Experiment 7: Heterogeneous Equilibria

Lanuza, Danica Francia D. && Sy, Chantal Marie S.

Group 7, Chem 18.1, EG1, Ms. Jireh Sacramento

May 9, 2012

Abstract
Equilibrium is known to be the state of balance. Substances in chemical equilibrium can be
described through the states that they are in. A chemical combination that is in chemical equilibrium could
be in a homogeneous or heterogeneous state and the term to be used for these balanced systems would
follow their state. Precipitation can be classified under heterogeneous equilibrium. This solid formation out
of aqueous solutions occurs when ions react and bond together in the mixture. A practical way of easily
collecting the precipitate in a solution is through centrifugation. With the use of a centrifuge, the extreme
pull that is intensified in the instrument would instantly harvest the solid forms at the bottom of the test
tube wherein the solution was placed in. In this experiment, three ways to observe precipitates were
done. First, certain solutions were combined and observed, comparing their Qsp and Ksp, it can be
determined whether they will form precipitates or not. When Qi = Ksp, the solution is saturated whereas if
Qi > Ksp, the solution is momentarily supersaturated, and some solid precipitates until the remaining
solution becomes saturated (Qi = Ksp) and when Qi < Ksp, the solution is unsaturated, and no precipitate
forms at that temperature, thus more solid can dissolve. In the next part entitled dissolution of
precipitates, certain precipitates were formed and were then dissolved using different solutions. The
solubilities of certain compounds were observed upon application of a certain stress, and was further
explained by Le Chateliers Principle. Lastly, fractional precipitation was done; this is also known as
selective precipitation because certain precipitates were allowed to form before the others, these
precipitates from the mixture of certain compound were then removed to make way for another precipitate
to form, until such time that precipitates no longer form.
II. Keywords: ion product, fractional precipitation, heterogeneous equilibrium, Le Chateliers principle,
precipitation, solubility product constant
III. Introduction
The solubility of a solute or any substance is
significant when dealing with solutions. This
determines how much of this solute or substance
can be dissolved in a given solvent.
To determine this solubility, there is a
mathematical equation that can be used, the
solubility product constant (Ksp). From its name
itself, this constant is the product of the molar
concentration of the ions that were dissociated in
the solution raised to the power of their
corresponding coefficients in the balanced
chemical equation at equilibrium.
For solutions that involve ionic solutes in
aqueous solutions, there exist three kinds of
solutions based on the Ksp of the solute and its
ion product (Qi or Qsp). This ion product has the
equation similar to the solubility product constant
except that the concentrations involved are not at
equilibrium. This means that the Qi can be
equated to the product of the molar
concentrations of the ions raised to their
corresponding coefficients in the balanced ionic
equation. With these two values, Ksp and Qsp, the
solution being observed may be identified as
unsaturated, saturated or supersaturated.

Experiment 7 Heterogeneous Equilibria

If the Qsp and the Ksp are equal, then it means

that the reaction or the system is at equilibrium
and this type of solution can be termed saturated.
If the Qsp is greater that the Ksp, then the solution
is unsaturated or the solution will proceed to
dissolve additional solute until it becomes
saturated. If the Qsp is greater that the Ksp, then
the incorporated solute in excess of the solubility
will proceed into precipitation until such time that
the Qsp and the Ksp are equal.
Precipitation means that the ions in excess or
those that exceed the Ksp would bond back
together to form a solid in the solution to keep the
system at equilibrium, as suggested by the Le
Chateliers principle. This kind of equilibrium is
called a heterogeneous equilibrium wherein 2 or
more states are involved in the reaction. This
phenomenon can be observed in multiple
solutions such as how powdered juice or sugar
settles down at the bottom of a juice mixture.
Precipitation can be manipulated depending
on how someone would want to use it. There is
selective precipitation and dissolution of
precipitates. In selective precipitation or fractional
precipitation, to remove a specific ion from a
solution, a reagent may be added to dissociate
and bond with the unwanted ion to form a
precipitate. The solution will then be centrifuged
Page 1

and decanted to remove the liquid for it to be

used to remove other unwanted ions. This would
occur depending on the solubility of the products
to separate two or more ions that form insoluble
products. It will also be done repeatedly until no
more precipitates will form.
Through the method of dissolution of the
precipitates, on the other hand, a precipitate can
be converted into a soluble substance. It may be
performed by varying the pH, treating with
oxidizing agent or treating with a complexing
agent. A complexing agent or complex ion is a
compound of a central metal cation surrounded
by a number of ligands (ion, atom or molecule).
Upon formation of complex ion, it reduces the
concentration of the free ion in the solution thus
increases solubility of slightly soluble salt.
To collect precipitate, an instrument called a
centrifuge is used. It intensifies the effective force
of gravity to immediately gather all the precipitate
at the bottom of the test tube where it floated
around in. This process is also known as
centrifugation. It is not permanent, though. If the
test tube is shook once again, the precipitate may
be disturbed once more, causing the particles to
float around in the solution again.
III. Experimental
The experiment was divided into three
parts. Part A focuses on precipitation, whereas
part B focuses on dissolution of precipitates and
part C deals with fractional precipitation.
In Part A, four test tubes were labeled A, B,
C, and D. In test tube A, 5 drops of 0.1 M CaCl 2,
5 drops of 1 M NH4OH, and 15 drops of distilled
H2O were mixed. In test tube B, 5 drops of 0.1 M
CaCl2, 5 drops 1 M NaOH and 15 drops of
distilled water were mixed. In test tube C, 5 drops
of 0.1 M CaCl2, 5 drops of 3 M NaOAc and 15
drops of water were mixed. In test tube D, 5
drops of 0.1 M CaCl2, 5 drops of 3 M NH4OH and
15 drops of 4 M NH4Cl were mixed. All the test
tubes were centrifuged and the results were
observed.
In Part B.1, 10 drops each of 0.1 M solutions
of Pb(NO3)2 and AgNO3 were placed in two
separate test tubes. 0.1 M HCl was added
dropwise to each solution while shaking after
each drop until precipitation stops. Both test
tubes were centrifuged and observed. After that,
the supernatant liquid was decanted and the
precipitate was washed with 5 drops of water.
The wash water was the discarded and 2ml of
water was added to each test tube. The test
tubes were heated in a water bath and then
Experiment 7 Heterogeneous Equilibria

observed. It was then cooled to room

temperature and was compared with the previous
observation. Separately, the entire process was
repeated but instead of the addition of 2mL water,
2mL of concentrated NH4OH was gradually
added.
In Part B.2, 10 drops each of Pb(NO3)2 and
Ba(NO3)2 were placed in two separate test tubes.
Three drops of 0.1M K2CrO4 were then added to
each of the test tubes. After the addition of
K2CrO4, 3 drops of 1 M HNO3 were added to
each test tube then the tubes were observed.
After which, both solutions were neutralized by
adding 3 drops of 6 M NaOH or until precipitation
occurs. The test tubes were centrifuged and the
supernatant liquid was decanted. To each of the
precipitates, add 15 drops of 6 M NaOH and
observe.
In Part B.3, 10 drops of 0.1 M Ba(NO3)2 were
placed in two separate test tubes. 0.1 M of
Na2CO3 was added to the first tube until
precipitation is complete and 0.1 M Na2SO4 was
added to the second test tube. The tubes were
centrifuged and observed. After that, both
supernates were discarded then 5 drops of
concentrated HCl were added to the precipitates
and the results were observed.
In Part B.4, 10 drops of 0.1 M Cu(NO3)2 were
placed into two separate test tubes. 3 M HOAc
was added dropwise until the solution is acidic to
litmus. Thioacetamide was then added dropwise
to each solution until precipitation is complete.
Both tubes were centrifuged and then decanted.
2 mL of water was added, it was stirred,
centrifuged and decanted. To the first test tube, 5
drops of 6 M HCl was added to its precipitate
while 5 drops of 6 M HNO3 was added to the
other tube. Both test tubes were heated in a
water bath and observed.
In Part C, 5 drops each of 0.01 M solutions of
K2CrO4, Na2S, KI and 20 drops of H2O were
mixed in a test tube, then 0.001 M Pb(NO3)2 was
then added dropwise. The test tube was
centrifuged after addition of each drop of
Pb(NO3)2 until no more precipitate is formed.
IV. Results
Part A. Precipitation
Test Tube
A
B
C
D

2+

[Ca ]
0.02 M
0.02 M
0.02 M
0.02 M

[OH ]
-3
1.9 x 10 M
0.2 M
0.6 M
-5
4.5 x 10 M

Ion Product
-8
7.2 x 10
-4
8 x 10
-12
6.67 x 10
-13
4.1 x 10

Page 2

Part B. Dissolution of Precipitates

V. Discussion

1. Dissolution of precipitates after addition of HCl

and the effects of temperature

Compound

+ 0.1
M HCl
white
ppt
white
ppt

Pb(NO3)2
AgNO3

Compound
Pb(NO3)2
AgNO3

+ 2 mL
water and
heat
ppt
disintegrated
ppt
disintegrated

+ 0.1 M
HCl
white ppt
white ppt

After
cooling
ppt
reappeared
---

+ 2 mL NH4OH
ppt remained
ppt dissolved

2. Dissolution of precipitates after addition of

K2CrO4, HNO3 and NaOH
Compound

+ 0.1 M
K2CrO4

Pb(NO3)2

yellow ppt

Ba(NO3)2

yellow ppt

+ HNO3
ppt
decreased
ppt
decresed

+ NaOH
no ppt
ppt
decreased

3. Dissolution of precipitates after addition of

Na2CO3 and Na2SO4.
Solution

Observations

Ba(NO3)2 + Na2CO3

white ppt

Ba(NO3)2 + Na2SO4

white ppt

+ HCl
ppt
dissolved
ppt
remained

4. Dissolution of precipitates after addition of HCl

and HNO3.

In part A, CaCl2 and NH4OH were diluted

2+
in water. Ca
from CaCl2 reacted with
compounds that produced OH in water.
Precipitate of Ca(OH)2 would form if its ion
product is greater than the value of its solubility
product constant, therefore, it would be compared
to its solubility-product constant.
2+

CaCl2
Ca + Cl
2+
Ca + OH
Ca(OH)2
The solubility product constant for this
2+
- 2
reaction would be Ksp = [Ca ][OH ] and the value
-6
of Ksp at equilibrium is 6.5 x 10 . The possibility
of formation of precipitates can be known by
comparing the solubility product constant and the
reaction quotient. The equation for calculating the
2+
- 2
reaction quotient is Qip = [Ca ][OH ] , the
concentrations to be used are the values
calculated based on the experiment. The
relationship of solubility product constant and the
reaction quotient can be stated as follows: if Q i =
Ksp, the system is at equilibrium, if Qi > Ksp, then
precipitation occurs in the solution, because
when Qi is greater than Ksp it means that there is
more products formed, therefore to maintain the
equilibrium of the system, the equilibrium will shift
backward thus producing its reactants which
include solids, whereas if Qi < Ksp, no
precipitation occurs because this means that
there are lesser products that are formed
therefore to maintain the equilibrium of the
system, the reaction will have a forward direction
thus producing more products.
For all the test tubes, the concentration of
2+
Ca is the same because CaCl2 is a salt and it
dissociates completely. It can be calculated by
using the equation: M1V1=M2V2.
2+

Compound

After
centrifugation

+ HCl

+ HNO3

Cu(NO3)2

black ppt

ppt
dissolved

---

Cu(NO3)2

black ppt

---

ppt
remained

Part C. Fractional precipitation

Brownish black precipitates were the first one
to be seen and then yellow precipitate was
formed, and then lastly, the color of the
precipitate that formed was orange.

Experiment 7 Heterogeneous Equilibria

M2 = (0.1M)(5 drops) = 0.02M = [Ca ]

(25 drops)
-

For test tube A, OH was produced from

NH4OH which is just similar to NH3 in water.
Since NH3 is a weak base, it does not dissociate
completely thus there is a need for the ionization
constant to compute for the concentration of OHat equilibrium. Using the ICE table:
+

NH4OH NH4 + OH
+
NH4 + OH- NH3 + H2O

Page 3

I
C
E

NH3(aq) + H2O NH4

0.2
0
-x
+x
0.2-x
x
+

+ OH(aq)
0
+x
x

(aq)

-5

Kb = [NH4 ] [OH ] = x
= 1.8 x 10
[NH3]
0.2 - x

-5

Solving for x, x=1.8 x 10 . Substituting it

-12
to Qip, Qip= 6.48 x 10 , therefore, no precipitation
will be observed because Qi < Ksp.
+
For test tube D, [NH4 ] would come from
NH4Cl since it dissociates completely.
+

-3

Calculating for x, x = 1.93 x 10 which is

equal to the concentration of the hydroxide ion.
2+
2+
- 2
Substituting it and [Ca ] to Qip= [Ca ][OH ] , you
-8
can get the value of as 7.2 x 10 . Since Qip < Ksp,
no precipitation occurs.
For test tube B, [OH ] comes from NaOH
which is a strong base therefore it dissociates
completely into its ions.
+

M2= (1M)(5 drops) = 0.2 M = [NaOH]

(25 drops)
This means that the concentration of the
hydroxide ion is the same as the concentration of
NaOH. Substituting the values to Qip, we get its
-4
value as 8.0 x 10 which is greater than Ksp thus
the solution will have precipitates.
In Test Tube C, CaCl2 was added to
+
NaCH3COO which is a salt and ionized into Na
+
and CH3COO ; Na comes from a strong base
NaOH while CH3COO comes from a weak acid,
CH3COOH. Since CH3COO is a conjugate base
of a weak acid, it undergoes hydrolysis. Using the
equation M1V1=M2V2, the concentration of the
acetate ion can be calculated as 0.6 M.
+

NaOAc Na + OAc

M2 = (3M)(5 drops) = 0.6 M = [OAc ]

(25 drops)
The equation for the hydrolysis of the
acetate would be OAc + H2O HOAc + OH
-5
which has a Ka of 1.8 x 10 .
-14

-10

Kb = Kw = 1 x 10
=5.6 x 10
-5
Ka 1.8 x 10
-

I
C
E

OAc + H2O HOAc + OH

0.6
0
0
-x
+x
+x
0.6 - x
x
x
-

Kb = [HOAc] [OH ] = x
[OAc ]
0.6 - x

[NH4 ] = (4M)(5 drops) = 2.4 M

(25 drops)
[NH3], (3M)(5 drops) = 0.6 M
(25 drops)
+

NH3 + H2O NH4 + OH

0.6
2.4
0
-x
+x
+x
0.6 - x
2.4 + x
x

I
C
E

Na + OH NaOH

= 5.6 x 10

Experiment 7 Heterogeneous Equilibria

-10

NH4Cl NH4 + Cl
+
NH4 + OH NH3 + H2O

Kb = [NH4 ] [OH ] = x (2.4 + x )

[NH3]
0.6 - x

= 1.8 x 10

-5

-6

Solving for x, you can get 4.5 x 10 .

-13
Substituting the values, Qip= 4.1 x 10 , since it is
less than the Ksp, precipitation will not occur.
In part A, test tube A contains a weak
base, whereas in test tube B, it contains a strong
base, test tube C contains a buffer and test tube
D contains a salt. When you look at their
contents, test tube B will most likely have a
precipitate since it contains a lot of hydroxide ions
which are located in the product therefore, the
reaction will proceed reversibly thus having a
precipitate.
For part B, this part was done to observe
the dissolution of precipitates when reacted with
certain substances and is a typical example of
the effects further explained by Le Chateliers
principle. In number 1, involving nitrate of lead
and acetate of silver, it showed that their
reactions with HCl, which is a strong acid, formed
chlorides; both formed white precipitates with
AgCl having more precipitates which makes
sense because it has lower solubility product
constant thus making it more reactive with HCl.
The Ksp of the precipitates formed were PbCl2
-5
(Ksp = 1.7 x 10 ) in test tube A and AgCl (Ksp =
-10
1.8 x 10 ) in test tube B.
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 HCl (aq) PbCl2 (s) + 2 HNO3 (aq)
AgC2H3O2(aq) + HCl (aq) AgCl (s) + HAgC2H3O2 (aq)
As the two systems were subjected to
heat, the precipitates in the two compounds
gradually decreased at different degrees. The
Page 4

silver chloride did not dissolve completely. This

can be explained by different solubility product
constants of the two compounds. Lead chloride
-5
has a larger Ksp (1.7 x 10 ) compared to AgCl
-10
(1.8 x 10 ), thus lead chloride is expected to
dissolve easily. This observation tells us that the
solubility of both lead chloride and silver chloride
increases when there is an increase in
temperature and therefore both are exothermic
reactions. PbCl2(s) is soluble at high temperature;
however AgCl(s) is not. After cooling, the
precipitate PbCl2(s) reappeared, this is so because
the as the solubility decreased upon cooling, so is
the amount of precipitate in the test tube.
The addition of ammonium hydroxide
allowed the dilution of AgCl(s) but not PbCl2(s); this
is so because PbCl2(s) reacted with a hydroxide
and formed another precipitate thus there was no
observed change in amount of precipitate while
the precipitate of silver chloride reacted with
ammonia and formed a complex ion +
Ag(NH3)2 (aq).
PbCl2(s) + 2NH4OH (aq) Pb(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl (aq)
+
AgCl Ag + Cl forming
+
+
2+
Ag + 2NH3 Ag(NH3)2
+

The concentration of Ag was decreased

because of the formation of the complex ion,
making the equilibrium shift towards its
production, as stated by Le Chateliers principle.
The reaction of NH4OH with PbCl2 produced
Pb(OH)2, a slightly soluble compound which
settled at the bottom of the test tube.
For the second set of reactions, nitrates
of lead and barium were reacted with K2CrO4(aq).
Their
respective
cations
formed
yellow
2+
precipitates with CrO4 .
Pb(NO3)2(aq)+ K2CrO4(aq)
PbCrO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Ba(NO3)2(aq)+ K2CrO4(aq)
BaCrO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
+
22+
PbCrO4(s)+ 2H Cr2O7 (aq)+ H2O(l)+ 2Pb (aq)
+
22+
BaCrO4(s)+ 2H Cr2O7 (aq)+ H2O(l)+ 2Pb (aq)
After adding HNO3, the precipitates
+
decreased because the H ions of the nitric acid
reacted with the chromate ions forming weak
acids, therefore both precipitates dissolved. This
is so because when a slightly soluble electrolyte
contains an ion that will form a weak acid,
+
addition of H ion to the solution will cause the
precipitate to dissolve.
2-

Cr2O7

(aq) +

2OH

(aq)

2-

H2O (l) + 2CrO4

Experiment 7 Heterogeneous Equilibria

(aq)

Formation of precipitates was evident

upon addition of NaOH because the dichromate
ions bonded with hydroxides, initiating formation
of chromate ions again. The addition of NaOH
dissolved the PbCrO4(s) but not BaCrO4(s). Since
nitrates are soluble in water. The addition of
NaOH to barium nitrate forms the slightly soluble
compound Ba(OH)2. The addition of excess
NaOH will not dissolve the precipitate Ba(OH)2
because of the common ion effect. The reaction
of Pb(NO3)2 with NaOH formed lead (II)
hydroxide, Pb(OH)2 which is insoluble in water
and will precipitate.
2-

2-

Cr2O7 (aq) + 2OH (aq) H2O (l) + 2CrO4 (aq)

2PbCrO4 (s) + 2OH Cr2O4 (aq) + Pb(OH)2 (s)
For the third set of reactions, Ba(NO3)2
was made to react with Na2SO4 and Na2CO3 in
separate test tubes. Both solutions formed white
cloudy precipitates.
Ba(NO3)(aq)+Na2CO3(aq) BaCO3(s)+NaNO3(aq)
Ba(NO3)2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s)+NaNO3(aq)
BaCO3 dissolved completely upon
2addition of HCl because CO3 would react with
+
H and form bicarbonate and then establish
equilibrium through effervesence. However,
BaSO4 did not dissolve in HCl because the
reaction formed H2SO4, which dissociated
completely to its ions but remained in the
solution. There is no shift in the equilibrium

because the SO4 ions are not consumed, and,

leaving the BaSO4 undissolved.
BaCO3(s)+ 2HCl (aq) BaCl2(s)+ H2O(l) + CO2(g)
BaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq)BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
For the last set of reactions, a solution of
Cu(NO3)2,
CH3COOH,
and
thioacetamide
(CH3CSNH2) was made to react with HCl and
HNO3.
The reaction of copper nitrate and
thioacetamide produced CuS which is a black
precipitate because of the sulfide ion.
+

CH3CSNH2(aq)+2H2O CH3COO(aq)+NH4
2+
2Cu (aq) + S (aq)
CuS (s)

(aq)+H2S(aq)

3CuS(aq)+8HNO3(aq) 3Cu(NO3)2(aq)+2NO+4H2O+3S(s)

After heating, the test tube containing

HCl still had remaining precipitate, while test tube
B with HNO3 had no more precipitate left. This is
so because CuS was able to dissolve in HNO3

2
because the NO3 from HNO3 oxidized the S
2
ions to form elemental sulfur. The decrease of S
Page 5

ions in the reactant side shifted the reaction

forward, towards the dissolution of CuS. HNO3
served as an oxidizing reagent. This reaction did
not happen in the test tube with HCl, but instead,
HCl served as an acid. Thats why its precipitate,
CuCl2 remained undissolved.
Part C is all about fractional precipitation,
which is the removal of some ions from solution
by precipitation while leaving other ions with
similar properties in solution.
Fractional precipitation is done by
separation of ions one at a time in a solution and
is done by inducing precipitation using different
reagents. It is important that there is a significant
difference in the Ksp values of the substances
being separated to identify the order in which
salts will precipitate. This is an application of
using the differences in Ksp. A higher difference in
the solubility product constant implies a higher
degree of ionization.
Pb(NO3)2 was used as the indicator
which formed precipitates. In the first reagent,
brown precipitates were observed indicated by
the sulfide ion from Na2S, next was a yellowish
color in the second solution indicated by
chromate ions from K2CrO4, and for the last one,
orange colored precipitates were observed which
were indicated by iodide ions from KI. The first
reagent that precipitated was PbS (Ksp = 3 x 10
25
) since it has the lowest Ksp value therefore it
was the least soluble in the solution. Next is
-13
PbCrO4 (Ksp = 2.3 x 10 ) and lastly, PbI2 (Ksp =
-9
7.9 x 10 ) which dissolved the fastest since it has
the highest Ksp value meaning it is more soluble.
In other words, less Pb (II) ions were needed to
react with sulfur which made it easier for the
brown precipitate to be formed. The next ion that
needed more Pb (II) ions were the chromate ions
and the ion that needed the most were the Iodine
ions.
2+

Pb

2+

Pb

2-

(aq) + S (aq)
2(aq) + Cr2O4 (aq)
2+
Pb (aq) + 2I (aq)

PbS (s) (brown)

PbCrO4 (s) (orange)
PbI2 (s) (yellow)

IV. Conclusions and Recommendations

Precipitation will happen only when the Qsp
exceeds Ksp. This would bring the system into a
heterogeneous equilibrium, a balanced condition
that involves two or more states involved. If the
Qsp < Ksp of the solution, this means that the
solution is unsaturated and no precipitate will
form. If the Qsp = Ksp of the solution, then it is in
ionix equilibrium.

Experiment 7 Heterogeneous Equilibria

In the case where an unwanted ion is in the

solution, selective precipitation may be performed
wherein a reagent would be added to bond with
the unwanted ion and would be expelled as
precipitate. The difference though of the vales of
the Ksp of the reagents would give a hint on the
order of the precipitation of the salts.
On the other hand, the dissolution of
precipitates would depend on certain aspects of
the involved solutes. For example, for an
endothermic reaction, an increase in temperature
would bring an increase in solubility of the soluble
salts. To reduce the concentration of an ion in an
equilibrium with a slightly soluble solid, there may
be three ways to use. There may be a variation in
pH, formation of a complex ion or an addition of a
redox agent. An addition of an oxidizing reagent
or a complex ion or an ion of a central metal
cation surrounded by a number of ligands (ion,
atom or molecule) would increase the solubility of
salts.
It is recommended that the centrifuge
would be used longer in order to fully gather the
precipitates. In the fractional precipitation portion
of the experiment, extreme patience is needed
because it is really difficult to bring out the
theoretical precipitates. A steady hand is needed
when dealing with precipitates because they can
be easily disturbed which could possibly allow
them to refloat around the solution. When
decanting, there should also be a prepared empty
container to be used in order to prevent hassles
in transferring solutions.
IX. References
Brown, T.L., LeMay, Jr. H.E. and Bursten (2004).
Chemistry: The Central Science. 9th ed.
Philippines: Pearson Education Asia Ltd.
Chabay, R., Jones, L., Kean, E., et al. (2000).
Solubility. Retrieved May 5, 2012 from
http://www.chem.wisc.edu/deptfiles/genchem/
sstutorial/Text11/Tx112/tx112.html
th

Chang, R. (2007). Chemistry (10 ed.). New York, NY.

McGraw-Hill.
Dios, A. (1996). Le Chateliers Principle. Retrieved May
5,
2012
from
http://bouman.chem.georgetown.edu/S02/lect
8/lect8.htm

I hereby certify that I have given substantial

contribution to this report.
____________________
Danica Francia Lanuza

________________
Chantal Marie S. Sy
Page 6