They
tried to represent events and social conditions as they actually are, without idealization.
This form of literature believes in fidelity to actuality in its representation. Realism is about
recreating life in literature. Realism arose as an opposing idea to Idealism and Nominalism.
Idealism is the approach to literature of writing about everything in its ideal from.
Nominalism believes that ideas are only names and have no practical application. Realism
focused on the truthful treatment of the common, average, everyday life. Realism focuses on
the immediate, the here and now, the specific actions and their verifiable consequences.
Realism seeks a one-to-one relationship between representation and the subject. This form is
also known as mimesis. Realists are concerned with the effect of the work on their reader
and the reader's life, a pragmatic view. Pragmatism requires the reading of a work to have
some verifiable outcome for the reader that will lead to a better life for the reader. This lends
an ethical tendency to Realism while focusing on common actions and minor catastrophes of
middle class society.
Realism aims to interpret the actualities of any aspect of life, free from subjective prejudice,
idealism, or romantic color. It is in direct opposition to concerns of the unusual, the basis of
Romanticism. Stresses the real over the fantastic. Seeks to treat the commonplace truthfully
and used characters from everyday life. This emphasis was brought on by societal changes
such as the aftermath of the Civil War in the United States and the emergence of Darwin's
Theory of Evolution and its effect upon biblical interpretation.
Characteristics:
-Depicts the world as it is.
-Focus on the person, not the plot.
-Mimicking the way that people really talk.
-Highlights social rules.
-Middle and lower classes portrayed.
-Often person vs. society and person vs. self conflicts.
-Takes place in the here and now; the past is archaic.
-Reader left to decide right or wrong.
-Realists value the hard working middle and working class.

Emphasis on psychological, optimistic tone, details, pragmatic, practical, slow-moving plot

Rounded, dynamic characters who serve purpose in plot
Empirically verifiable
World as it is created in novel impinges upon characters. Characters dictate plot; ending
usually open.
Plot=circumstance
Time marches inevitably on; small things build up. Climax is not a crisis, but just one more
unimportant fact.
Causality built into text (why something happens foreshadowed). Foreshadowing in
everyday events.
Realists--show us rather than tell us
Emphasis on morality, usually intrinsic, relativistic between people and society
Scenic representation important
Humans are in control of their own destiny and are superior to their circumstances