Political Ideologies 2300-400

!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Principles and Applications of Twentieth Century Fascism
Lacey Slizeski
Political Ideologies

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Fascism as a political ideology came about in the twentieth century in response to rapid industrialization,
the rising Communist Revolution in Russia, and a growing distrust of democratic regimes in the aftermath of
World War I. The instability and apparent weakness of democratic government made contrasting ideologies
based on singular supreme leadership and national unity an appealing alternative. The main elements of Fascism
are anti-rationalism or anti-intellectualism, a charismatic leader and hierarchical social structure, conflict as a
means of national growth and development, and ultra-nationalistic tendency (Heywood, 2010, 202). The
strength of the state as a political and social actor, and biological ideals of genetic superiority helped rally the
populous to unite around a common national or racial identity.
Counter-enlightenment or anti-rationalist thinking arose in the nineteenth century espousing a theory of
vitalism to contend against the idea of rational thought as the highest held human value (Heywood, 2012, 203).
Anti-rationalism supported the idea of instinct or will as the guiding principle in human action, versus the cold
and calculating human intellect. Action was more valuable than thought, and actions should be driven by
emotions rather than calculation. This emphasis on emotion allowed both Mussolini and Hitler's Nazi party to
use mobilization tools like propaganda and political agitation to incite the population. These tools played on the
heightened feelings of nationalism, nostalgia, and loyalty to recruit the masses into adopting the values and
goals of the regime (Heywood, 208). The rhetoric employed by leaders like Mussolini and Hitler appealed
directly to peoples emotions. As the Third Reich's Dr. Joseph Goebbels wrote There are two fundamentally
different kinds of speakers: those who use reasoning, and those who speak from the heart (Goebbels, 1936, .
27). Both dictators used the rise of anti-intellectual sentiment to appeal directly to the heart of the people.
This type of speech is indicative of the type of leadership that was essential to the rising popularity of
Fascism. Heywood characterizes this type of leadership as supreme and all-seeing, distinguished by its
heroism, [and] vision (Heywood, 206). The primacy of the leader comes from his position as a patriarchal
figure. He is looking out for the best interests of the populace by telling them how to think and feel. This type
of all-powerful leader is emancipated from the constraints of constitutional limitations and checks and balances
(Heywood, 206). This means that authority is practically unlimited and emanates from the leader personally
(Heywood, 206). The leader is at the top of the social hierarchy, but is supported by a class of political and
social elites. These elites help guide the populous masses who are weak, inert, and ignorant, and whose destiny
is unquestioning obedience (Heywood, 206).
Social Darwinism is a theory that couched the struggles of nations in turmoil, in terms of a natural and
inevitable, even favorable, condition. Fascist ideology regards war as good in and of itself (Heywood, 205).
Weakness is regarded as evil and martial, hyper-masculine values like loyalty, duty, obedience, and self
sacrifice are upheld above all others (Heywood, 205). This hierarchy of virtues allowed for a more militarized
populous, who could abjure the desires and inclinations of the individual for the benefit of the nation as a whole.
The conceptualization of national struggle as a sort of crucible through which national unity is forged helped
rationalize and glorify the horrors of war. War and struggle lead to strength, and help facilitate the eradication of
weakness in a populous. This 'no-tolerance' attitude toward weakness helped lay the foundation for the
'otherization' of rival nations and races. The program of eugenics applied by the Nazi party is a good example of
how far an anti-weakness society will go to further goals of national purification. The view of other nations as

weakness that needs to be eradicated through conquest also led to very expansionist Fascist foreign policies
(Heywood, 205). Fascist ideology regarded other nations not as equal and interdependent entities, but as rivals
in a struggle for dominance (Heywood, 209).
Nationalism toward the end of the nineteenth century became increasingly geared toward chauvinism
and xenophobia, with nations dedicated to belief in their own superiority while other nations were regarded as
alien, untrustworthy, [or] even menacing (Heywood, 171). The ultra-nationalistic principles of Fascism took
this rationale to the extreme. Leaders like Hitler and Mussolini encouraged feelings of patriotism to assuage
feelings of bitterness and frustration, which resulted from World War I and its aftermath (Heywood, 209).
Fascism encouraged a strong sense of national pride and the opportunity for national redemption. Hitler and
Mussolini propagated an idealized myth of their nations' past glory, and highlighted the fascist regime as
harbinger of a national rejuvenation (Heywood, 210). This gave nations who had been downtrodden and beaten
by World War I hope for a new beginning and future glory. Uniting around shared history and common values
made for an ultra-nationalist population that was easily mobilized. Nationalism, Social Darwinism, and
pervasive anti-semitism helped the Nazi regime incorporate racist doctrines into their Fascist ideology
(Heywood, 214). Social Darwinism and Nationalistic fervor spurred the Nazi party to view all other races apart
from German Aryan races as weak and inferior. In a continuation of their policies of eugenics, the Nazi party
used this rationalization to categorize, confine, and eradicate those races and peoples they considered
biologically impure. Nazi race theory singled out Jewish, Roma, and homosexual individuals specifically, and
Jewish people most severely for persecution. The Nazi state used the Jewish people as the universal scapegoat
for all of Germany's misfortunes (Heywood, 220). Since the state purported to work toward the advancement
of the German people, belief in racial purity became integral to national unity. Systematic racism became
another of the values instilled into the populous through a charismatic leader and widespread propaganda
The strength of the state as not only the principle political organization, but also the authority on social
values, makes its importance in a Fascist ideological system twofold. Particularly important in Italian Fascism,
the goal of the state is to become the arbiter of both private and political life. Nothing in an individual's life was
outside the scope of the state, and nothing less than unquestioning obedience and constant devotion are required
of the citizen (Heywood, 211). The Nazi's did not have the same type of state worship as the goal of the
regime, but instead valued the state as a useful tool in promoting what Hitler considered the goals of the German
people, or the Aryan race (Heywood, 212). Both Italian and German forms of Fascism used the state as a
platform for achieving national unity. The state was embodied by the charismatic leader, who led a militarized,
hierarchical, and ultra-nationalist populous by means of anti-intellectual rhetoric. These nations galvanized the
support of the masses by emphasizing the superiority of their population over others, and asserted that
superiority through expansionist policies.

!
!
!
!
!

Works Cited
!!
Goebbels, Joseph. (1936) Der Fhrer als Redner, Adolf Hitler. Bilder aus dem Leben des Fhrers. Hamburg,
! Germany: Cigaretten/Bilderdienst Hamburg/Bahrenfeld
!!
Heywood, Andrew. (2014). Political Ideologies An Introduction. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
!-very good essay, coverage of Fascism, its connection to the state and the easy transition to racialism in Nazi
Germany
45/45