Lecture 1:

INTRODUCTION TO
BUIILDING STRUCTURES

Contents:

Nature of Buildings
Building Superstructures
Solid Superstructures
Skeleton Superstructures
Surface Superstructures
Advantages of Frame Structures
Classification of Frames
Materials for Building Frames

Function of Buildings
As a shelter / envelope
To meet primary physical needs
Must be well-designed as well as constructed

Building technology and building techniques are interrelated

Functions of building
Enclose space so that the satisfactory internal environment may
be created relative to the purpose and intended function of the
building
The space within the building must be suitable for the

activities to take place with it

Comfortable, safe, stable
Must be designed in terms of size and shape, and environmental
factors

Building Superstructures
General Definition - portion of a building that is above the
ground.
In Malaysian construction refers to the building primary
elements that transfers the building load to the sub-structure
(foundations)
Mainly as the main building structural component or Building
Primary Element of the building

Building Primary Elements

Roof

Beam(Roof Beams)
Suspended Beam(B)
Ground Beam(GB)

Column(C)

Slab(S)

Footing(F)

Purpose of Primary Elements

Building Superstructures (Building

Primary Elements)

Design:

1 . better use of structural materials (steel, brick, timber, concrete etc)

2.

an easier method of construction and erection/expansion

3.

reduce cost

4.

answer to a particular problem (such as provision of a clear floor area for

a warehouse or a factory)

5.

conform with the requirements of the designer (architect) in search of

visual appeal (aesthetic)

6.

withstand the forces that the building will carry i.e. does not move in any
manner under loads

Types of Superstructures
3 basic types of superstructure:
i)

Solid

ii)

Skeleton

iii) Surface

Solid Superstructures
Combines the load-carrying function with space enclosure
The loads are transferred to and spread through the
walls/building frame to give a distributed load on the
substructure

The common types of solid structures:

i)

cellular/box frame

ii) igloo
iii) cross wall

Solid Superstructures

Cellular Box Structure

Box Framed Structures

Solid
Superstructure
Types

Igloo

Load-bearing Walls

Load bearing wall

Cross Wall Structure

Solid Superstructures
Cellular Box/Frame
the loads are transferred to the walls of the cells,
each wall being rigidly jointed to its neighbor
arrangement where both the internal and external
walls are load-bearing and arranged to form a
cellular system
resulting structure is rigid and stable, suited
applications where large areas are not required or
alteration in layout are unlikely

Solid Superstructures
Cross-walls

A generic method of building

construction using a series of division or
party walls which transfer the floor loads
through the building to foundation or

transfer slab level.

The walls are ususlly built at standardised

centres and spacing thus allowing other
elements aslo to be standardised

division or party walls

Solid Superstructures
Load bearing walls

A load-bearing wall (or bearing wall) is

a wall that bears a load resting upon it

Its weight is then transferred directly to the

foundation structure.

The materials most often used to construct

load-bearing walls in large buildings
are concrete, block, or brick.

Depending on the type of building and the

number of stories, load-bearing walls are
gauged to the appropriate thickness to carry
the weight above them.

Skeleton Structures
Comprise of a framework through which the
loads are concentrated and transferred to the

supporting structure or substructure

The strength of the members of the

framework and their connections plays an
important part in the transmission of the
applied loads

Common materials: timber, steel and

Reinforced concrete (RC)

Skeleton Structures
Apex Frame
Rectangular Frame
Truss Frame
Portal Frame
Shed Frame
Grid Frame
Geodesic Frame
Suspension Frame

Skeleton Structures
Apex Frame
Framework of poles is jointed at or near one end to provide the
framework of a conical shape

Apex Frame

Skeleton Structures
Rectangular Frame
A series of uprights and cross-members set up in mutually

perpendicular planes
Provides the framework for support to the floors, walls and roofs

Skeleton Structures
Truss Frame

The truss frame a structure comprising one

or more triangular units

Constructed with straight members whose

ends are connected at joints referred to
as nodes.

External forces and reactions to those forces

are considered to act only at the nodes and
result in forces in the members which are
either tensile or compressive forces.

Skeleton Structures
Portal Frame

Portal frame construction is a method of building

and designing simple structures, primarily
using steel or steel-reinforced precast concrete

Similar to an arch, but consisting of two uprights

rigidly jointed by a horizontal, sloping or curved third
member

Each frame requires lateral support, usually in the

form of bracing

Skeleton Structures
Shed Frame

Similar to portal
frame, but the third
member is in the
form of a roof truss

Skeleton Structures
Grid Frame (Space Frames)
Used for lightweight roof structure covering large
open floor areas
The frame comprises a series of triangular frames

set out in the form of a grid

The grid may be in the form of one, two or three
layers or of a space grid which comprises a sixmember frame joined to other similar frames
forming a strong rigid framework

Skeleton Structures
Geodesic Frame

Formed in the shape of a dome and comprising a

network of triangular frames in the form of spherical
triangles

i.e. portions of a sphere formed by the intersections

of great circles (great circles has a diameter equal to
that of the sphere it is drawn on)

The greater the number of triangles used in the

structure, the less the chance of collapse

Skeleton Structures
Suspension Frame
Used in multi-storey construction, it
comprises a central solid support structure
extending to the full height of the building

At the top of which a rigid horizontal

support structure is cantilevered out over
the plan area of the building

Skeleton Structures
Functional Requirements

The primary function of a skeleton frame is to carry all the loads imposed on the
building, without deforming excessively under load as a whole or in parts

Transfers all these loads to the building sub-structure (foundation)

To meet this function efficiently, it must have adequate design and construction
regarding:
i)

strength and stability - appropriate materials & stiffness of joints

ii)

fire resistance - for a period long enough for occupants to escape

Surface Structures
Load carried by the roof and has thin skin

which is:
i.

Sufficiently rigid to be self-supporting when

shaped and the shape provides additional
strength

ii.

Sufficiently strong but flexible enough to support

load when stretched across a supporting
framework

Surface Structures
Shell dome
Shell barrel vault

Suspension roofs and tents

Air-supported structure

Surface Structures
Shell Dome

Surface Structures
Barrel Vault
Both structures above use
their curved shape to obtain
strength e.g. principle of an
egg, when pressed by fingers
it will not break

Surface Structures
Barrel Vault

Surface Structures
Suspension Roofs & Tents

The membrane stretched over some other skeleton framed

Form a structural component itself

Air-Supported Structures

Advantages of Skeleton
Frame Structure
Advantages over solid & surface structures:
1.

Save in floor space

2.

Flexible in plan and building operations (because of the

absence of the load bearing walls at any level)

3.

Reduction of dead weight

Classification of Frames
The building frames may be classified according to the stiffness or
rigidity of the joints between members (especially in columns and
beams)
Non-rigid frame

The nature of the joints is such that the beams are assumed to
be simply supported and the joints are non-rigid

Rigidity in the frame structure as a whole is ensured by the

inclusions of some stiffening elements in the structure, often in
the form of triangulating members bracing (normally in steel
and pre-cast concrete frame)

Classification of Frames
Semi-rigid frame

Where some or all joints

achieved some degree of
rigidity
Normally used in steel framed
buildings where connection are
of both bolt and weld)

Classification of Frames
3. Fully Rigid Frame
-

Where all joints are rigid

Normally in steel where joints are

welded & conc. frame where
members are cast monolithically

1.
2.
-

Choice of Structural Materials for

Building Frames
Concrete
Strength varies according to the mix
Strong in compression weak in tension
Compressive strength 1/16 of steel
Tensile strength 1/10 of its compressive strength
Stiffness is low compared to steel

Steel
Very strong and stiff
Strong both in compression and tension
Relatively economical
Non-combustible; but at 427 C 482 C it will lost strength

Factors that Influence the Choice of Building Frame

Structural Materials
i.

Availability of materials and labours

ii.

Cost

iii.

Speed of erection

iv.

Possibility of standardizing the size of structural members

v.

Size and nature of site

vi.

Fire resistance required