Important considerations when design protection system

Important considerations when design protection system

1. Types of fault and abnormal Conditions to be protected against
2. Quantities available for measurement
3. Types of protection available
4. Speed
5. Fault position discrimination
6. Dependability / reliability
7. Security / stability
8. Overlap of protections
9. Phase discrimination / selectivity
10.CT’s and VT’s ratio required
11. Auxiliary supplies
12. Back-up protection
13. Cost
14. Duplication of protection

Types of protection
A - Fuses
For LV Systems, Distribution Feeders and Transformers, VT’s, Auxiliary Supplies

B - Over current and earth fault

Widely used in All Power Systems
1. Non-Directional
2. Directional

C - DIFFERENTIAL
For feeders, Bus-bars, Transformers, Generators etc
1. High Impedance
2. Low Impedance
3. Restricted E/F
4. Biased
5. Pilot Wire

D - Distance
For transmission and sub-transmission lines and distribution feeders, also used as back-up
protection for transformers and generators without signaling with signaling to provide unit
protection e.g.:

1. Time-stepped distance protection

 2. Permissive underreach protection (PUP)
3. Permissive overreach protection (POP)
4. Unblocking overreach protection (UOP)
5. Blocking overreach protection (BOP)
6. Power swing blocking
7. Phase comparison for transmission lines
8. Directional comparison for transmission lines

E - Miscellaneous:
1. Under and over voltage
2. Under and over frequency
3. A special relay for generators, transformers, motors etc.
4. Control relays: auto-reclose, tap change control, etc.
5. tripping and auxiliary relays

Speed
Fast operation: minimizes damage and danger
Very fast operation: minimizes system instability discrimination and security can be costly
to achieve.
Examples:
1. differential protection
2. differential protection with digital signaling
3. distance protection with signaling
4. directional comparison with signaling

Fault position discrimination

Power system divided into protected zones must isolate only the faulty equipment or section

Dependability / reliability
Protection must operate when required to Failure to operate can be extremely damaging and
disruptive Faults are rare. Protection must operate even after years of inactivity Improved by
use of:
1. Back-up Protection and
2. duplicate Protection

Security / Stability
Protection must not operate when not required to e.g. due to:
1. Load Switching
2. Faults on other parts of the system
3. Recoverable Power Swings
Overlap of protections
1. No blind spots
2. Where possible use overlapping CTs
Phase discrimination / selectivity
Correct indication of phases involved in the fault Important for Single Phase Tripping and
auto-Reclosing applications

Current and voltage transformers

These are an essential part of the Protection Scheme. They must be suitably specified to
meet the requirements of the protective relays.
1A and 5A secondary current ratings, Saturation of current transformers during heavy fault
conditions should not exceed the limits laid down by the relay manufacturer.
Current transformers for fast operating protections must allow for any offset in the current
waveform. Output rating under fault conditions must allow for maximum transient offset.
This is a function of the system X/R ratio.
Current Transformer Standards/Classes:
British Standards: 10P, 5P, X
IEC: 10P, SP, TPX, TPY, TPZ
American: C, T.
Location of CTs should, if possible, provide for overlap of protections. Correct connection
of CTs to the protection is important. In particular for directional, distance, phase
comparison and differential protections. VT’s may be Electromagnetic or Capacitor types.
Busbar VT’s: Special consideration needed when used for Line Protection.

Auxiliary supplies

Required for:
1. Tripping circuit breakers
2. Closing circuit breakers
3. Protection and trip relays
• AC. auxiliary supplies are only used on LV and MV systems.
• DC. auxiliary supplies are more secure than ac supplies.
• Separately fused supplies used for each protection.
• Duplicate batteries are occasionally provided for extra security.
• Modern protection relays need a continuous auxiliary supply.
• During operation, they draw a large current which increases due to operation
of output elements.
Relays are given a rated auxiliary voltage and an operative auxiliary voltage range.
the rated value is marked on the relay. Refer to relay documentation for details of operative
range. it is important to make sure that the range of voltages which can appear at the relay
auxiliary supply terminals is within the operative range.
IEC recommended values (IEC 255-6):
Rated battery voltages:
12, 24, 48, 60, 11 0, 125, 220, 250, 440
Preferred operative range of relays:
80 to 10% of voltage rated
AC. component ripple in the dc supply:
<10% of voltage rated

COST
The cost of protection is equivalent to insurance policy against damage to plant, and loss of
supply and customer goodwill.
Acceptable cost is based on a balance of economics and technical factors. Cost of protection
should be balanced against the cost of potential hazards there is an economic limit on what
can be spent.

Minimum cost:
Must ensure that all faulty equipment is isolated by protection
Other factors:
1. Speed
2. Security/Stability
3. Sensitivity:
Degree of risk in allowing a low level fault to develop into a more severe fault
4. Reliability

Total cost should take account of:

1. Relays, schemes and associated panels and panel wiring
2. Setting studies
3. Commissioning
4. CT’s and VT’s
5. Maintenance and repairs to relays
6. Damage repair if protection fails to operate
7. Lost revenue if protection operates unnecessarily

Distribution systems
1. Large number of switching and distribution points, transformers and feeders.
2. Economics often overrides technical issues
3. Protection may be the minimum consistent with - statutory safety regulations
4. Speed less important than on transmission systems
5. Back-up protection can be simple and is often inherent in the main protection.
6. Although important, the consequences of maloperation or failure to operate are less
serious than for transmission systems.
Transmission systems
1. Emphasis is on technical considerations rather than economics
2. Economics cannot be ignored but is of secondary importance compared with the need
for highly reliable, fully discriminative high speed protection
3. Higher protection costs justifiable by high capital cost of power system elements
protected.
4. Risk of security of supply should be reduced to the lowest practical levels
5. High speed protection requires unit protection
6. Duplicate protections used to improve reliability
7. Single phase tripping and auto-reclose may be required to maintain system stability

Basic of protection system

Introduction
The purpose of an electrical power generation system is to distribute energy to a
multiplicity of points for diverse applications.

The system should be designed and managed to deliver this energy to the utilization
points with both reliability and economy.

As these two requirements are largely opposed, it is instructive to look at the

relationship between the reliability of a system and its cost and value to the consumer,
which is shown in Figure 1.
 Figure 1 Relationship between reliability of supply,
its cost and value to the consumer.

It is important to realize that the system is viable only between the cross-
over points A and B. The diagram illustrates the significance of reliability in system
design, and the necessity of achieving sufficient reliability.

On the other hand, high reliability should not be pursued as an end in itself,
regardless of cost, but should rather be balanced against economy, taking all factors
into account.

Security of supply can be bettered by improving plant design, increasing the

spare capacity margin and arranging alternative circuits to supply loads. Sub-
division of the system into zones, each controlled by switchgear in association with
protective gear, provides flexibility during normal operation and ensures a minimum
of dislocation following a breakdown.

The greatest threat to a secure supply is the shunt fault or short circuit, which
imposes a sudden and sometimes violent change on system operation.

The large current which then flows, accompanied by the localized release of a
considerable quantity of energy, can cause fire at the fault location, and mechanical
damage throughout the system, particularly to machine and transformer windings.
Rapid isolation of the fault by the nearest switch-gear will minimize the damage and
disruption caused to the system.

A power system represents a very large capital investment. To maximize the return on
this outlay, the system must be loaded as much as possible. For this reason it is
necessary not only to provide a supply of energy which is attractive to prospective
users by operating the system within the range AB (Figure 1.1), but also to keep the
system in full operation as far as possible continuously, so that it may give the best
service to the consumer, and earn the most.

Revenue for the supply authority. Absolute freedom from failure of the plant
and system network cannot be guaranteed.

The risk of a fault occurring, however slight for each item, is multiplied by the
number of such items which are closely associated in an extensive system, as any
fault produces repercussions throughout the net-work. When the system is large, the
chance of a fault occurring and the disturbance that a fault would bring are both so
great that without equipment to remove faults the system will become, in practical
terms, inoperable.

The object of the system will be defeated if adequate provision for fault
clearance is not made. Nor is the installation of switchgear alone sufficient;
discriminative protective gear, designed according to the characteristics and
requirements of the power system, must be provided to control the switchgear.

A system is not properly designed and managed if it is not adequately

protected. This is the measure of the importance of protective systems in modern
practice and of the responsibility vested in the protection engineer.

Fundamentals of protection practice

This is a collective term which covers all the equipment used for detecting, locating
and initiating the removal of a fault from the power system. Relays are extensively
used for major protective functions, But the term also covers direct-acting A.C. trips
and fuses.

In addition to relays the term includes all accessories such as current and
voltage transformers, shunts, D.C. and A.C. wiring and any other devices relating to
the protective relays.

In general, the main switchgear, although fundamentally protective in its

function, is excluded from the term 'protective gear', as are also common services,
such as the station battery and any other equipment required to secure operation of
the circuit breaker.

In order to fulfil the requirements of discriminative protection with the

optimum speed for the many different configurations, operating conditions and
construction features of power systems, it has been necessary to develop many types
of relay which respond to various functions of the power system quantities.

For example, observation simply of the magnitude of the fault current suffices
in some cases but measurement of power or impedance may be necessary in others.
Relays frequently measure complex functions of the system quantities, which are
only readily expressible by mathematical or graphical means.

In many cases it is not feasible to protect against all hazards with any one relay.
Use is then made of a combination of different types of relay which individually
protect against different risks. Each individual protective arrangement is known as a
'protection system'; while the whole coordinated combination of relays is called a
'protection scheme'.
• Reliability
The need for a high degree of reliability is discussed in Section 1. Incorrect operation
can be attributed to one of the following classifications:

a. Incorrect design.
b. Incorrect installation.
c. Deterioration.
d. Protection performance

1. Design
This is of the highest importance. The nature of the power system condition which is
being guarded against must be thoroughly understood in order to make an adequate
design. Comprehensive testing is just as important, and this testing should cover all
aspects of the protection, as well as reproducing operational and environmental
conditions as closely as possible. For many protective systems, it is necessary to test
the complete assembly of relays, current transformers and other ancillary items, and
the tests must simulate fault conditions realistically.

2. Installation.
The need for correct installation of protective equipment is obvious, but the
complexity of the interconnections of many systems and their relation-ship to the
remainder of the station may make.

Difficult the checking of such correctness. Testing is therefore necessary; since

it will be difficult to reproduce all fault conditions correctly, these tests must be
directed to proving the installation. This is the function of site testing, which should
be limited to such simple and direct tests as will prove the correctness of the
connections and freedom from damage of the equipment.

No attempt should be made to 'type test' the equipment or to establish complex

aspects of its technical performance;

3. Deterioration in service.
After a piece of equipment has been installed in perfect condition, deterioration may
take place which, in time, could interfere with correct functioning. For example,
contacts may become rough or burnt owing to frequent operation, or tarnished owing
to atmospheric contamination; coils and other circuits may be open-circuited,
auxiliary components may fail, and mechanical parts may become clogged with dirt
or corroded to an extent that may interfere with movement.

One of the particular difficulties of protective relays is that the time between
operations may be measured in years, during which period defects may have
developed unnoticed until revealed by the failure of the protection to respond to a
power system fault. For this reason, relays should be given simple basic tests at
suitable intervals in order to check that their ability to operate has not deteriorated.
Testing should be carried out without disturbing permanent connections. This
can be achieved by the provision of test blocks or switches.
Draw-out relays inherently provide this facility; a test plug can be inserted
between the relay and case contacts giving access to all relay input circuits for
injection. When temporary disconnection of panel wiring is necessary, mistakes in
correct restoration of connections can be avoided by using identity tags on leads and
terminals, clip-on leads for injection supplies, and easily visible double-ended clip-on
leads where 'jumper connections' are required.
The quality of testing personnel is an essential feature when assessing
reliability and considering means for improvement. Staff must be technically
competent and adequately trained, as well as self-disciplined to proceed in a
deliberate manner, in which each step taken and quantity measured is checked before
final acceptance.
Important circuits which are especially vulnerable can be provided with
continuous electrical super-vision; such arrangements are commonly applied to
circuit breaker trip circuits and to pilot circuits.

4. Protection performance
The performance of the protection applied to large power systems is frequently
assessed numerically. For this purpose each system fault is classed as an incident and
those which are cleared by the tripping of the correct circuit breakers and only those
are classed as 'correct'.
The percentage of correct clearances can then be determined.
This principle of assessment gives an accurate evaluation of the protection of the
system as a whole, but it is severe in its judgment of relay performance, in that many
relays are called into operation for each system fault, and all must behave correctly
for a correct clearance to be recorded.

On this basis, a performance of 94 % is obtainable by standard techniques.

Complete reliability is unlikely ever to be achieved by further improvements in
construction. A very big step, however, can be taken by providing duplication of
equipment or 'redundancy'. Two complete sets of equipment are provided, and
arranged so that either by itself can carry out the required function. If the risk of an
equipment failing is x/unit, the resultant risk, allowing for redundancy, is x2. Where x
is small the resultant risk (x2) may be negligible.
It has long been the practice to apply duplicate protective systems to bus-bars,
both being required to operate to complete a tripping operation, that is, a 'two-out-of-
two' arrangement. In other cases, important circuits have been provided with
duplicate main protection schemes, either being able to trip independently, that is, a
'one-out-of-two' arrangement. The former arrangement guards against unwanted
operation, the latter against failure to operate.
These two features can be obtained together by adopting a 'two-out-of-three'
arrangement in which three basic systems are used and are interconnected so that the
operation of any two will complete the tripping function.

Such schemes have already been used to a limited extent and application of the
principle will undoubtedly increase. Probability theory suggests that if a power
network were protected throughout on this basis, a protection performance of 99.98
% should be attainable.

This performance figure requires that the separate protection systems be

completely independent; any common factors, such as, for instance, common current
transformers or tripping batteries, will reduce the overall performance to a certain
extent.

• Selectivity.
Protection is arranged in zones, which should cover the power system completely,
leaving no part unprotected. When a fault occurs the protection is required to select
and trip only the nearest circuit breakers. This property of selective tripping is also
called 'discrimination' and is achieved by two general methods:

1. Time graded systems.

Protective systems in successive zones are arranged to operate in times which are
graded through the sequence of equipments so that upon the occurrence of a fault,
although a number of protective equipments respond, only those relevant to the faulty
zone complete the tripping function. The others make incomplete operations and then
reset.

2. Unit systems.
It is possible to design protective systems which respond only to fault conditions
lying within a clearly defined zone. This 'unit protection' or 'restricted Protection' can
be applied throughout a power system and, since it does not involve time grading,
can be relatively fast in operation.

Unit protection is usually achieved by means of a comparison of quantities at

the boundaries of the zone. Certain protective systems derive their 'restricted'
property from the configuration of the power system and may also be classed as unit
protection.
Whichever method is used, it must be kept in mind that selectivity is not merely
a matter of relay design.
It is a function of the correct co-ordination of current transformers and relays
with a suitable choice of relay settings, taking into account the possible range of such
variables as fault currents, maximum load current, system impedances and so on,
where appropriate.
• Zones of protection
Ideally, the zones of protection should overlap across the circuit breaker as shown in
Figure 2, the circuit breaker being included in both zones.

Figure 2. Location of current

transformers
on both sides of the circuit
breaker.

For practical physical reasons, this ideal is not always achieved,

accommodation for current trans-formers being in some cases available only on one
side of the circuit breakers, as in Figure 3. This leaves a section between the current
transformers and the circuit breaker A within which a fault is not cleared by the
operation of the protection that responds. In Figure 3 a fault at F would cause the
bus-bar protection to operate and open the circuit breaker but the fault would
continue to be fed through the feeder.
Figure 3 Location of current
transformers
on circuit side of the
circuit breaker.

The feeder protection, if of the unit type, would not operate, since the fault is
outside its zone. This problem is dealt. With by some form of zone extension, to
operate when opening the circuit breaker does not fully interrupt the flow of fault
current. A time delay is incurred in fault clearance, although by restricting this
operation to occasions when the bus-bar protection is operated the time delay can be
reduced.
Figure 4 Overlapping zones of protection systems.

The point of connection of the protection with the power system usually defines the
zone and corresponds to the location of the current transformers. The protection may
be of the unit type, in which case the boundary will be a clearly defined and closed
loop. Figure 4 illustrates a typical arrangement of overlapping zones.
Alternatively, the zone may be unrestricted; the start will be defined but the extent
will depend on measurement of the system quantities and will therefore be subject to
variation, owing to changes in system conditions and measurement errors.

• Stability.
This term, applied to protection as distinct from power networks, refers to the ability
of the system to remain inert to all load conditions and faults external to the relevant
zone. It is essentially a term which is applicable to unit systems; the term
'discrimination' is the equivalent expression applicable to non-unit systems.

• Speed.
The function of automatic protection is to isolate faults from the power system in a
very much shorter time than could be achieved manually, even with a great deal of
personal supervision. The object is to safeguard continuity of supply by removing
each disturbance before it leads to widespread loss of synchronism, which would
necessitate the shutting down of plant.

Loading the system produces phase displacements between the voltages at

different points and therefore increases the probability that synchronism will be lost
when the system is disturbed by a fault. The shorter the time a fault is allowed to
remain in the system, the greater can be the loading of the system. Figure 1.5 shows
typical relations between system loading and fault clearance times for various types of
fault.

It will be noted that phase faults have a more marked effect on the stability of
the system than does a simple earth fault and therefore require faster clearance.

It is not enough to maintain stability; unnecessary consequential damage must

also be avoided. The destructive power of a fault arc carrying a high current is very
great; it can burn through copper conductors or weld together core laminations in a
transformer or machine in a very short time. Even away from the fault arc itself,
heavy fault currents can cause damage to plant if they continue for more than a few
seconds

Figure 5 Typical values of power that can be

transmitted as a function of fault clearance time.

It will be seen that protective gear must operate as quickly as possible; speed,
however, must be weighed against economy.

For this reason, distribution circuits for which the requirements for fast
operation are not very severe are usually protected by time-graded systems, but
generating plant and EHV systems require protective gear of the highest attainable
speed; the only limiting factor will be the necessity for correct operation.
• Sensitivity
Sensitivity is a term frequently used when referring to the minimum operating current
of a complete protective system. A protective system is said to be sensitive if the
primary operating current is low.
 When the term is applied to an individual relay, it does not refer to a current or
voltage setting but to the volt-ampere consumption at the minimum operating current.
A given type of relay element can usually be wound for a wide range of setting
currents; the coil will have an impedance which is inversely proportional to the
square of the setting current value, so that the volt-ampere product at any setting is
constant.
This is the true measure of the input requirements of the relay, and so also of
the sensitivity. Relay power factor has some significance in the matter of transient
performance.
For D.C. relays the VA input also represents power consumption, and the burden
is therefore frequently quoted in watts.

Primary and back-up protection

The reliability of a power system has been discussed in earlier sections. Many factors
may cause protection failure and there is always some possibility of a circuit breaker
failure. For this reason, it is usual to supplement primary protection with other
systems to 'back-up' the operation of the main system and ensure that nothing can
prevent the clearance of a fault from the system.

Back-up protection may be obtained automatically as an inherent feature of the

main protection scheme, or separately by means of additional equipment.
Time graded schemes such as over current or distance protection schemes are
examples of those providing inherent back-up protection; the faulty section is
normally isolated discriminatively by the time grading, but if the appropriate relay
fails or the circuit breaker fails to trip, the next relay in the grading sequence will
complete its operation and trip the associated circuit breaker, thereby interrupting the
fault circuit one section further back. In this way complete back-up cover is obtained;
one more section is isolated than is desirable but this is inevitable in the event of the
failure of a circuit breaker.
Where the system interconnection is more complex, the above operation will
be repeated so that all parallel infeeds are tripped.

If the power system is protected mainly by unit schemes, automatic back-up

protection is not obtained, and it is then normal to supplement the main protection
with time graded over current protection, which will provide local back-up cover if
the main protective relays have failed, and will trip further back in the event of
circuit breaker failure.
 Such back-up protection is inherently slower than the main protection and,
depending on the power system configuration, may be less discriminative. For the
most important circuits the performance may not be good enough, even as a back-up
protection, or, in some cases, not even possible, owing to the effect of multiple
infeeds. In these cases duplicate high speed protective systems may be installed.
These provide excellent mutual back-up cover against failure of the protective
equipment, but either no remote back-up protection against circuit breaker failure or,
at best, time delayed cover.

Breaker fail protection can be obtained by checking that fault current ceases
within a brief time interval from the operation of the main protection. If this does not
occur, all other connections to the bus bar section are interrupted, the condition being
necessarily treated as a bus bar fault. This provides the required back-up protection
with the minimum of time delay, and confines the tripping operation to the one
station, as compared with the alternative of tripping the remote ends of all the
relevant circuits.
The extent and type of back-up protection which is applied will naturally be
related to the failure risks and relative economic importance of the system. For
distribution systems where fault clearance

Times are not critical, time delayed remote back-up protection is adequate but
for EHV systems, where system stability is at risk unless a fault is cleared quickly,
local back-up, as described above, should be chosen.

Ideal back-up protection would be completely independent of the main

protection. Current trans-formers, voltage transformers, auxiliary tripping relays, trip
coils and D.C. supplies would be duplicated. This ideal is rarely attained in practice.
The following compromises are typical:
a. Separate current transformers (cores and secondary windings only) are
used for each protective system, as this involves little extra cost or
accommodation compared with the use of common current transformers
which would have to be larger because of the combined burden.
b. Common voltage transformers are used because duplication would involve a
considerable increase in cost, because of the voltage transformers them-
selves, and also because of the increased accommodation which would have
to be provided. Since security of the VT output is vital, it is desirable that
the supply to each protection should be separately fused and also
continuously supervised by a relay which will give an alarm on failure of
 the supply and, where appropriate, prevent an unwanted operation of the
protection.
c. Trip supplies to the two protections should be separately fused. Duplication
of tripping batteries and of tripping coils on circuit breakers is sometimes
provided. Trip circuits should be continuously supervised.
d. It is desirable that the main and back-up protections (or duplicate main
protections) should operate on different principles, so that unusual events
that may cause failure of the one will be less likely to affect the other.

Definitions and Terminology

1. All-or-nothing relay
A relay which is not designed to have any specified accuracy as to its operating value.

2. Auxiliary relay.
An all-or-nothing relay used to supplement the performance of another relay, by
modifying contact performance for example, or by introducing time delays.

3. Back-up protection.
A protective system intended to supplement the main protection in case the latter
should be in-effective, or to deal with faults in those parts of the power system that are
not readily included in the operating zones of the main protection.

4. Biased relay.
A relay in which the characteristics are modified by the introduction of some quantity
other than the actuating quantity, and which is usually in opposition to the actuating
quantity.

5. Burden.
The loading imposed by the circuits of the relay on the energizing power source or
sources, expressed as the product of voltage and current (volt-amperes, or watts if D.C)
for a given condition, which may be either at 'setting' or at rated current or voltage.

The rated output of measuring transformers, expressed in VA, is always at rated current
or voltage and it is important, in assessing the burden imposed by a relay, to ensure that
the value of burden at rated current is used.

6. Characteristic angle.
The phase angle at which the performance of the relay is declared. It is usually the
angle at which maximum sensitivity occurs.

7. Characteristic curve.
The curve showing the operating value of the characteristic quantity corresponding to
various values or combinations of the energizing quantities.

8. Characteristic quantity.
A quantity, the value of which characterizes the operation of the relay, e.g. current for
an over current relay, voltage for a voltage relay, phase angle for a directional relay,
time for an independent time delay relay, impedance for an impedance relay.

9. Characteristic impedance ratio (C.I. R.)

The maximum value of the System Impedance Ratio up to which the relay performance
remains within the prescribed limits of accuracy.

10. Check protective system.

An auxiliary protective system intended to prevent tripping due to inadvertent operation
of the main protective system.

11. Conjunctive test.

A test on a protective system including all relevant components and ancillary equipment
appropriately interconnected. The test may be parametric or specific.

a. Parametric conjunctive test.

A test to ascertain the range of values that may be assigned to each parameter when
considered in combination with other parameters, while still complying with the relevant
performance requirements.

b. Specific conjunctive test.

A test to prove the performance for a particular application, for which definite values are
assigned to each of the parameters.

12. Dependent time delay relay.

A time delay relay in which the time delay varies with the value of the energizing
quantity.

13. Discrimination.
The quality whereby a protective system distinguishes between those conditions for
which it is intended to operate and those for which it shall not operate.
14. Drop-out.
A relay drops out when it moves from the energized position to the un-energized
position.

15. Drop-out / pick ratio.

The ratio of the limiting values of the characteristic quantity at which the relay resets
and operates. This value is sometimes called the differential of the relay.

16. Earth fault protective system.

A protective system which is designed to respond only to faults to earth.

17. Earthing transformer.

A three-phase transformer intended essentially to provide a neutral point to a power
system for the purpose of Earthing.

18. Effective range

The range of values of the characteristic quantity or quantities, or of the energizing
quantities to which the relay will respond and satisfy the requirements concerning it, in
particular those concerning precision.

19. Effective setting

The 'setting' of a protective system including the effects of current transformers. The
effective setting can be expressed in terms of primary current or secondary current from
the current transformers and is so designated as appropriate.

20. Electrical relay

A device designed to produce sudden predetermined changes in one or more electrical
circuits after the appearance of certain conditions in the electrical circuit or circuits
controlling it.
NOTE: The term 'relay' includes all the ancillary equipment calibrated with the device.

21. Energizing quantity.

The electrical quantity, either current or voltage, which alone or in combination with
other energizing quantities, must be applied to the relay to cause it to function.

22. Independent time delay relay.

A time delay relay in which the time delay is independent of the energizing quantity.
 21. Instantaneous relay.
A relay which operates and resets with no intentional time delay.
NOTE: All relays require some time to operate; it is possible, within the above
definition, to discuss the operating time characteristics of an instantaneous relay.

22. Inverse time delay relay.

A dependent time delay relay having an operating time which is an inverse function of
the electrical characteristic quantity.

23. Inverse time delay relay with definite minimum (I.D. M . T.)
A relay in which the time delay varies inversely with the characteristic quantity up to a
certain value, after which the time delay becomes substantially independent.

24. Knee-point e.m.f.

That sinusoidal e.m.f. applied to the secondary terminals of a current transformer,
which, when increased by 10 %, causes the exciting current to increase by 50%.

25. Main protection.

The protective system which is normally expected to operate in response to a fault in
the protected zone.

26. Measuring relay.

A relay intended to operate with a specified accuracy at one or more values of its
characteristic quantity.

27. Notching relay.

A relay which switches in response to a specific number of applied impulses.

28. Operating time.

With a relay de-energized and in its initial condition, the time which elapses between
the application of a characteristic quantity and the instant when the relay operates.

29. Operating time characteristic.

The curve depicting the relationship between different values of the characteristic
quantity applied to a relay and the corresponding values of operating time.

30. Operating value.

The limiting value of the characteristic quantity at which the relay actually operates.
31. Overshoot time.
The extent to which the condition that leads to final operation is advanced after the
removal of the energizing quantity, expressed as time at the rate of progress of the said
condition appropriate to the value of the energizing quantity that was initially applied.

32. Pick-up.
A relay is said to 'pick-up' when it changes from the un-energized position to the
energized position.

33. Pilot channel.

A means of interconnection between relaying points for the purpose of protection.

34. Protected zone.

The portion of a power system protected by a given protective system or a part of that
protective system.

35. Protective gear.

The apparatus, including protective relays, trans-formers and ancillary equipment, for
use in a protective system.

36. Protective relay.

A relay designed to initiate disconnection of a part of an electrical installation or to
operate a warning signal, in the case of a fault or other abnormal condition in the
installation. A protective relay may include more than one unit electrical relay and
accessories.

37. Protective scheme.

The coordinated arrangements for the protection of one or more elements of a power
system.
A protective scheme may comprise several protective systems.

38. Protective system.

A combination of protective gear designed to secure, under predetermined conditions,
usually abnormal, the disconnection of an element of a power system, or to give an
alarm signal, or both.

39. Rating.
The nominal value of an energizing quantity which appears in the designation of a
relay. The nominal value usually corresponds to the CT and VT secondary ratings.
40. Resetting value.
The limiting value of the characteristic quantity at which the relay returns to its initial
position.

41. Residua/ current.

The algebraic sum, in a multi-phase system, of all the line currents.

42. Residua/ voltage.

The algebraic sum, in a multi-phase system, of all the line-to-earth voltages.

43. Setting.
The limiting value of a 'characteristic' or 'energizing' quantity at which the relay is
designed to operate under specified conditions.
Such values are usually marked on the relay and may be expressed as direct values,
percentages of rated values, or multiples.

44. Stability.
The quality whereby a protective system remains inoperative under all conditions other
than those for which it is specifically designed to operate.

45. Stability limits.

The R.M.S. value of the symmetrical component of the through fault current up to
which the protective system remains stable.

46. Starting relay.

A unit relay which responds to abnormal conditions and initiates the operation of other
elements of the protective system.

47. System impedance ratio (S./.R.).

The ratio of the power system source impedance to the impedance of the protected
zone.

48. Through fault current.

The current flowing through a protected zone to a fault beyond that zone.

49. Time delay.

A delay intentionally introduced into the operation of a relay system.
50. Time delay relay.
A relay having an intentional delaying device.

51. Unit electrical relay.

A single relay which can be used alone or in combinations with others.

52. Unit protection.

A protection system which is designed to operate only for abnormal conditions within a
clearly defined zone of the power system.

53. Unrestricted protection.

A protection system which has no clearly defined zone of operation and which achieves
selective operation only by time grading.

• Fault Definitions and:

For the purpose of this International Standard, the following definitions, some of
them based on IEC 60050(191), IEC 60050(212) and
IEC 60050(604) apply:

1- Fault
An unplanned occurrence or defect in an item which may result in one or more
failures of the item itself or of other associated equipment
[IEC 604-02-011
NOTE - In electrical equipment, a fault may or may not result in damage to the
insulation and failure of the equipment.

2- Non-damage fault
A fault which does not involve repair or replacement action at the point of the fault
NOTE - Typical examples are self-extinguishing arcs in switching equipment or
general overheating without paper carbonization.
[IEC 604-02-091

3- Damage fault
A fault which involves repair or replacement action at the point of the fault
[IEC 604-02-08, modified]

4- Incident
An event related to an internal fault which temporarily or permanently disturbs the
normal operation of an equipment [IEV 604-02-03, modified]
NOTE - Typical examples are gas alarms, equipment tripping or equipment leakage.

5- Failure
The termination of the ability of an item to perform a required function [IEC 191-
04-01]

NOTE - In the electrical equipment, failure will result from a damage fault or
incident necessitating outage, repair or replacement of the equipment, such as
internal breakdown, rupture of tank, fire or explosion.

6- Electrical fault
a partial or disruptive discharge through the insulation.

7- Partial discharge
A discharge which only partially bridges the insulation between conductors. It may
occur inside the insulation or adjacent to a conductor
[IEC 212-01-34, modified]

NOTE 1 - Corona is a form of partial discharge that occurs in gaseous media around
conductors which are remote from solid or liquid insulation. This term is not to be
used as a general term for all forms of partial discharges.

NOTE 2 - X-wax is a solid material which is formed from mineral insulating oil as
a result of electrical discharges and which consists of polymerized fragments of the
molecules of the original liquid
[IEV 212-07-24, modified].
Comparable products may be formed from other liquids under similar conditions.

NOTE 3 - Sparking of low energy, for example because of metals or floating

potentials, is sometimes described as
Partial discharge but should rather be considered as a discharge of low energy.

8- Discharge (disruptive) .
The passage of an arc following the breakdown of the insulation
[IEC 604-03-38, modified]

NOTE 1 - Discharges are often described as arcing, breakdown or short circuits.

The more specific following terms are also used:
- spark over (discharge through the oil);
- puncture (discharge through the solid insulation);
- Flashover (discharge at the surface of the solid insulation);
- tracking (the progressive degradation of the surface of solid insulation
by local
Discharges to form conducting or partially conducting paths);
- sparking discharges which, in the conventions of physics, are local
Dielectric breakdowns of high ionization density or small arcs.

NOTE 2 - Depending on the amount of energy contained in the discharge, it will be

described as a discharge of low or high energy, based on the extent of damage
observed on the equipment .
9- Thermal fault
Excessive temperature rise in the insulation

NOTE - Typical causes are

- Insufficient cooling,
- Excessive currents circulating in adjacent metal parts (as a result of bad
Contacts, eddy currents, stray losses or leakage flux),
- Excessive currents circulating through the insulation (as a result of high
Dielectric losses), leading to a thermal runaway,
- overheating of internal winding or bushing connection lead.

10- Typical values of gas concentrations.

gas concentrations normally found in the equipment in service which have no
symptoms of failure, and which are over passed by only an arbitrary percentage of
higher gas contents, for example 10 % .

NOTE 1 - Typical values will differ in different types of equipment and in different
networks, depending on operating practices (load levels, climate, etc.).

NOTE 2 - Typical values, in many countries and by many users, are quoted as
"normal values", but this term has not been used here to avoid possible
misinterpretations.
LIST OF DEVICE NUMBERS
• 2 Time delay starting or closing relay.
• 3 Checking or interlocking relay
• 21 Distance relay
• 25 Synchronizing or synchronism check relay
• 27 Under voltage relay
• 30 Annunciator relay
• 32 Directional power relay
• 37 Undercurrent or under power relay
• 40 Field failure relay
• 46 Reverse phase or phase balance current relay
• 49 Machine or transformer thermal relay
• 50 Instantaneous over current or rate-of-rise relay
• 51 A.c. time over current relay
• 52 A.c. circuit breaker
• 52a Circuit breaker auxiliary switch—normally open
• 52b Circuit breaker auxiliary switch—normally closed
• 55 Power factor relay
• 56 Field_application relay
• 59 Over voltage relay
• 60 Voltage or current balance relay
• 64 Earth fault protective relay
• 67 A.c. directional over current relay
• 68 Blocking relay
• 74 Alarm relay
 • 76 D.c. over current relay
• 78 Phase angle measuring or out-of-step protective relay
• 79 A.c. reclosing relay
• 81 Frequency relay
• 83 Automatic selective control or transfer relay
• 85 Carrier or pilot wire receive relay
• 86 Locking-out relay
• 87 Differential protective relay
• 94 auxiliary tripping relay

Relay contact systems

• Relay contact systems
a. Self-reset.
The contacts remain operated only while the controlling quantity is applied,
returning to their original condition when it is removed.

b. Hand or electrical reset.

These contacts remain in the operated position after the controlling quantity is
removed. They can be reset either by hand or by an auxiliary electromagnetic
element.
The majority of protective relay elements have self-reset contact systems,
which, if it is so desired, can be made to give hand reset output contacts by the use of
auxiliary elements.
Hand or electrically reset relays are used when it is necessary to maintain a
signal or a lock-out condition. Contacts are shown on diagrams in the position
corresponding to the un-operated or de-energized condition regardless of the
continuous service condition of the equipment. For example, a voltage supervising
relay, which is continually picked-up, would still be shown in the de-energized
condition.
A 'make' contact is one that closes when the relay picks up, whereas a 'break'
contact is one that is closed when the relay is un-energized and opens when the relay
picks up. Examples of these conventions and variations are shown in Figure 6.
 Figure 6 indications of contacts on diagrams.

A protective relay is usually required to trip a circuit breaker, the tripping

mechanism of which may be a solenoid with a plunger acting directly on the
mechanism latch or, in the case of air-blast or pneumatically operated breakers, an
electrically operated valve. The relay may energize the tripping coil directly, or,
according to the coil rating, and the number of circuits to be energized, may do so
through the agency of another multi-channel auxiliary relay.
The power required by the trip coil of the circuit breaker may range from up to
50 watts, for a small 'distribution' circuit breaker, to 3000 watts for a large extra-high-
voltage circuit breaker.
The basic trip circuit is simple, being made up of a hand-trip control switch and
the contacts of the protective relays in parallel to energize the trip coil from a battery,
through a normally open auxiliary switch operated by the circuit breaker. This
auxiliary switch is needed to open the trip circuit when the circuit breaker opens,
since the protective relay contacts will usually be quite incapable of performing the
interrupting duty. The auxiliary switch will be adjusted to close as early as possible in
the closing stroke, to make the protection effective in case the breaker is being closed
on to a fault.

Protective relays are precise measuring devices, the contacts of which should
not be expected to perform large making and breaking duties. Attracted armature
relays, which combine many of the characteristics of measuring devices and
contactors,
Occupy an intermediate position and according to their design and consequent
closeness to one or other category, may have an appreciable contact capacity.
Most other types of relay develop an effort which is independent of the
position of the moving system.
At setting, the electromechanical effort is absorbed by the controlling force, the
margin for operating the contacts being negligibly small. Not only does this limit the
'making' capacity of the contacts, but if more than one contact pair is fitted any slight
misalignment may result in only one contact being closed at the minimum operating
value, there being insufficient force to compress the spring of the first contact to
make, by the small amount required to permit closure of the second.
For this reason, the provision of multiple contacts on such elements is
undesirable. Although two contacts can be fitted, care must be taken in their
alignment, and a small tolerance in the closing value of operating current may have
to be allowed between them. These effects can be reduced by providing a small
amount of 'run-in' to contact make in the relay behavior, by special shaping of the
active parts.
For the above reasons it is often better to use inter-posing contactor type
elements which do not have the same limitations, although some measuring relay
elements are capable of tripping the smaller types of circuit breaker directly. These
may be small attracted armature type elements fitted in the same case as the
measuring relay.
In general, static relays have discrete measuring and tripping circuits, or
modules. The functioning of the measuring modules will not react on the tripping
modules. Such a relay is equivalent to a sensitive electromechanical relay with a
tripping contactor, so that the number or rating of outputs has no more significance
than the fact that they have been provided.
For larger switchgear installations the tripping power requirement of each
circuit breaker is considerable, and, further, two or more breakers may have to be
tripped by one protective system.
There may also be remote signaling requirements, interlocking with other
functions (for example auto-reclosing arrangements), and other control functions to
be performed. These various operations are carried out by multi-contact tripping
relays, which are energized by the protection relays and provide the necessary
number of adequately rated output contacts.
• Operation indicators.
As a guide for power system operation staff, protective systems are invariably
provided with indicating devices. In British practice these are called 'flags', whereas
in America they are known as 'targets'. Not every component relay will have one, as
indicators are arranged to operate only if a trip operation is initiated. Indicators, with
very few exceptions, are bi-stable devices, and may be either mechanically or
electrically operated. A mechanical indicator consists of a small shutter which is
Released by the protective relay movement to expose the indicator pattern,
which, on GEC Measurements relays, consists of a red diagonal stripe on a white
background.
Electrical indicators may be simple attracted armature elements either with or
without contacts. Operation of the armature releases a shutter to expose an indicator
as above.
An alternative type consists of a small cylindrical permanent magnet
magnetized across a diameter, and lying between the poles of an electromagnet. The
magnet, which is free to rotate, lines up its magnetic axis with the electromagnet
poles, but can be made to reverse its orientation by the application of a field. The
edge of the magnet is colored to give the indication.

• Relay tripping circuits.

Auxiliary contactors can be used to supplement protective relays in a number of ways:
a. Series sealing.
b. Shunt reinforcing.
c. Shunt reinforcement with sealing. These are illustrated in
Figure 7.
When such auxiliary elements are fitted, they can conveniently carry the operation
indicator, avoiding the need for indicators on the measuring elements.
Electrically operated indicators avoid imposing an additional friction load on
the measuring element, which would be a serious handicap for certain types. Another
advantage is that the indicator can operate only after the main contacts have closed.

Figure 7 Typical relay tripping circuits.

 With indicators operated directly by the measuring elements, care must be taken to
line up their operation with the closure of the main contacts. The indicator must have
operated by the time the contacts make, but must not have done so more than
marginally earlier.

This is to stop indication occurring when the tripping operation has not been
completed.
Ta. Series sealing.
The coil of the series contactor carries the trip current initiated by the
protective relay, and the contactor closes a contact in parallel with the protective
relay contact.
This closure relieves the protective relay contact of further duty and keeps the
tripping circuit securely closed, even if chatter occurs at the main contact. Nothing is
added to the total tripping time, and the indicator does not operate until current is
actually flowing through the trip coil.
The main disadvantage of this method is that such series elements must have
their coils matched with the trip circuit with which they are associated.
The coils of these contactors must be of low impedance, with about
5 % of the trip supply voltage being dropped across them.
When used in association with high speed trip relays, which usually interrupt their
own coil current, the auxiliary elements must be fast enough to operate and release
the flag before their coil current is cut off.
This may pose a problem in design if a variable number of auxiliary elements
(for different phases and so on) may be required to operate in parallel to energize a
common tripping relay.

b. Shunt reinforcing.
Here the sensitive contacts are arranged to trip the circuit breaker and
simultaneously to energize the auxiliary unit, which then reinforces the contact which
is energizing the trip coil.
It should be noted that two contacts are required on the protective relay, since
it is not permissible to energize the trip coil and the reinforcing contactor in parallel.
If this were done, and more than one protective relay were connected to trip the same
circuit breaker, all the auxiliary relays would be energized in parallel for each relay
operation and the indication would be confused. The duplicate main contacts are
frequently provided
As a three point arrangement to reduce the number of contact fingers.
Figure 8 Examples of trip circuit supervision.

c. Shunt reinforcement with sealing.

This is a development of the shunt reinforcing circuit to make it applicable to
relays with low torque movements or where there is a possibility of contact bounce
for any other reason.
Using the shunt reinforcing system under these circumstances would result in
chattering on the auxiliary unit, and the possible burning out of the contacts not only
of the sensitive element but also of the auxiliary unit. The chattering would only end
when the circuit breaker had finally tripped.
It will be seen that the effect of bounce is countered by means of a further
contact on the auxiliary unit connected as a retaining contact.
This means that provision must be made for releasing the sealing circuit when
tripping is complete; this is a disadvantage, because it is sometimes in-convenient to
find a suitable contact to use for this purpose.
 • Supervision of trip circuits.
The trip circuit extends beyond the relay enclosure and passes through more
components, such as fuses, links, relay contacts, auxiliary switch contacts and so on,
and in some cases through a considerable amount of circuit wiring with intermediate
terminal boards.
These complications, coupled with the importance of the circuit, have directed
attention to its supervision.
The simplest arrangement contains a healthy trip lamp, as shown in Figure
8(a).
The resistance in series with the lamp prevents the breaker being tripped by an
internal short circuit caused by failure of the lamp. This provides super-vision while
the circuit breaker is closed; a simple extension gives pre-closing supervision.
Figure 1.8(b) shows how, by the addition of a normally closed auxiliary switch
and a resistance unit, supervision can be obtained while the breaker is both open and
closed.
I n either case, the addition of a normally open push-button contact in series
with the lamp will make the supervision indication available only when required.
Schemes using a lamp to indicate continuity are suitable for locally controlled
installations, but when control is exercised from a distance it is necessary to use a
relay system. Figure 8(c) illustrates such a scheme, which is applicable wherever a
remote signal is required.
With the circuit healthy either or both of relays A and B are operated and energize
relay C. Both A and B must reset to allow C to drop-off. Relays A and C are time-
delayed by copper slugs to prevent spurious alarms during tripping or closing
operations. The resistors are mounted separately from the relays and their values are
chosen such that if any one component is inadvertently short-circuited, a tripping
operation will not take place.
The alarm supply should be independent of the tripping supply so that indication will
be obtained in the event of the failure of the tripping battery.

Classification and function of relays

A protection relay is a device that senses any change in the signal which it is receiving,
usually from a current and/or voltage source. If the magnitude of the incoming signal is
outside a preset range, the relay will operate, generally to close or open electrical contacts to
initiate some further operation, for example the tripping of a circuit breaker.
3.1 Classification:
Protection relays can be classified in accordance with the function which they carry out, their
construction, the incoming signal and the type of functioning.

3.1.1 General function:

• Auxiliary.
• Protection.
• Monitoring.
• Control.

3.1.2 Construction:
• Electromagnetic.
• Solid state.
• Microprocessor.
• Computerized.
• Nonelectric (thermal, pressure ......etc.).

3.1.3 Incoming signal:

• Current.
• Voltage.
• Frequency.
• Temperature.
• Pressure.
• Velocity.
• Others.
3.1.4 Type of protection
• Over current.
• Directional over current.
• Distance.
• Over voltage.
• Differential.
• Reverse power.
• Other.
 Figure 1 Armature-type relay
In some cases a letter is added to the number associated with the protection in order
to specify its place of location, for example G for generator, Τ for transformer etc.
Nonelectric relays are outside the scope of this book and therefore are not referred
to.

3.2 Electromagnetic relays

Electromagnetic relays are constructed with electrical, magnetic and
mechanical components, have an operating coil and various contacts and are very
robust and reliable. The construction characteristics can be classified in three groups,
as detailed below.

3. 2. 1 Attraction relays
Attraction relays can be supplied by AC or DC, and operate by the movement
of a piece of metal when it is attracted by the magnetic field produced by a coil. There
are two main types of relay in this class.
The attracted armature relay, which is shown in figure 1, consists of a bar or
plate of metal which pivots when it is attracted towards the coil.
The armature carries the moving part of the contact, which is closed or opened
according to the design when the armature is attracted to the coil. The other type is the
piston or solenoid relay, illustrated in Figure 2, in which α bar or piston is attracted axially
within the field of the solenoid. In this case, the piston also carries the operating contacts.
It can be shown that the force of attraction is equal to K1I2 - K2, where Κ1 depends upon
the number of turns on the operating solenoid, the air gap, the effective area and the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit, among other factors. K2 is the restraining force,
usually produced by a spring. When the relay is balanced, the resultant force is zero and
therefore Κ112 = K2,

So that I = K 2 / K1 =constant.

In order to control the value at which the relay starts to operate, the restraining
tension of the spring or the resistance of the solenoid circuit can be varied, thus
modifying the restricting force. Attraction relays effectively have no time delay and, for
that reason, are widely used when instantaneous operations are required.

3 . 2 . 2 Relays with moveable coils

This type of relay consists of a rotating movement with a small coil suspended or pivoted
with the freedom to rotate between the poles of a permanent magnet. The coil is
restrained by two springs which also serve as connections to carry the current to the coil.
The torque produced in the coil is given by:

T = B.l.a.N.i
Where:

T= torque
B = flux density
L =length of the coil
a = diameter of the coil
N = number of turns on the coil
i = current flowing through the coil
 Figure 2 Solenoid-type relay

Figure 3 Inverse time characteristic

From the above equation it will be noted that the torque developed is proportional to the
current. The speed of movement is controlled by the damping action, which is
proportional to the torque. It thus follows that the relay has an inverse time characteristic
similar to that illustrated in Figure 3. The relay can be designed so that the coil makes a
large angular movement, for example 80º.

3 . 2 . 3 Induction relays
An induction relay works only with alternating current. It consists of an electromagnetic
system which operates on a moving conductor, generally in the form of a disc or cup,
and functions through the interaction of electromagnetic fluxes with the parasitic Fault
currents which are induced in the rotor by these fluxes. These two fluxes, which are
mutually displaced both in angle and in position, produce a torque that can be expressed
by

T= Κ1.Φ1.Φ2 .sin θ,

Where Φ1 and Φ2 are the interacting fluxes and θ is the phase angle between Φ1 and Φ2. It
should be noted that the torque is a maximum when the fluxes are out of phase by 90º,
and zero when they are in phase.

Figure 4 Electromagnetic forces in induction

relays
It can be shown that Φ1= Φ1sin ωt, and Φ2= Φ2 sin (ωt+ θ) , where θ is the angle by
which Φ2 leads Φ1. Then:

dΦ 1
iΦ 1 α α Φ 1 cosω t
dt
And

dΦ 1
i Φ1 α α Φ 1 cos ( ωt + θ )
dt
Figure 4 shows the interrelationship between the currents and the opposing forces.
Thus:

F = ( F 1 - F 2 ) α (Φ2 iΦ1+ Φ1 iΦ2 )

∴F α Φ2 Φ1 sin θ α T
Induction relays can be grouped into three classes as set out below.

• Shaded-pole relay
In this case a portion of the electromagnetic section is short-circuited by means of a
copper ring or coil. This creates a flux in the area influenced by the short circuited
section (the so-called shaded section) which lags the flux in the nonshaded section,
see Figure 5.

Figure 5 Shaded-pole relay

Figure 6 Wattmetric-type relay

In its more common form, this type of relay uses an arrangement of coils above and below the
disc with the upper and lower coils fed by different values or, in some cases, with just one
supply for the top coil, which induces an out-of-phase flux in the lower coil because of the air
gap. Figure 6 illust r ates a typical arrangement.

• Cup-type relay

This type of relay has a cylinder similar to a cu which can rotate in the annular air gap
between the poles of the coils, and has a fixed central core, see Figure 7. The operation of this
relay is very similar to that

Figure 7Cup-type relay

Of an induction motor with salient poles for the windings of the stator. Configurations
with four or eight poles spaced symmetrically around the circumference of the cup are
often used. The movement of the cylinder is limited to a small amount by the contact and
the stops. Α special spring provides the restraining torque.

The torque is a function of the product of the two currents through the coils and the
cosine of the angle between them. The torque equation is

T= ( KI1I2 cos (θ12 – Φ) – Ks ),

Where K, .Κs and Φ are design constants, Ι1 and I2 are the currents through the two
coils and θ12 is the angle between I1 and I2.

In the first two types of relay mentioned above, which are provided with a disc, the
inertia of the disc provides the time-delay characteristic. The time delay can be increased
by the addition of a permanent magnet. The cup-type relay has a small inertia and is
therefore principally used when high speed operation is required, for example in
instantaneous units.

Calculation of short circuit current

The current that flows through an element of a power system is a parameter which can be
used to detect faults, given the large increase in current flow when a short circuit occurs.
For this reason a review of the concepts and procedures for calculating fault currents will
be made in this chapter, together with some calculations illustrating the methods used.
Although the use of these short-circuit calculations in relation to protection settings will
be-considered in detail, it is important to bear in mind that these calculations are also
required for other applications, for example calculating the substation Earthing grid, the
selection of conductor sizes and for the specifications of equipment such as power-circuit
breakers.

1 Mathematical derivation of fault currents

The treatment of electrical faults should be carried out as a function of time,
+
from the start of the event at time t = 0 until stable conditions are reached, and therefore
it is necessary to use differential equations when calculating these currents. In order to
illustrate the transient nature of the current,
consider an RL circuit as a simplified equivalent of the circuits in electricity-distribution
networks. This simplification is important because all the system equipment must be
modeled in some way in order to quantify the transient values which can occur during the
fault condition.
For the circuit shown in Figure 1, the mathematical expression which defines the
behaviour of the current is:

e(t) = L di + Ri(t) 2.1

Figure 1 RL, circuit for transient analysis

study

max Sin ( ωt + α )
This is aVdifferential equation with constant coefficients, of which the solution is in
two parts: R

ia ( t ) : ih ( t ) + i p ( t )
Where:
ih(t) Is the solution of the homogeneous equation corresponding to the transient
period and ip(t) is the solution to the particular equation corresponding to the steady-
state period.

By the use of differential equation theory, which will not be discussed in detail here,
the complete solution can be determined and expressed iii the following form:

Vmax
i (t ) = ( Sin (ω t + α ) − Sin(α − Φ ).e − ( R / L ) ) 2.2
Z

Where:
Z = R 2 + ω 2 L2

α = the closing angle which defines the point on the source sinusoidal voltage when the
fault occurs and

Φ = tan −1 (ωL / R )
It can be seen that, in eqn. 2.2, the first term varies sinusoidally, while the second
term decreases exponentially with a time constant of L/R. The latter term can be
recognised as the DC component of the current, and has an initial maximum
value when α − Φ = ±π / 2 , and zero value when Φ=α, see Figure 2.
It is impossible to predict at what point the fault will be applied on the sinusoidal cycle
and therefore what magnitude the DC component will reach. If the tripping of the
circuit, owing to a fault, takes place when the sinusoidal component is at its negative
peak, the DC component reaches its theoretical maximum value half a cycle later.
 Figure 2 Variation of fault current with time

a (α–Φ) =0

b (α–Φ)=π/2

An approximate formula for calculating the effective value of the total asymmetric
current,
including the AC and DC components, with acceptable accuracy can be obtained from
the following expression:

I rms .asym = 2
I rms + I DC
2
2.3
The fault current which results when an alternator is short circuited can easily be
analysed since this is similar to the case which has already been analysed, i.e. when
voltage is, applied to an RL circuit. The reduction in current from its value at the onset,
owing to the gradual decrease in the magnetic flux caused by the reduction of the e.m.f.
of the induction current, can be seen in Figure 3. This effect is known as armature
reaction.
The physical situation that is presented to a generator, and which makes the
calculations quite difficult, can be interpreted as a reactance which varies with time.
Notwithstanding this, in the majority of practical applications it is possible to take
account of the variation of reactance in only three stages without producing significant
errors. In Figure 4 it will be noted that the variation of current with time, 1(t), comes
close to the three discrete levels of current, I", 1 ' and I, the subtransient, transient and
steady-state currents, respectively. The corresponding values of direct axis reactance
" '
are denoted by X d , X d and Xd,

Figure 3 Transient short-circuit

currents in a synchronous generator

Figure 4 Variation of current with time

 during a fault

Figure 5 Variation of generator reactance

with time during a fault
And the typical variation with, time for each of these is illustrated in
Figure 5.
To sum up, when calculating short-circuit currents it is necessary to take into
account two factors which could result in the currents varying with time:
• the presence of the DC component;
• the behaviour of the generator under short circuit conditions.

In studies of electrical protection some adjustment has to be made to the values of

instantaneous short circuit current calculated using subtransient reactance's which result
in higher values of current.
Time delay units can be set using the same values but, in some cases, short-circuit
values based on the transient reactance are used, depending on the operating speed of
the protection relays. Transient reactance values are generally used in stability studies.
Of necessity, switchgear specifications require reliable calculations of the short-
circuit levels which can be present on the electrical network. Taking into account the
rapid drop of the short-circuit current due to the armature reaction of the synchronous
machines, and the fact that extinction of an electrical arc is never achieved
instantaneously, ANSI Standards C37.010 and C37.5 recommend using different values
of subtransient reactance when calculating the so-called momentary and interrupting
duties of switchgear.
Asymmetrical or symmetrical r.m.s. values can be defined depending on whether
or not the DC component is included. The peak values are obtained by multiplying the
R.M.S. values by 2 .
The asymmetrical values are calculated as the square root of the sum of the squares
of the DC component and the r.m.s. value of the AC current, i.e.:
= (0.9 2V / X d" ) 2 + (0.9V / X d" ) 2
I rms = I DC
2
+ I AC
2
2.4

The momentary current is used when specifying the

closing current of switchgear. Typically, the AC and DC
components decay to 90% of their initial values after the
first half cycle. From this, the value of the r.m.s. current
would then be:

. asym.clo sin g = + I AC .rms.sys

2 2
I rms I DC

= (0.9 2V / X d" ) 2 + (0.9V / X d" ) 2

= 1.56V / X d" = 1.56 I rms.sym 2.5

Usually, a factor of 1.6 is used by manufacturers and in

international standards so that, in general, this value should
be used when carrying out similar calculations.
The peak value is obtained by arithmetically adding
together the AC and DC components. It should be noted that,
in this case, the AC component is multiplied by a factor of
2 Thus:

I peak = I D c + I AC
= (0.9 2 V / X d" ) + (0.9 2 V / X d" )

= 2.55 I rm s.sym 2 .6
When considering the specification for the switchgear-
opening cur-rent, the so-called r.m.s. value of interrupting
current is used in which, again, the AC and DC components
are taken into account, and therefore:
Replacing the DC component by its exponential expression
gives:

2
I rms . asym . int = I DC + I Ac . rms . int
2

I rms .sym.int = ( 2 I rms .sym.int e −( R / L ) ) 2 + I rms

2
. sym .int

= I rms.sym.int 2e −2 ( r / l ) t + 1 2.7

I /I
The expression ( rms .asym. int rms .sys. int ) has been drawn for
different
Values of X/R, and for different switchgear contact-
separation times, in ANSI Standard C37.5–1979. The
multiplying factor graphs are reproduced in Figure 6
Figure 6 Multiplying factors for three-phase
and line-to-earth faults (total current rating
basis) (from. IEEE Standard C37.5-1979;
reproduced by permission of the IEEE)

NOTE: Fed predominantly through two or more

transformations or with external reactance in series equal to or
above 1.5 times generator subtransient reactance
As an illust r ation of the validity of the curves for any
situation,
Consider a circuit breaker with a total contact-separation
time of two cycles one cycle due to the relay and one
related to the operation of the breaker mechanism. If the
frequency, f is 60 Hz and the ratio X/R
 With this arrangement, voltage values of any three-phase
system,
Va Vb and Vc can be represented thus:
Va =Vao + Va1 + Va2
Vb =Vbo + Vb1 + Vb2
Vc =Vco + Vc1 + Vc2

It can be demonstrated that:

V b= V ao+a 2V a1+aV a2
V c= V ao+aV a1+ a 2V a2
where a is a so called operator which gives a phase shift of
120° clockwise and a multiplication of unit magnitude, i.e.
a=1 ∠120 °,
and a 2 similarly gives a phase shift
of 240°, i.e. a 2=1 ∠240° Therefore,
the following matrix relationship can be established:

Va  1 1 1  Va 0 
V  = 1 a a 2  × V 
 b    a1 
Vc  1 a 2 a  Va 2 

Inverting the matrix of coefficients:

Va 0  1 1 1  V a 
V  = 1 1 a a 2  × V 
 a1  3    b
Va 2  1 a 2 a  Vc 
 
From the above matrix it can be deduced that:
 1
Va 0 = (Va + Vb + Vc )
3
1
Va1 = (Va + aVb + a 2Vc )
3
1
Va 2 = (Va + a 2Vb + aVc )
3
The foregoing procedure can also be applied directly to
currents, and gives:

I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2
I b = I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a 2
I b = I a 0 + a I a1 + a 2 I a 2
Therefore:

1
I a0 = (I a + Ib + Ic )
3
1
I a1 = ( I a + aI b + a 2 I c )
3
1
I a 2 = ( I a + a 2 I b + aI c )
3
In three-phase systems, the neutral current is equal to In =
(Ia + Ib + Ic) and, therefore, l n=3I0
By way of illustration, a three-phase unbalanced system is
shown in Figure 8 together with the associated symmetrical
components.
2.1 Importance and construction of sequence networks

The impedance of a circuit in which only positive-

sequence currents are circulating is called the positive-
sequence impedance and, similarly, those in which only
negative and zero-sequence currents flow are called the
negative and zero-sequence impedances.
These sequence impedances are designated Z1, Z2 and Z0,
respectively, and are used in calculations involving
symmetrical components.
Since generators are designed to supply balanced voltages,
the generated voltages are of positive sequence only.
Therefore, the positive-sequence network is composed of
an e.m.f source in series with the positive-sequence
impedance. The negative and zero-sequence net-works do
not contain e.m.f but only include impedances to the flow
of negative and zero-sequence currents, respectively.
The positive- and negative-sequence impedances of
overhead-line circuits are identical, as are those of cables,
being independent of the phase if the applied voltages are
balanced.
The zero-sequence impedances of lines different from
the positive and negative-sequence impedances since the
magnetic field creating the positive and negative-sequence
currents is different from that for the zero-sequence
currents. The following ratios may be used in the absence of
detailed information. For a single-circuit line, Zo/Z1 = 2
when no earth wire is present and 3.5 with an earth wire. For
a double-circuit line Zo/Z1 = 5.5. For underground cables
Zo/Z1 can be taken as 1 to 1.25 for single core, and 3 to 5
for three-core cables:

For transformers, the positive and negative-sequence

impedances are equal because in static circuits these
impedances are independent of the phase order, provided
that the applied voltages are balanced. The zero-sequence
impedance is either the same as the other two impedances,
or infinite, depending on the transformer connections. The
resistance of the windings is much smaller and can
generally be neglected in short-circuit calculations. When
modelling small generators and motors it may be necessary
to take resistance into account.
However, for most studies only the reactance's of
synchronous machines are used. Three values of positive
reactance are normally quoted-subtransient, transient and
synchronous reactance, denoted by X", Xd' and Xd. In fault
studies the subtransient and transient reactance of
generators grid motors must be included as appropriate,
depending on the machine characteristics and fault
clearance time.

Table 1 Typical per-unit reactance for three -phase synchronous machines

Type of
machine
X d" X d' Xd X2 X0
Turbine 2 pole 0.09 0.15 1.20 0.09 0.03
generator 4 pole 0.14 0.22 1.70 0.14 0.07

Salient with 0.20 0.30 1.25 0.20 0.18

pole dampers
generator without 0.28 0.30 1.20 0.35 0.12
dampers
X"= subtransient reactance; X'd =transient reactance; Xd=synchronous
reactance X.2=negative sequence reactance; X0=zero sequence reactance

The subtransient reactance is the reactance applicable at the onset of the fault
occurrence. Within 0.1 sec. the fault level falls to a value determined by the transient
reactance and then decays exponentially to a steady-state value determined by the
synchronous reactance.
Typical per-unit reactance's for three phase synchronous machines are given in
Table 1.
In connecting sequence networks together, the reference busbar for the positive- and
negative-sequence networks is the generator neutral which, in these networks, is at
 earth potential so that only zero-sequence currents flow through the impedances
between neutral and earth. The reference busbar for zero-sequence networks is the
earth point of the generator. The current which flows in the impedance between the
neutral and earth are three times the zero-sequence current. Figure 2.9 illustrates the
sequence networks for a generator.
The zero sequence networks carries only zero-sequence current in one phase which
has an impedance of Zo = 3Ζn + Zeo
The voltage and current components for each phase are obtained from the equations
given for the sequence networks. The equations for the components of voltage,
corresponding to the phase of the system, are obtained from the point an on phase a
relative to the reference bus bar, and can be deduced from Figure 2.9 as follows:

Va1 = E a − I a1 Z 1
Va 2 = − I a 2 Z 2
Va 0 = − I a 0 Z 0
Where
Εa = no load voltage to earth of the positive-sequence network
Z1 = positive-sequence impedance of the generator
Z2 = negative-sequence impedance of the generator
Zo= zero-sequence impedance of the generator (Zeo) plus three times the impedance
to earth
The above equations can be applied to any generator which carries unbalanced
currents and are the starting point for calculations for any type of fault. The same
approach can be used with equivalent power systems or applied to loaded
generators, Ea then being the voltage behind the reactance before the fault occurs.
2.2.2 Calculation of asymmetrical faults using symmetrical components
The positive, negative and zero-sequence network, carrying currents I1, I2 and Io
respectively, are connected together in a particular arrangement to represent a given
unbalanced fault condition. Consequently, in order to calculate fault 1 levels using
the method of symmetrical components, it is essential to determine the individual
sequence impedances and combine these to make up the correct sequence networks.
Then, for each .type of fault, the appropriate combination of sequence networks is
formed in order to obtain the relationships between fault currents and voltages.
 • Phase-to-earth fault
The conditions for a solid fault from line a to earth
are represented by the equations Ib=0, Ic =0 and V a =0,
Single phase fault connected to earth

As in the previous equations, it can easily be deduced

that Ia1= I a2 = Iao = Ea / (Z 1 +Z 2+ Z o). Therefore,
the sequence networks will be connected in series,
as indicated in Figure 2.10a. The current and voltage
conditions are the same when considering an open-circuit
fault in phases b and c, and thus the treatment
and connection of the sequence networks will be similar.

• Phase-to-Phase fault
The conditions for a solid fault between
lines h and c are represented by the equations

Ia = 0, Ib = –Ic and V b = Vc.

Equally, it can be shown that
Iao= 0 and I a1 = Ea/(Z 1 +Z 2 ) = I a2 .
For this case, with no zero-sequence current,
the zero-sequence network is not involved and the overall sequence network is
composed of the positive- and negative-sequence networks in parallel as indicated in
Figure 2.10b.

• Phase-to-Phase-to-earth fault

The conditions for a fault between lines b and c and earth are represented by the
equations 1a = 0 and Vb=Vc =0. From these equations it can be proved that:
Ea
I a1 =
ZoZ2
Z1 +
Zo + Z2

The three sequence networks are connected in parallel

as shown in Figure 2.10c.

2.3 Equivalent impedances for a power system.

When it is necessary to study the effect of any change on

the power system, the system must first of all be represented
by its corresponding sequence impedances.
The equivalent positive- and negative-sequence impedances
can be calculated directly from:
Z= V2/P

Where:
Z = Equivalent positive and negative-sequence impedances
V =nominal phase-to-phase voltage
P = three-phase short circuit power
The equivalent zero-sequence of a system can be derived from the expressions of
sequence components referred to for a single-phase fault, i.e.

Ia1=Ia2=Ia3 = VLN/ (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)

Where:
VLN = the line-to-neutral voltage.
For lines and cables the positive and negative ímpedances are equal.
Thus, on the basis that the generator ímpedances are not significant in most distribution-
network fault studies, it may be assumed that overall
Ζ2 = Z1 which simplifies the calculations.
Thus, the above formula reduces to Ia = 3I0 = 3 VLN / (2Z1 + Zo),
Where VLN = line-to-neutral voltage and Zo= (3VLN / Ia) - 2Z1
3 Supplying the current and voltage signals to protection systems
In the presence of a fault the current transformers (CTs) circulate current proportional to
the fault current to the protection equipment without distinguishing between the vectorial
magnitudes of the Sequence components.

Figure 10 Connection of sequence networks for a3ymmetrical faults

a Phase-to-earth fault
b Phase-to-phase fault
c Double phase-to-earth fault

Therefore, in the majority of cases, the relays operate on the basis of the corresponding
values of fault current and / or voltages, regardless of the values of the sequence
components. It is very important to emphasise that, given this, the advantage of using
symmetrical components is that they facilitate the calculation of fault levels even
though the relays in the majority of cases do not distinguish between the various values
of the symmetrical components.

Figure 11a Currents and voltages for various types of faults

Figure 11b Currents and voltages for various types of
faults
a Sequence currents for different types of fault
b Sequence voltages for different types of fault

In Figure 11a & b the positive and negative sequence values of current and
voltage for different faults are shown together with the summated values of current and
voltage.
Relays usually only operate using the summated values in the right-hand
columns. However, relays are available which can operate with specific values of
some of the sequence components.
In these cases there must be methods for obtaining these components, and this is
achieved by using filters which produce the mathematical operations of the resultant
equations to resolve the matrix for voltages and for currents.
Although these filters can be constructed for electromagnetic elements, the
growth of electronics has led to their being used increasingly in logic circuits. Among
the relays which require this type of filter in order to operate are those used ιn
negative-sequence and earth-fault protection.

Current and voltage transformers

Current or voltage instrument transformers are necessary for isolating the
protection, control and measurement equipment from the high voltages of a power
system, and for supplying the equipment with the appropriate values of current and
voltage - generally these are 1A or 5Α for the current coils, and 120 V for the voltage
coils.
The behaviour of current and voltage transformers during and after the
occurrence of a fault is critical in electrical protection since errors in the signal from a
transformer can cause maloperation of the relays.
In addition, factors such as the transient period and saturation must be taken into
account when selecting the appropriate transformer.
When only voltage or current magnitudes are required to operate a relay then the
relative direction of the current flow in the transformer windings is not important.
However, the polarity must be kept in mind when the relays compare the sum or
difference of the currents.

1- Voltage transformers:
With voltage transformers (VTs) it is essential that the voltage from the
secondary winding should be as near as possible proportional to the primary voltage.
In order to achieve this, VTs are designed in such a way that the voltage drops in
the windings are small and the flux density in the core is well below the saturation
value so that the magnetization current is small; in this way magnetization impedance
is obtained which is practically constant over the required voltage range. The
secondary voltage of a VT is usually 110 or 120 V with corresponding line-to-neutral
values. The majority of protection relays have nominal voltages of 110 or 63.5 V,
depending on whether their connection is line-to-line or line-to-neutral.

Figure 1 Voltage transformer equivalent circuits

Figure 2 Vector diagram for voltage transformer

1.1 Equivalent circuits

VTs can be considered as small power transformers so that their equivalent

circuit is the same as that for power transformers, as shown in Figure 1a. The
magnetization branch can be ignored and the equivalent circuit then reduces to that
shown in Fig 1b.
The vector diagram for a VT is given in Figure.2, with the length of the
voltage drops increased for clarity. The secondary voltage Vs lags the voltage Vp/n
and is smaller in magnitude. In spite of this, the nominal maximum errors are
relatively small. VTs have an excellent transient behaviour and accurately reproduce
abrupt changes in. the primary voltage.

1.2 Errors

When used for measurement instruments, for example for billing and control
purposes, the accuracy of a VT is important, especially for those values close to the
nominal system voltage.
Notwithstanding this, although the precision requirements of a VT for protection
applications are not so high at nominal voltages, owing to the problems of having
to cope with a variety of different relays, secondary wiring burdens and the
uncertainty of system parameters, errors should he contained within narrow limits
over a wide range of possible voltages under fault conditions.
This range should be between 5 and 173% of the nominal primary voltage for
VTs connected between line and earth.
Referring to the circuit in Figure 1a, errors in a VT are clue to differences in
magnitude and phase between Vp/n, and Vs. These consist of the errors under open-
circuit conditions when the load impedance Ζ B is infinite, caused by the drop in
voltage from the circulation of the magnetization current through the primary
winding, and errors due to voltage drops as a result of the load current IL flowing
through both windings. Errors in magnitude can be calculated from
Error V T = {(n Vs - Vp) / Vp} x 100%. If the error is positive, then the secondary
voltage exceeds the nominal value.

1.3 Burden
The standard burden for voltage transformer is usually expressed in volt-amperes
(VΑ) at a specified power factor.
Table 1 gives standard burdens based on ANSI Standard C57.1 3. Voltage
transformers are specified in IEC publication 186Α by the precision class, and the
value of volt-amperes (VΑ).
The allowable error limits corresponding to different class values are shown in
Table 2, where Vn is the nominal voltage. The phase error is considered positive
when the secondary voltage leads the primary voltage. The voltage error is the
percentage difference between the voltage at the secondary terminals, V2,
multiplied by the nominal transformation ratio, and the primary voltages V1.

1.4 Selection of VTs

Voltage transformers are connected between phases, or between phase and
earth. The connection between phase and earth is normally used with groups of
three single-phase units connected in star at substations operating with voltages at
 about 34.5 kV or higher, or when it is necessary to measure the voltage and power
factor of each phase separately.
The nominal primary voltage of a VT is generally chosen with the higher
nominal insulation voltage (kV) and the nearest service voltage in mind. The nominal
secondary voltages are generally standardized at 110 and 120 V. In order to select the
nominal power of a VT, it is usual to acid together all the nominal VΑ loadings of the
apparatus connected to

Table 1 Standard burdens for voltage Transformer

Standard burden Characteristics for 120 V Characteristics for 69.3 V
and 60 Hz and 60 Hz

design Volt- power resistance( Ω ) inductance impedance resistance inductance impedance

amperes factor (H) (Ω) (Ω) (H) (Ω)

W
12.5 0.10 115.2 3.040 1152 38.4 1.010 384

Χ 25.0 0.70 403.2 1.090 575 134.4 0.364 192

Υ 75.0 0.85 163.2 0.268 192 54.4 0.089 64
Ζ 200.0 0.85 61.2 0.101 72 20.4 0.034 24
ΖΖ 400.0 0.85 31.2 0.0403 36 10.2 0.0168 12
Μ 35.0 0.20 82.3 1.070 411 27.4 0.356 137

Table 2 Voltage transformers error limits

Class Primary voltage Voltage Phase error
error (±%) (±min)
0.1 0.1 0.5
0.2 0.2 10.0
0.5 0.5 20.0
1.0 1.0 40.0
0.8 Vn , 1.0 Vn
and 1.2 Vn

0.1 1.0 40.0

0.2 1.0 40.0
0.5 0.5 Vn 1.0 40.0
1.0 2.0 80.0

0.1 0.2 80.0

0.2 2.0 80.0
0.5 Vn 2.0 80.0
1.0 3.0 120.0
Vn = nominal voltage
 The VT secondary winding. In addition, it is important to take account of the
voltage drops in the secondary wiring, especially if the distance between the
transformers and the relays is large.

1.5 Capacitor v o l t a g e transformers

In general, the size of an inductive VT is proportional to its nominal voltage and,
for this reason, the cost increases in a similar manner to that of a high voltage
transformer. One alternative, and a more economic solution, is to use a capacitor
voltage transformer.
This device is effectively a capacitance voltage divider, and is similar to a
resistive divider in that the output voltage at the point of connection is affected by the
load - in fact the two parts of the divider taken together can be considered as the source
impedance which produces a drop in voltage when the load is connected.

Figure 4 Capacitor VT equivalent circuit

The capacitor divider differs from the inductive divider in that the equivalent
impedance of the source is capacitive and the .fact that this impedance can be
compensated for by connecting a reactance in series at the point of connection.
With an ideal reactance there are no regulation problems - however, in an
actual situation on a network, some resistance is always present. The divider can
reduce the voltage to a value which enables errors to be kept within normally
 acceptable limits. For improved accuracy a high voltage capacitor is used in order to
obtain a bigger voltage at the point of connection, which can be reduced to a
standard voltage using a relatively inexpensive trans-former as shown in Figure 3.
Α simplified equivalent circuit of a capacitor VT is shown in Figure 4 in which
Vi is equal to the nominal primary voltage, C is the numerically equivalent impedance
equal to ( C1 + C2 ), L is the resonance inductance, Ri represents the resistance of the
primary winding of transformer Τ plus the losses in C and L, and Ze is the
magnetization impedance of transformer Τ. Referred to the inter-mediate voltage, the
Rs'
resistance of the secondary circuit and the load impedance are represented by and
Z B' respectively, while Vs' and I s' represent the secondary voltage and current.

Figure 5 Capacitor VT vector diagram

It can be seen that, with the exception of C, the circuit in Figure 4.4 is the same as
the equivalent circuit of a power transformer. Therefore, at the system frequency when
C and L are resonating and canceling out each other, under stable system conditions
the capacitor VT acts like a conventional transformer. Ri and R's are not large and, in
addition, Ie is small compared to I' s , so that the vector difference between Vi and V's
which constitutes the error in the capacitor VT, is very small.
This is illustrated in the vector diagram shown in Figure 4.5 which is drawn for
a power factor close to unity. The voltage error is the difference in magnitude
between Vi and V's, whereas the phase error is indicated by the angle θ. From the
diagram it can be seen that, for frequencies different from the resonant frequency, the
values of EL and EC predominate, causing serious errors in magnitude and phase.
Capacitor VTs display better transient behaviour than electro-magnetic VTs as
the inductive and capacitive reactance in series are large in relation to the load
impedance referred to the secondary voltage, and thus, when the primary voltage
collapses, the secondary voltage is maintained for some milliseconds because of the
combination of the series and parallel resonant circuits represented by L, C and the
transformer T.

2 Current transformers
Although the performance required from a current transformer (CT) varies with the type
of protection, high grade CTs must always be used. Good quality CTs are more reliable
and result in less application problems and, in general, provide better protection.

Figure 6 Current transformer equivalent circuits

The quality of CTs is very important for differential protection schemes where the
operation of the relays is directly related to the accuracy of the CTs under fault
conditions as well as under normal load conditions.
CTs can become saturated at high current values caused by nearby faults; to
avoid this, care should be taken to ensure that under the most critical faults the CT
operates on the linear portion of the magnetization curve. In all these cases the CT
should be a ble to supply sufficient current so that the relay operates satisfactorily.
2.1 Equivalent circuit
An approximate equivalent circuit for a CT is given in Figure 4.6a,
Where n2ZH represents the primary impedance ZH referred to the secondary side,
and the secondary impedance is, ZL, Rm and Xm represent the losses and the excitation of
the core.
The circuit in Figure 4.6a can be reduced to the arrangement shown in figure
4.6b where ZH can be ignored, since it does not influence either the current IH/n or the
voltage across Xm. The current flowing through Xm is the excitation current Ιe.
The vector diagram, with the voltage drops exaggerated for clarity, is shown in Figure
4.7. In general, ZL, is resistive and Ιe lags Vs by 90°, so that Ie is the principal source of
error. Note that the net effect of Ie is to make I lag and be much smaller than ΙH /n, the
primary current referred to the secondary side.

Figure 7 Vector diagram for the CT equivalent

circuit
2.2 Errors
The causes of errors in a CT are quite different to those associated with VTs. In
effect, the primary impedance of a CT does not have the same influence
On the accuracy of the equipment it only adds an impedance in series with the line,
which can be ignored. The errors are principally due to the current which circulates
through the magnetizing branch.
The magnitude error is the difference in magnitude between ΙH / n and IL and is
equal to Ir the component of Ie in line with k (see Figure 7).
The phase error, represented by θ, is related to Iq the component of Ie which is in
quadrature with IL. The values of the magnitude and phase errors depend on the relative
displacement between Ie and IL, but neither of them can exceed the vectorial error it
should be noted that a moderate inductive load, with Ie and IL approximately in phase,
has a small phase error and the excitation component results almost entirely in an error in
the magnitude.

2.3 AC saturation
CΤ errors result from excitation current, so much so that, in order to check if a CT
is functioning correctly, it is essential to measure or calculate the excitation curve. The
magnetization current of a CT depends on the cross section and length of the magnetic
circuit, the number of turns in the windings, and the magnetic characteristics of the
material.
Thus, for a given CT, and referring to the equivalent circuit of Figure 4.6b, it can
be seen that the voltage across the magnetization impedance, Es, is directly proportional
to the secondary current. From this it can be concluded that, when the primary current
and therefore the secondary current is increased, these currents reach a point where the
core commences to saturate and the magnetization current becomes sufficiently high to
produce an excessive error.

When investigating the behaviour of a CT, the excitation current should he

measured at various values of voltage the so-called secondary injection test. Usually, it
is more convenient to apply a variable voltage to the secondary winding, leaving the
primary winding open-circuited. Figure 4.8a shows the typical relationship between the
secondary voltage and the excitation current determined in this way.
In European standards the point Κp on the curve is called the saturation or knee
point and is defined as the point at which an increase in the excitation voltage of ten per
cent produces an increase of 50 % in the excitation current. This point is referred to in
the ANSI / IEEE standards as the intersection of the excitation curves with a 45° tangent
line, as indicated in Figure 4.8b. The European knee point is at a higher voltage than the
ANSI/IEEE Knee point.

2.4 Burden
The burden of a CT is the value in ohms-of the impedance on the secondary side
of the CT due to the relays and the connections between the CT and the relays. By way
of example, the standard burdens for CTs with a nominal secondary current of 5 A are
shown in Table 3, based on ANSI Standard C57.13.
IEC Standard Publication 185(1987) specifies CTs by the class of accuracy followed by
the letter Μ or P, which denotes whether the transformer is suitable for measurement or
protection purposes, respectively. The current and phase-error limits for measurement
and protection CTs are given in Tables 4a and 4.4b. The phase error is considered
positive when the secondary current leads the primary current.
The current error is the percentage deviation of the secondary current, multiplied
by the nominal transformation ratio, from the primary current, i.e. {(CTR x Ι2) – I1} ÷ I1
(%), where I1 = primary current (A), I2 = secondary current (A) and CTR = current
transformer transformation ratio. Those CT classes marked with `ext' denote wide range
(extended) current transformers with a rated continuous current of 1.2 or 2 times the
nameplate current rating.
2.5 Selection of CTs
When selecting a CT, it is important to ensure that the fault level and normal load
conditions do not result in saturation of the core and that
 CT magnetization curves

Figure 8a CT magnetization curves

 Figure 8b CT magnetization curves
• a Defining the knee point in a CT excitation curve according to European
standards
• b Typical excitation curves for a multi ratio class C CT (From IEEE
Standard C57.13-1978; reproduced by permission of the IEEE).

Table 4.3 Standard burdens for protection

CTs with 5 Α secondary current

Designation Resista nce Inductance Impedance Volt- Power

amps
(Ω) (mH) (Ω) factor
(at 5 A)
 0.5
B-1 2.3 1.0 25 0.5
B-2 1.0 4.6 2.0 50 0.5

B-4 2.0 9.2 4.0 100 0.5

B-8 4.0 18.4 8.0 200 0.5

The errors do not exceed acceptable limits. These factors can be assessed from:
• formulae;
• CT magnetization curves;
• CT classes of accuracy.
The first two methods provide precise facts for the selection of the CT. The third only
provides a qualitative estimation. The secondary voltage Ε in Figure 4.6U has to be
determined for all three methods. If the impedance of the magnetic circuit, Xm is high,
this can be removed from the equivalent circuit with little error' giving Es=Vs and
thus:

Vs=IL (ZL+ZC+ZB) (1)

Where
Vs = r.m.s. voltage induced in the secondary winding
=maximum secondary current in amperes;
this can be determined by dividing the maximum
Fault current on the system by the transformer
turns ratio selected
ZB = e x t e r n a l impedance connected
ZL = impedance of the secondary winding
ZC =impedance of the connecting wiring

Use of the formula

This method utilizes the fundamental transformer equation:
Vs = 4.44.f. Α. N. Bmax.10 -8 V (2)
Where
f =frequency in Hz,
Α =cross-sectional area of core (cm2)
Ν =number of turns
Bmax =flux density (lines/cm2)
Table 4α Error limits for measurement current transformers
Class % current error at the given proportion % phase error at the given proportion of the rated
of rated current shown below current shown below

2.0* 1.2 1.00 0.50 0.20 0.10 2.0* 1.2 1. 0.5 0. 0.1 0.05
0.05 0 2

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.25 5 5 8 10

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.35 0.50 10 10 15 20

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.75 1.00 30 30 45 60

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.00 60 60 - 90 12 -

0
3.0 3.0 3.0 - - - - _ 12 - 12 - - -
0 0
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.25 0.4 5 - 5 8 10 15

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.35 0.50 0.7 10 - 10 15 20 30

ext 5
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.75 1.00 1.5 30 - 30 45 60 90
ext
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.00 60 - 60 - 90 120 -
ext
3.0 3.0 - - 3.0 - - - 120 - - 120 - - -
ext
*ext = 200 %

Table 4b Error limits for protection current transformers

+/- percentage
Accuracy +/- Phase error
Current
Class (minutes)
ratio error
% Current 5 20 100 120 5 20 100 120
0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 15 8 5 5
0.2 0.75 0.35 0.2 0.2 30 15 10 10
0.5 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 90 45 30 30
1.0 3 1.5 1.0 1.0 180 90 60 60

Total error for nominal error limit current and nominal load is five per cent for 5P and
5Ρ ext CTs and ten per cent for 10P and 10P ext CTs.
 The cross-sectional area of metal and the saturation flux density are sometimes
difficult to obtain.
The latter can be taken as equal to 100 000 lines/Cm2, which is a typical value for
modern transformers. To use the formula, V is determined from eqn. 4.1 and Bmax. is
then calculated using eqn. 2. If Bmax.
Exceeds the saturation density, there could be appreciable errors in the secondary current
and the CT selected would not be appropriate.
Example 1.
Assume that a CT with a ratio of 2000/5 is available, having a steel core of high
permeability, a cross-sectional area of 3.25 In cm2 and a secondary winding with a
resistance of 0.31 Ω. The impedance of the relays, including connections, is 2 Ω.
Determine whether the CT would be saturated by a fault of 35 000 A at 50 Hz.
Solution
If the CT is not saturated, then the secondary current, IL, is
35 000x 5/2000=87.5 A. N= 2000/5 = 400 turns
And Vs=87.5x (0.31+2) =202.1 V. Using eqn. 4.2, Bmax, can now be calculated:
Bmax = 202.1X108/4.44X50X3.25X400=70 030 lines/ cm2
Since the transformer in this example has a steel core of high permeability, this relatively
low value of flux density should not result in saturation.
Using the magnetization curve
Typical CT excitation curves which are supplied by manufacturers state the r.m.s.
current obtained on applying an r.m.s. voltage to the secondary winding, with the primary
winding open-circuited.
The curves give the magnitude of the excitation current required order to obtain a
specific secondary voltage.
The method consists of producing a curve which shows the relationship between
the primary and secondary currents for one tap and specified load conditions, such as
shown in Figure 4.9.
Starting with any value of secondary current, and with the help of the
magnetisation curves, the value of the corresponding primary current can be determined.
The process is summarized in the following steps:
(a) Assume a value for I L.
(b) Calculate Vs in accordance with eqn. 4.1.
(c) Locate the value of Vs on the curve for the tap selected, and find the associated value
of the magnetization current, Ie.
(d) Calculate I H / n (=IL + Ie) and multiply this value by n to refer it to the primary side of
the CT.
(e) This provides one point on the curve of I L against IH, and the process is then
repeated to obtain other values of I L and the resultant values of IH. By joining the
points together the curve of I L against IH is obtained.

Figure 4.9 using the

magnetization curve
a - assume a value for IL.
b - Vs = I L ( Z L + Z C + Z B )
c - find I e from the curve
d - IH=n(I1,+ I e )
e - draw the point on the curve

This method incurs an error in calculating IH /n by adding I e and IL together

arithmetically and not vectorially, which implies not taking account of the load angle
and the magnetizations branch of the equivalent circuit. However, this error is not
great and the simplification snakes it easier to carry out the calculations.
After construction, the curve should be checked to confirm that the maximum
primary fault current is within the transformer saturation zone. If not, then it will be
necessary to repeat the process, changing the tap until the fault current is within the
linear part of the characteristic.
 In practice it is not necessary to draw the complete curve because it is
sufficient to take the known fault current and refer to the secondary winding,
assuming that there is no saturation for the tap selected.
This converted value can be taken as IL initially for the process described
earlier. If the tap is found to be suitable after finishing the calculations, then a value
of IH can be obtained which is closer to the fault current.

Accuracy classes established by the ANSI standards

The ANSI accuracy class of a CT (Standard C57.13) is described by two
symbols — a letter and a nominal voltage; these define the capability of the CT.
C indicates that the transformation ratio can be calculated, and T indicates that
the transformation ratio can be determined by means of tests. The classification C
includes those CTs with uniformly distributed windings and other CTs with a
dispersion flux which has a negligible effect on the ratio, within defined limits.
The classification T includes those CTs with a dispersion flux which
considerably affects the transformation ratio.
For example, with a CT of class C—100 the ratio can be calculated, and the error
should not exceed ten per cent if the secondary current does not go outside the range
of 1 to 20 times the nominal current and if the load does not exceed 1Ω (1Ω x 5 Ax
20=100 V) at a minimum power factor of 0.5.
These accuracy classes are only applicable for complete windings. When
considering a winding provided with taps, each tap will have a voltage capacity
proportionally smaller, and in consequence it can only feed a portion of the load
without exceeding the ten per cent error limit. The permissible load is defined as ZB=
(NP Vc) / 100, where ZB, is the permissible load for a given tap of the CT, NP, is the
fraction of the total number of turns being used and Vc is the ANSI voltage capacity
for the complete CT.

2.6 DC saturation
Up to now, the behavior of a CT has been discussed in terms of a steady state,
without considering the DC transient component of the
DC saturation is particularly significant in complex protection schemes since, in the
case of external faults, high fault currents circulate through the CTs.
If saturation occurs in different CTs associated with a particular relay
arrangement, this could result in the circulation of unbalanced secondary currents
which would cause the system to malfunction.
2.7 Precautions when working with CTs
Working with CTs associated with energized network circuits can be extremely
hazardous. In particular, opening the secondary circuit of a CT could result in
dangerous over voltages which might harm operational staff or lead to equipment
being damaged, because the current transformers are designed to be used in power
circuits which have impedance much greater than their own.
As a consequence, when secondary circuits are left open, the equivalent primary-
circuit impedance is almost unaffected but a high voltage will be developed by the
primary current passing through the magnetizing impedance Thus, secondary circuits
associated with CTs must always he kept in a closed condition or short-circuited in
order to prevent these adverse situations occurring. To illustrate this, an example is
given next using typical data for a CT and a 13.2 kV feeder.

Choice of CT’s Primary rating

The c. t. primary rating is usually chosen to be equal to or greater than the normal full
load current o f the protected circuit. Standard primary ratings are given in B.S.
3938:1973. Generally speaking, the maximum ratio of CT’s is usually limited to about
3000/1. This is due to
(I) limitation of size of CT’s and more importantly
(II) the fact that the open circuit volts would be dangerously high for large CT’s Primary
ratings, such as those encountered on large turbo alternators, e.g. 5,000 amperes. It is
standard practice in such applications to use a cascade arrangement of say 5,000/20A
together with 20/1A interposing auxiliary CT’s

Instantaneous over current relays

Class P method of specification will a suffice. A secondary accuracy limit current greatly
in excess of the value t o cause relay operation serves no useful purpose and a rated
accuracy limit of 5 will usually be adequate.
When such relays are set to operate at high values of over current, say from 5 to 15 times
the rated current o f the transformer, the accuracy limit factor must be at least as high as
the value of the setting current used in order to ensure fast relay operation.
Rated outputs higher than 15VA and rated accuracy limit factors higher than 10 are not
recommended for general purposes. It is possible, however, to combine a higher rated
accuracy limit factor with a lower rated output and vice versa. But when the product of
these two exceeds 150 the resulting current transformer may be uneconomical, and/or of
unduly large dimensions.

Over current relays with Inverse and Definite Minimum Time

(IDMT) lag characteristic
In general, for both directional and non-directional relays class 10P current transformers
should be used

Earth fault relays with inverse time characteristic

(1) Schemes in which phase fault current stability and accurate time grading are not
required.
Class 10P current transformers are generally recommended in which the product of
rated
output and rated accuracy limit fact or approaches 150 provided that the earth fault
relay is
not set below 20% of the rated current of the associated current transformer and that
the
burden of the relay at its setting current does not exceed 4VA.

(2) Schemes in which phase fault stability and/or where time grading is critical.
Class 5P current transformers in which the product of rated output and accuracy
limit factor approaches 150 should be used.

They are in general suitable for ensuring phase fault stability up to 10 times the rated
primary current and for maintaining time grading of the earth f a u l t relays, up to
current values of the order of 10 times the earth fault setting provided t h a t the phase
burden effectively imposed on each current transformer does not exceed 50% of it s rated
burden.
The rated accuracy limit factor is not less than 10 the earth fault relay is not set below 30
% The burden of the relay at its setting does not exceed 4VA
The use of a higher relay setting the use of an earth fault relay having a burden of less
than 4VA at its setting The use of current transformers having a product of rated output
and rated accuracy factor in excess of 150.

Class “X” Current Transformer

Protection current transformers specified in terms of complying with Class ' X I

Specification is generally applicable to unit systems where balancing of outputs from
each end of the protected plant is vital.
This balance, or stability during through fault conditions, is essentially of a transient
nature and thus the extent of the unsaturated (or linear) zone is of paramount importance.
Hence a statement of knee point voltage is the parameter of prime importance and it is
normal to derive, from heavy current test results, a formula stating the lowest permissible
value of VK if stable operation is to be guaranteed, e.g.

Vk = K In (RCT + 2RL + R0)

Where
K - Is a constant found by realistic heavy current tests?
In - rated current of C.T. and relay
RCT - secondary winding resistance of the line current transformers
RL - lead burden (route length) in ohms
Ro - any other resistance (or impedance) in circuit

Protection Scheme
1 - Feeders Protection Schemes.
2 - Transformers Protection Schemes.
3 - Bus Bar Protection Schemes.
4 - Generators Protection Schemes.

Types and voltage level of Feeders

A – O. H. T. Lines
• 500 KV O. H. T Line
• 400 KV O. H. T Line
• 275 KV O. H. T Line
• 220 KV O. H. T Line
• 132 KV O. H. T Line
• 66 KV O. H. T Line
• 33 KV O. H. T Line
• 22 KV O. H. T Line
• 11 KV O. H. T Line
B – U. G. Cables
• 275 KV U. G. Cable
• 220 KV U. G. Cable
• 132 KV U. G. Cable
• 66 KV U. G. Cable
• 33 KV U. G. Cable
• 11 KV U. G. Cable
500, 400, 275 and 220 KV O.H.T. Lines
 Protection Schemes
• Main (A) Protection:
Distance Protection Permissive Over Reach Scheme. (POTT)
• Main (B) Protection:
Distance Protection Permissive Under Reach Scheme. (PUTT)
• Backup Protection:
I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
Circuit Breaker Fail to Tripe.
Inter Trip.
SF6 Pressure Low Trip
Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip (For Cable Tail )
Drawing : single Line diagram for
protection scheme Click Here
132 and 66 KV O.H.T. Lines
Protection Schemes
Main Protection:
Distance Protection Permissive Under Reach Scheme. (PUTT)
Back up Protection:
I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
Circuit Breaker Fail To Tripe.
Inter Trip.
SF6 Pressure Low Trip
Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip (For Cable Tail)
Drawing : single Line diagram for
protection scheme Click Here

33 and 22 KV O.H.T. Lines

Protection Schemes
• I.D.M.T Direction O/C & EF Relay
• I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & EF Relay

11 KV O.H.T. Lines
Protection Schemes

• I.D.M.T Direction O/C & EF Relay

 275, 220 U.G.C. Line
Protection Scheme
• Main (A) Protection:
Differential Protection (Solkor – R)
• Main (B) Protection:
Distance Protection Permissive Over Reach Scheme. (POTT) With Carrier Signal
through Pilot Cable
• Back up Protection:
I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
Circuit Breaker Fail to Tripe
Inter Trip.
SF6 Pressure Low Trip
Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip
132, and 66 KV U.G.C. Line
Protection Scheme
• Main Protection:
Differential Protection (Solkor – R)
• Back up Protection:
I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
Circuit Breaker Fail to Tripe.
Inter Trip (Through Pilot Cable).
SF6 Pressure Low Trip
Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip
33, 22 KV U.G.C. Line
Protection Scheme
• Main Protection:
Differential Protection (Solkor – R)
• Back up Protection:
• I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
• I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
• Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip.

11 KV U.G.C. Line
Protection Scheme
• Main Protection:
Differential Protection (Solkor – R)
• Back up Protection:
• I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.

Transformers Protection Schemes

Some types of power transformers
• 300 MVA. 3 Winding Power Transformer
275 KV / 132 KV / 33 KV. (Y.Y.Δ).
• 75 MVA. & 45 MVA. 2 Winding Power Transformer 1
32 KV / 33 KV.
• 30 MVA 2 Winding Power Transformer
132 KV / 11 KV.
• 20 MVA & 15 MVA 2 Winding Power Transformer
33 KV / 11 KV.
Drawing : single Line diagram for
protection scheme Click Here

300 MVA 3 Winding Power Transformer

Protection Scheme.
• Main (A&B) Protection:
1. Differential Protection.
2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection. (both at 275 kv and 132 kv)
side neutral of the star winding.
• BackupProtection:
C.B Fail to trip.
I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 300 KV side
I.D.M.T Direction O/C & E/F relay on 132 KV side
Inter Trip (through pilot cable).
Buchhols Trip.
Tap Changer Buchhols Trip.
Oil Temperature Trip.
Winding Temperature Trip.
Cable oil pressure Low Trip. (for cable tails )
 SF6 pressure Low Trip.

75, 45 And 30 MVA- 2 Winding Power Transformer

Protection Scheme.
• Main (A) Protection:
1. Differential Protection.
2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection.
(At the neutral of the LV. Winding).
• Backup Protection:
Stand-By Earth Fault relay at the neutral of LV. Winding.
C.B Fail to trip. (For 132 KV. C.B only)
I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 132 KV side
Inter Trip (through pilot cable).
Buchhols Trip.
Tap Changer Buchhols Trip.
Winding Temperature Trip.
Cable oil pressure Low Trip. (For cable tails)

20 & 15 MVA- 33 / 11 KV, 2 Winding Power Transformer

Protection Scheme.
• Main (A) Protection:
1. Differential Protection.
2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection.
(At the neutral of the LV. Winding).

• Backup Protection:
Stand-By Earth Fault relay at the neutral of LV. Winding.
I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 33 KV side
Inter Trip (through pilot cable).
Buchhols Trip.

Bus-Bar Protection Schemes

Bus-Bar Protection Schemes.
• 500, 400, 275, 220 and 132 KV. Bus-Bar Protection Scheme.
- Differential Protection For each section of bus-bar.
- SF6 Pressure low Trip.

• 66 and 33 KV. Bus-Bar Protection Scheme.

- Differential Protection For each section of bus-bar or Arc protection or Micro switch
protection.
- SF6 Pressure low Trip.

• 22 and 11 KV BUS-Bar Protection Scheme.

- Arc protection or Micro switches protection.

• 500, 400, 275, and 220 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme.
- I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
- C.B Fail to Trip.
- SF6 Pressure Trip.
- Inter Trip (through pilot cable).

• 132 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme.

- I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
- C.B Fail to Trip.

• 33 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme.

- I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.

• 11 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme.

- I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.

Shunt Reactor Protection Scheme.

275 &132 KV. Shunt Reactor Protection Scheme.
• I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay.
• Inter Trip (through pilot cable – SHR connected through cable C.B. “for 132 kV
only”).
• Buchhols Trip.
• Oil Temperature Trip.
• Winding Temperature Trip.
• Cable oil pressure Low Trip. (For cable tails)
• SF6 pressure Low Trip.
• C.B Fail to trip. (For 132 KV. C.B only).

33 KV. Shunt Reactor Protection Scheme for both connected

to 33 KV Bus-Bar or to tertiary of 300 MVA Transformer.

• I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay.

• Buchhols Trip.
• Oil Temperature Trip.
• Winding Temperature Trip.

Over-current and Earth Fault Protection

 Introduction

As the fault impedance is less than load impedance, the fault current is more than
load current. If a short circuit occurs the circuit impedance is reduced to a low value
and therefore a fault is accompanied by large current.

Over-current protection is that protection in which the relay picks up when the
magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level.

The basic element in Over-current protection is an Over-current relay.

The Over-current relays are connected to the system, normally by means of CT's.

Over-current relaying has following types:

1. High speed Over-current protection.
2. Definite time Over-current protection.
3. Inverse minimum time Over-current protection.
 4. Directional Over-current protection (of above types).

Over-current protection includes the protection from overloads. This is most widely
used protection. Overloading of a machine or equipment generally) means the machine
is taking more current than its rated current. Hence with overloading, there is an
associated temperature rise. The permissible temperature rise has a limit based on
insulation class and material problems.
Over-current protection of overloads is generally provided by thermal relays.

Over-current protection includes short-circuit protection. Short circuits a be phase

faults, earth faults or winding faults. Short-circuit currents are generally several times
(5 to 20) full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short-
circuits.

When a machine is protected by differential protection, the over-current is provided

in addition as a back-up and in some cases to protect the machine from sustained
through fault.
Several protective devices are used for over-current protection these include:
1. Fuses
2. Circuit-breakers fitted with overloaded coils or tripped by over-current relays.
3. Series connected trip coils operating switching devices.
4. Over-current relays in conjunction with current transformers.

The primary requirements of over-current protection are:

• The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible
over-current, and current surges. To achieve this, the time delay is
provided (in case of inverse relays). If time delay cannot be permitted,
high-set instantaneous relaying is used.
• The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over-current
protections so as to discriminate.

 Applications of Over-current Protection

Over-current protection has a wide range of applications. It can be applied where there
is an abrupt difference between fault current within the protected section and that
outside the protected section and these magnitudes are almost constant.

The over-current protection is provided for the following:

 Motor Protection
Over-current protection is the basic type of protection used against overloads and
short-circuits in stator windings of motors. Inverse time and instantaneous phase and
ground over-current relays can be employed for motors above 1200 H.P. For
small/medium size motors where cost of CT's and protective relays is not economically
justified, thermal relays and HRC fuses are employed, thermal relays used for overload
protection and HRC fuses for short-circuit protection.
 Transformer Protection
Transformers are provided with over-current protection against faults, only, when the
cost of differential relaying cannot be justified. However, over-current relays are
provided in addition to differential relays to take care of through faults. Temperature
indicators and alarms are always provided for large transformers.
Small transformers below 500 kVA installed in distribution system are generally
protected by drop-out fuses, as the cost of relays plus circuit-breakers is not generally
justified Line Protection.
The lines (feeders) can be protected by
(1) Instantaneous over-current relays.
(2) Inverse time over-current relays.
(3) Directional over-current relay.
Lines can be protected by impedance or carrier current protection also.

Protection of Utility Equipment

The furnaces, industrial installations commercial, industrial and domestic equipment
are all provided with over-current protection.

 Relays used in Over-current Protection

The choice of relay for over-current protection depends upon the Time / current
characteristic and other features desired. The following relays are used.
1. For instantaneous over-current protection. Attracted armature type, moving iron
type,
permanent magnet moving coil type and static.
2. For inverse time characteristic. Electromagnetic induction type, permanent magnet
moving coil type and static.
3. Directional over-current protection. Double actuating quantity induction relay
with directional feature.
4. Static over-current relays.
5. HRC fuses, drop out fuses, etc. are used in low voltage medium voltage
and high voltage distribution systems, generally up to 11 kV.
6. Thermal relays are used widely for over-current protection.

Not: Now Digital Numerical Relay you can used for all types

 Characteristics of relay units for over current protection

There is a wide variety of relay-units. These are classified according to their type and
characteristics. The major characteristic includes:
1. Definite characteristic
2. Inverse characteristic
3. Extremely Inverse
4. Very Inverse

In definite characteristic, the time of operation is almost definite i.e.

I0 * T = K
Where:
I = Current in relay coil
T = Relay lime
K = Constant.
In inverse characteristic, time is inversely proportional to current i.e.

I1 * T = K
In more inverse characteristic

In * T = K

Where n can be between 2 to 8 the choice depends on discrimination desired.

Instantaneous relays are those which have no intentional time lag sod which operate in
less than 0.1 second, usually less than 0.08 second. As suck they are not
instantaneous in real sense.

The relays which are not instantaneous are called Time Delay Relay'. Such relays are
provided with delaying means such as drag magnet, dash poss. bellows, escape
mechanisms, back-stop arrangement, etc.

The operating time of a relay for a particular setting and magnitude actuating quantity
can be known from the characteristics supplied by the manufacturer. The typical
characteristics are shown in (Fig. 1)

An inverse curve is one in which the operating time; becomes less as the magnitude of
the actuating quantity is increased. However for higher magnitudes of actuating
quantity the time is constant. Definite time curve is one in which operating time is little
affected by magnitude of actuating current. However even definite time relay has a
characteristic which is slightly inverse

The characteristic with definite minimum time and of inverse type is also called Inverse
Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) characteristics (Fig.1).
(Fig.1) Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT)
characteristics

Principle of trip circuit

Referring to (Fig. 2) the three current transformers and relay coils connected in star and
the star point is earthed. When short circuit occurs in the protected zone the secondary
current of CT's increases.

These current flows through relay coils and the relay picks-up, the relay contacts
close, thereby the trip circuit is closed and the circuit breaker-operates The over-
current protection scheme with three over-current relays (Fig. 2) responds to phase
faults and earth faults including single-phase to earth fault.
Therefore such schemes are used with solidly earthed systems where phase to phase
and phase to earth faults are likely to occur.

For proper functioning of over-current and earth fault protection, the choice of CT's and
polarity connections should be correct.

Fig.2) Over Current protection with

three phase OC relays

Methods of CT Connections in Over-current Protection of 3-Phase Circuits

 Connection Scheme with Three Over-current Relays

Over-current protection can be achieved by means of three over-current relays or by
two over-current relays (See Table 1).
Table 1
 Fig Description Note
1 One OC with one For balanced
CT for over load load only.
protection.

2 Two OC relays
with two CT's for
phase to phase
fault protection.

3 Three OC relays EF current >

with three CT's for two time pick-
phase to phase up phase
fault protection. current

4 Three OC relays EF setting less

with three CT's for than phase
phase to phase fault setting
fault protection
and phase to
earth fault.

5 Two OC and one

EF relays for
phase to phase
and phase to
earth fault
protection

 Earth-Fault Protection

When the fault current flows through earth return path, the fault is called Earth Fault.
Other faults which do not involve earth are called phase faults. Since earth faults are
relatively frequent, earth fault protection is necessary in most cases. When separate
earth fault protection is not economical, the phase relays sense the earth fault currents.
However such protection lacks sensitivity. Hence separate earth fault protection is
generally provided. Earth fault protection senses earth fault current. Following are the
method of earth fault protection.

 Connections of CT's for Earth-fault Protection

1. Residually connected Earth-fault Relay

Referring to Fig. 3 In absence of earth-fault the vector sum of three line currents is zero.
Hence the vector sum of three secondary currents is also zero.

IR+I Y +I B =0

The sum (IR+I Y +I B ) is called residual current

The earth-fault relay is connected such that the residual current flows through it (Figs.3
and Fig. 4), in the absence of earth-fault,
Therefore, the residually connected earth-fault relay does not operate. However, in
presence of earth fault the conditions is disturbed and (IR+I Y +I B ) is no more
zero. Hence flows through the earth-fault relay. If the residual current is above the
pick-up value, the earth-fault relay operates.
In the scheme discussed here the earth-fault at any location near or away from the
location of CT's can cause the residual current flow. Hence the protected
zone is not definite. Such protection is called unrestricted earth-fault protection

(Fig.3) Earth-fault Relay connected in Residual

Circuit.
 (Fig.4) Earth fault protection combined with phase fault
protection

2. Earth-fault Relay connected in Neutral to Earth

Circuit (Fig. 5).

Another method of connecting an earth-fault relay is

illustrated in Fig 5. The relay is connected to secondary of a
CT whose primary is connected in neutral to earth connection.
Such protection can be provided at various voltage levels by
connecting earth-fault relay in the neutral-to-earth connection
of that voltage level. The fault current finds the return path
through the earth and then flows through the neutral-to-earth
connected. The magnitude of earth fault current is dependent
on type of earthing (resistance, reactance or solid) and
location of fault. In this type of protection,

The zone of protection cannot be accurately defined. The

protected area is not restricted to the
transformer/generator winding alone. The relay senses the
earth faults
beyond the transformer/generator winding hence such
protection is called unrestricted earth-fault protection. The
earth-fault protection by relay in neutral to earth circuit
depends upon the type of neutral Earthing. In case of large
generators, voltage transformer is connected between
neutral and earth

(Fig. 5) Earth-fault protection by earth-

fault-relay connected
in neutral-to-earth circuit.

 Combined Earth-fault and Phase-fault

Protection

It is convenient to incorporate phase-fault relays and

earth-fault relay in a combined phase-fault and earth-fault
protection. (Fig. 4) The increase in current of phase
causes corresponding increase in respective secondary
currents. The secondary current flows through respective
relay-units Very often only two-phase relays are provided
instead of three, because in case of phase faults current in
any at least two phases must increase. Hence two relay-
units are enough.

 Earth-fault Protection with Core Balance Current

Transformers. (Zero Sequence CT)
In this type of protection (Fig. 6) a single ring shaped core
of magnetic material, encircles the conductors of all the
three phases. A secondary coil is connected to a relay
unit. The cross-section of ring-core is
(Fig.6) Principle of core-balance CT
for earth fault protection

Ample, so that saturation is not a problem. During no-

earth-fault condition, the components of fluxes due to the
fields of three conductors are balanced and the secondary
current is negligible. During earth faults, such a balance is
disturbed and current is induced in the secondary. Core-
balance protection can be conveniently used for protection
of low-voltage and medium voltage systems. The burden of
relays and exciting current are deciding factors. Very large
cross-section of core is necessary for sensitivity less than
10 A. This form of protection is likely to be more popular
with static relays due to the fewer burdens of the latter.
Instantaneous relay unit is generally used with core
balance schemes.

 Theory of Core Balance CT

. Let Ia, Ib and I c , be the three line currents and Φa, Φb

and Φc be corresponding components of magnetic flux in
the core. Assuming linearity, we get resultant flux Φ as,

Φ=k (Ia + Ib + I c )

where k is a constant Φ = K * Ia. Referring to theory of

symmetrical components

(Ia + Ib + I c )= 3 I c= I n
Where, Io is zero sequence current and In, is current in
neutral to ground circuit. During normal condition, when
earth fault is absent,
(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 0
Hence Φr = 0 and relay does not operate
During earth fault the earth fault current flows through
return neutral path.
For example for single line ground fault,

If = 3Iao = In

Hence the zero-sequence component of I o produces the

resultant flux Φr in the core. Hence core balance current
transformer is also called as zero sequence current
transformers (ZSCT).

 Application for Core Balance CT's with Cable

Termination Joints

The termination of a three core cable into three separate

lines or bus-bars is through cable terminal box. Ref. (Fig. 7),
the Core Balance Protection is used along with the cable
box and should be installed before making the cable joint.

The induced current flowing through cable sheath of

normal healthy cable needs particular attention with respect
to the core balance protection.

The sheath currents (Ish) flow through the sheath to the

cover of cable-box and then to earth through the earthing
connection between cable-box. For eliminating the error
due to sheath current (Ish) the earthing lead between the
cable-box and the earth should be taken through the core of
the core balance protection.
Thereby the error due to sheath currents is eliminated. The
cable box should be insulated from earth.
1. Cable terminal box
2. Sheath of 3 core cable connection to (1)
3. Insulator support for 1
4. Earthing connection passing through 5
5. Core balance CT
Fig (7) Mounting of Core
Balance CT with Cable
Terminal Box

 Frame-leakage Protection

The metal-clad switchgear can be provided with frame

leakage protection. The switchgear is lightly y insulated from
the earth. The metal-frame-work or enclosure of the
switchgear is earthed with a primary of a CT in between
(Fig. 8).

The concrete foundation of the switchgear and the cable-

boxes and other conduits are slightly insulated from earth,
the resistance to earth being about 12 ohms. In the event of
an earth fault within the switchgear, the earth-fault current
finds the' path through the neutral connection. While doing
so, it is sensed by the earth fault relay.
 Metal clad switchgear

Earthing bus
Earth fault current

EF Relay
Earth

(Fig.
8) Principle of frame-leakage protection
of metal-clad-switchgear

Circulating current differential protection also responds to

earth-faults within its protected zone.

 Earth-fault protection can be achieved by

following methods:

1. Residually connected relay.

2. Relay connected in neutral-to-ground
circuit.
3. Core-balance-scheme.
4. Frame leakage method.
5. Distance relays arranged for detecting
earth faults on lines.
6. Circulating current differential
protection.

Directional Over-current Protection

The over-current protection can be given directional feature by adding directional
element in the protection system. Directional over-current protection responds to over-
currents for a particular direction flow. If power flow is in the opposite direction, the
directional over-current protection remains un-operative.

Directional over-current protection comprises over-current relay and power directional

relay- in a single relay casing. The power directional relay does not measure the power
but is arranged to respond to the direction of power flow.
Directional operation of relay is used where the selectivity can be achieved by
directional relaying. The directional relay recognizes the direction in which fault occurs,
relative to the location of the relay. It is set such that it actuates for faults occurring in
one direction only. It does not act for faults occurring in the other direction. Consider a
feeder AC (Fig. 9) passing through sub-section B. The circuit breaker CB3 is provided
with a directional

B C
A

CB1 CB2 CB3 CB4

R R R R

(Fig.
9) Principle of directional protection
Relay `R' which will trip the breaker CB3 if fault power flow in direction C alone.
Therefore for faults in feeder AB, the circuit breaker CB3 does not trip unnecessarily.
However for faults in feeder BC the circuit-breaker CB3 trips
Because it's protective relaying is set with a directional feature to act in
direction AC
Another interesting example of directional protection is that of reverse power
protection of generator (Fig. 10). If the prime mover fails, the generator continues to run
as a motor and takes power from bus-bars.
Directional of flow
For tripping

CB

(Fig.
10) Reverse powers protection against
motoring action of a generator
Directional power protection operates in accordance with the direction of power flow.
Reverse power protection operates when the power direction is reversed in relation to
the normal working direction. Reverse power relay is different in construction than
directional over-current relay.
In directional over-current relay, the directional element does not measure the
magnitude of power. It senses only direction of power flow. However, in Reverse Power
Relays, the directional element measures magnitude and direction of power flow.

 Relay connections of Single Phase Directional Over-current Relay :

The current coils in the directional over-current relay are normally connected to a
secondary of line CT. The voltage coil of directional element is connected to a line VT,
having phase to phase output (of 110 V). There are four common methods of connecting
the relay depending upon phase angle between current in the current coil and voltage
applied to the voltage coil.

Fig.11 Numerical Over

current, and Overload
Protection Relay

3-Phase Directional over current relays

When fault current can flow in both directions through the relay location, it is
necessary to make the response of the relay directional by the introduction of
directional control elements. These are basically power measuring devices in which
the system voltage is used as a reference for establishing the relative direction or
phase of the fault current.

Although power measuring devices in principle, they are not arranged to respond to
the actual system power for a number of reasons:

1. The power system, apart from loads, is reactive so that the fault power factor
is usually low. A relay
V a , Vb and Vc. Normal system
voltages
V b 1 and V c 1 Voltages at fault
location on faulted phases
V b 2 and V c 2 Voltages remote
from fault location

Fig.12 Phase voltages for a B-

C fault

Responding purely to the active component would not develop a high torque and
might be much slower and less decisive than it could be.
1. The system voltage must collapse at the point of short circuit. When the fault
is single-phase, it is the particular voltage across the short-circuited points
which are reduced. So a B—C phase fault will cause the B and C phase
voltage vectors to move together, the locus of their ends being the original
line be for a homogeneous system, as shown in (Fig.12)
At the point of fault the vectors will coincide, leaving zero voltage across the fault,
but the fault voltage to earth will be half the initial phase to neutral voltage. At other
points in the system the vector displacement will be less, but relays located at such
points will receive voltages which are unbalanced in their value and phase position.

The effect of the large unbalance in currents and voltages is to make the torques
developed by the different phase elements vary widely and even differ in sign if the
quantities applied to the relay are not chosen carefully. To this end, each phase of
the relay is polarized with a voltage which will not be reduced excessively except
by close three-phase faults, and which will remain in a satisfactory relationship to
the current under all conditions.

Relay connections
This is the arrangement whereby suitable current and voltage quantities are applied
to the relay. The various connections are dependent on the phase angle, at unity
system power factor, by which the current and voltage applied to the relay are
displaced.

 Relay maximum torque

The maximum torque angle (MTA) is defined as the angle by which the current
applied to the relay must be displaced from the voltage applied to the relay to
produce maximum torque.
Although the relay element may be inherently wattmetric, its characteristic can be
varied by the addition of phase shifting components to give maximum torque at the
required phase angle.
A number of different connections have been used and these are discussed below.
Examination of the suitability of each arrangement involves determining the
limiting conditions of the voltage and current applied to each phase element of the
relay, for all fault conditions, taking into account the possible range of source and
line impedances.

 30° relay connection (0° MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage V ac. In this case, the flux
due to the voltage coil lags the applied Vac voltage by 90°, so the maximum torque
occurs when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 30°. For unity
power factor and 0.5 lagging power factor the maximum torque available is 0.866 of
maximum. Also, the potential coil voltage lags the current in the current coil by 30°
and gives a tripping zone from 60° leading to 120° lagging currents, as shown in
(Fig. 13a).

The most satisfactory maximum torque angle for this connection, that ensures
correct operation when used for the protection of plain feeders, is 0°, and it can be
shown that a directional element having this connection and 0° MTA will provide
correct discrimination for all types of faults, when applied to plain feeders

If applied to transformer feeders, however, there is a danger that at least one of the
three phase relays will operate for faults in the reverse direction; for this reason a
directional element having this connection should never be used to protect
transformer feeders.
This connection has been used widely in the past, and it is satisfactory under all
conditions for plain feeders provided that three phase elements are employed.
When only two phase elements and an earth fault element are used there is a
probability of failure to operate for one condition. An inter-phase short circuit
causes two elements to be energized but for low power factors one will receive
inputs which, although correct, will produce only a poor torque. In particular a B—C
fault will strongly energize the B element with lb current and Vba voltage, but the C
element will receive Ic and the collapsed Vcb voltage, which quantities have a large
relative phase displacement, as shown in (Fig. 13b). This is satisfactory provided
that three phase elements are used, but in the case of a two phase and one earth
fault element relay, with the B phase element omitted, operation will depend upon
the C element, which may fail to operate if the fault is close to the relaying point.
 A phase element connected l a Va c
B phase element connected l b Vb a
C phase element connected Ic Vcb
(a) Characteristic and inputs
for phase A element

(b) B-C Fault with voltage

distortion

(Fig. 13) Vector diagrams for the 30°

connection

 60° No. 1 connection (0° MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with lab current and Vac voltage. In this case, the flux
due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltage to the relay by 90°, so maximum
torque is produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by
60°. This connection, which uses Vac voltage with delta current produced by adding
phase A and phase B currents at unity power factor, gives a current leading the
voltage Vac by 60°, and provides a correct directional tripping zone over a current
range of 30° leading to 150° lagging. The torque at unity power factor is 0.5 of
maximum torque and at zero power factor lagging 0.866; see (Fig.14).
It has been proved that the most suitable maximum torque angle for this relay
connection, that is, one which ensures correct directional discrimination with the
minimum risk of mal-operation when applied to either plain or transformer feeders,
is 0°.
When used for the protection of plain feeders there is a slight possibility of the
element associated with the A phase mal-operating for a reversed B—C fault.

A phase element connected la b Va c

B phase element connected I b c V b a
C phase element connected Ic a Vc b

(Fig.14) Vector diagram for the 60°

No. 1 connection
(phase A element)
However, although the directional element may mal-operation, it is unlikely that the
over current element which the directional element controls will receive sufficient
current to cause it to operate. For this reason the connection may be safely
recommended for the protection of plain feeders.
When applied to transformer feeders there is a possibility of one of the directional
elements mal-operation for an earth fault on the star side of a delta/star
transformer, remote from the relay end. For mal-operation to occur, the source
impedance would have to be relatively small and have a very low angle at the same
time that the arc resistance of the fault was high. The possibility of mal-operation
with this connection is very remote, for two reasons: first, in most systems the
source impedance may be safely assumed to be largely reactive, and secondly, if
the arc resistance is high enough to cause mal-operation of the directional element
it is unlikely that the over current element associated with the mal-operation
directional element will see sufficient current to operate.
The connection, however, does suffer from the disadvantage that it is necessary to
connect the current transformers in delta, which usually precludes their being used
for any other protective function. For this reason, and also because it offers no
advantage over the 90° connection, it is rarely used.

 60° No. 2 connection (0° MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage In this case, the flux of the
voltage coil lags the applied voltage by 90° so the maximum torque is produced
when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 60°. This connection
gives

A phase element connected Ia —Vc

B phase element connected Ib — Va
C phase element connected Ic —Vb

(Fig.15) Vector diagram for the 60° No.

2 connection
(phase A element).
a correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 30° leading to 150°
lagging. The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.5 of the relay maximum torque
and at zero power factor lagging 0.866; see (Fig.15).
The most suitable maximum torque angle for a directional element using this
connection is 0°. However, even if this maximum torque angle is used, there is a
risk of incorrect operation for all types of faults with the exception of three-phase
faults. For this reason, the 60° No. 2 connection is now never recommended.

A phase element connected Ia Vbc

B phase element connected Ib Vca
C phase element connected Ic Vab
(Fig.16) Vector diagram for the 90°-
30° connection
(Phase A element)

 90° relay quadrature connection

This is the standard connection for the type CDD relay; depending on the angle by
which the applied voltage is shifted to produce the relay maximum torque angle,
two types are available.

 90°- 30° characteristic (30° MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with la current and Vbc voltage displaced by 30° in an
anti-clockwise direction. In this case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the
applied voltage Vbc by 60°, and the relay maximum torque is produced when the
current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 60°. This connection gives a
correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 30° leading to 150°
lagging; see (Fig.16). The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.5 of the relay
maximum torque and at zero power factor lagging 0.866. A relay designed .for
quadrature connection and having a maximum torque angle of 30° is recommended
when the relay is used for the protection of plain feeders with the zero sequence
source behind the relaying point.
  90°- 45° characteristic (45° MTA)
The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage Vbc displaced by 45° in an
anti-clockwise direction. In this case, the flux due to the voltage coil lags the
applied voltage Vbc by 45°, and the relay maximum torque is produced when the
current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 45°. This connection gives a
correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 45° leading to 135°
lagging.

The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.707 of the maximum torque and the same
at zero power factor lagging; see (Fig.17).

A phase element connected Ia ,Vbc

B phase element connected Ih Vca
C phase element connected Ic Vab
(Fig.17) Vector diagram for the 90°-
45° connection
(Phase A element)

This connection is recommended for the protection of transformer feeders or

feeders which have a zero sequence source in front of the relay. The 90°- 45°
connection is essential in the case of parallel trans-formers or transformer feeders,
in order to ensure correct relay operation for faults beyond the star/ delta
transformer. This connection should also be used whenever single-phase
directional relays are applied to a circuit

Theoretically, three fault conditions can cause mal-operation of the directional

element: a phase-phase ground fault on a plain feeder, a phase-ground fault on a
transformer feeder with the zero sequence source in front of the relay and a phase-
phase fault on a power transformer with the relay looking into the delta winding of
the transformer.

It should be remembered, however, that the conditions assumed above to establish

the maximum angular displacement between the current and voltage quantities at
the relay, are such that, in practice, the magnitude of the current input to the relay
would be insufficient to cause the over current element to operate. It can be shown
analytically that the possibility of mal-operation with the 90°- 45° connection is, for
all practical purposes, non-existent.

(Fig.18) Directional relays applied to

parallel feeders.

Parallel feeders
If non-directional relays are applied to parallel feeders, any faults that might occur
on any one line will, regardless of the relay settings used, isolate both lines and
completely disconnect the power supply. With this type of system configuration it
is necessary to apply directional relays at the receiving end and to grade them with
the non-directional relays at the sending end, to ensure correct discriminative
operation of the relays during line. faults. This is done by setting the directional
relays R'1 and R'2 as shown in (Fig.18) with their directional elements looking into
the protected line, and giving them lower time and current settings than relays R1
and R2. The usual practice is to set relays R'1 and R'2 to 50% of the normal full load
of the protected circuit and 0.1 TMS, but care must be taken to ensure that their
continuous thermal rating of twice rated current is not exceeded.

 Ring mains

Directional relays are more commonly applied to ring mains. In the case of a ring
main fed at one point only, the relays at the supply end and at the mid-point
substation, where the setting of both relays are identical, can be made non-
directional, provided that in the latter case the relays are located on the same feeder,
that is, one at each end of the feeder.
It is interesting to note that when the number of feeders round the ring is an even
number, the two relays with the same operating time are at the same substation and
will have to be directional, whereas when the number of feeders is an odd number,
the two relays with the same operating time are at different substations and
therefore do not need to be directional.

It may also be noted that, at inter-mediate substations, whenever the operating times
of the relays at each substation are different, the difference between their operating
times is never less than the grading margin, so the relay with the longer operating
time can be non-directional.

 Grading of ring mains

The usual procedure for grading relays in an inter-connected system is to open the
ring at the supply point and to grade the relays first clockwise and then anti-
clockwise; that is, the relays looking in a clock-wise direction round the ring are
arranged to operate in the sequence 1—2—3—4—5—6 and the relays looking in the
anti-clockwise direction are arranged to operate in the sequence 1'—2'—3'—4'—5'—6',
as shown in (Fig.19)

(Fig.19) Grading of ring mains

The arrows associated with the relaying points indicate the direction of current flow
that will cause the relays to operate.

A double-headed arrow is used to indicate a non-directional relay, such as those at

the supply point where the power can flow only in one direction, and a single-
headed arrow a directional relay, such as those at intermediate substations around
the ring where the power can flow in either direction. The directional relays are set
in accordance with the invariable rule, applicable to all forms of directional
protection that the current in the system must flow from the substation bus-bars
into the protected line in order that the relays may operate.
Disconnection of the faulty line is carried out according to time and fault current
direction. As in any parallel system, the fault current has two parallel paths and
divides itself in the inverse ratio of their impedances.

Thus, at each substation in the ring, one set of relays will be made inoperative
because of the direction of current flow, and the other set operative. It will also be
found that the operating times of the relays that are inoperative are faster than
those of the operative relays, with the exception of the mid-point substation, where
the operating times of relays 3 and 3' happen to be the same.

The relays which are operative are graded downwards towards the fault and the last
to be affected by the fault operates first. This applies to both paths to the fault.
Consequently, the faulty line is the only one to be disconnected from the ring and
the power supply is maintained to all the substations.

When two or more power sources feed into a ring main, time graded over current
protection is difficult to apply and full discrimination may not be possible. With two
sources of supply, two solutions are possible. The first is to open the ring at one of
the supply points, whichever is more convenient, by means of a suitable high set
instantaneous over-current relay and then to proceed to grade the ring as in the
case of a single infeed, the second to treat the section of the ring between the two
supply points as a continuous bus separate from the ring and to protect it with a
unit system of protection, such as pilot wire relays, and then proceed to grade the
ring as in the case of a single infeed.

Directional Earth-Fault Protection

In the directional over-current protection the current coil of relay is actuated from
secondary current of line CT. whereas the current coil of directional earth fault relay is
actuated by residual current.

In directional over-current relay, the voltage coil is actuated by secondary of line VT. In
directional earth fault relay, the voltage coil is actuated by the residual voltage.
Directional earth fault relays sense the direction in which earth fault occurs with
respect to the relay location and it operates for fault in a particular direction. The
directional earth fault relay (single phase unit) has two coils. The polarizing quantity is
obtained either from residual current

I RS = (Ia + Ib + Ic)

or residual voltage VRs = V a + V b + V c

Where V a , V b and Vc are phase voltages.

Referring to (Fig. 11) the directional earth-fault relay has two coils. One to the coils
is connected in residual current circuits (Ref. Fig. 5). This coil gets current during earth-
faults. The other coil gets residual voltage,

V = Va + V b + Vc
RS

Where V a , V b a n d V c are secondary voltages of the potential transformer

('Three phase five limb potential transformer or three separate single phase potential
transformers connected as shown in Fig. 20). The coil connected in potential-
transformer secondary circuit gives a polarizing field.

(Fig. 20) Connections of a directional

earth-fault relay.
The residual current I RS i.e. the out of balance current is given to the current coil and the
residual voltage VRs is given to the voltage coil of the relay. The torque is proportional to
T = I RS * V RS * cos (Φ - α)
Φ = angle between I RS and VRs
α = angle of maximum torque.

 Summary
Over-current protection responds to increase in current above the pick-up value over-
currents are caused by overloads and short-circuits.
The over-current relays are connected the secondary of current transformer. The
characteristic of over-current relays include inverse time characteristic, definite time
characteristic.
Earth fault protection responds to single line to ground faults and double line to ground
faults. The current coil of earth-fault relay is connected either in neutral to ground circuit
or in residually connected secondary CT circuit.
Core balance CTs are used for earth-fault protection.
Frame leakage protection can be used for metal clad switchgear.
Directional over-current relay and Directional Earth fault relay responds to fault in which
power flow is in the set direction from the CT and PT locations. Such directional relays
are used when power can flow from both directions to the fault point.
 Co-ordination
Correct current relay application requires knowledge of the fault current that can flow
in each part of the network. Since large scale tests are normally impracticable,
system analysis must be used. It is generally sufficient to use machine transient
reactance X'd and to work on the instantaneous symmetrical currents. The data
required for a relay setting study are:
1. A one-line diagram of the power system involved, showing the
type and rating of the protective devices and their associated current
transformers.
2. The impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all power
transformers, rotating machines and feeder circuits.
3. The maximum and minimum values of short circuit currents that
are expected to flow through each protective device.
4. The starting current requirements of motors and the starting and
stalling times of induction motors.
5. The maximum peak load current through protective devices.
6. Decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault current
supplied by the generators.
7. Performance curves of the current transformers.
8. The relay settings are first determined so as to give the shortest
operating times at maximum fault levels and then checked to see if
operation will also be satisfactory at the minimum fault current
expected. It is always advisable to plot the curves of relays and other
protective devices, such as fuses, that are to operate in series, on a
common scale. It is usually more convenient to use a scale
corresponding to the current expected at the lowest voltage base or to
use the predominant voltage base. The alternatives are a common MVA
base or a separate current scale for each system voltage.
9. The basic rules for correct relay co-ordination can generally be
stated as follows:
10. Whenever possible, use relays with the same operating characteristic in
series with each other.
11. Make sure that the relay farthest from the source has current settings equal
to or less than the relays behind it, that is, that the primary current required
 operating the relay in front is always equal to or less than the primary current
required operating the relay behind it.

 PRINCIPLES OF TIME/CURRENT GRADING

Among the various possible methods used to achieve correct relay co-ordination are
those using either time or over current or a combination of both time and over-
current. The common aim of all three methods is to give correct discrimination. That
is to say, each one must select and isolate only the faulty section of the power
system network, leaving the rest of the system undisturbed.
1. Discrimination by time
In this method an appropriate time interval is given by each of the relays controlling
the circuit breakers in a power system to ensure that the breaker nearest to the fault
opens first. A simple radial distribution system is shown in (Fig. 21) to illustrate the
principle.

(Fig. 21) Radial systems with time

discrimination

Circuit breaker protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that is, at the infeed end of
each section of the power system. Each protection unit comprises a definite time
delay over current relay in which the operation of the current sensitive element
simply initiates the time delay element. Provided the setting of the current element is
below the fault current value this element plays no part in the achievement of
discrimination. For this reason, the relay is sometimes described as an 'independent
definite time delay relay' since its operating time is for practical purposes
independent of the level of over current.

It is the time delay element, therefore, which provides the means of discrimination.
The relay at B is set at the shortest time delay permissible to allow a fuse to blow for
a fault on the secondary side of trans-former A. Typically, a time delay of 0.25s is
adequate.

If a fault occurs at F, the relay at B will operate in 0.25s, and the subsequent
operation of the circuit breaker at B will clear the fault before the relays at C, D and E
have time to operate. The main disadvantage of this method of discrimination is that
the longest fault clearance time occurs for faults in the section closest to the power
source, where the fault level (MVA) is highest.
1. Discrimination by current

Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current varies with the
position of the fault, because of the difference in impedance values between the
source and the fault. Hence, typically, the relays controlling the various circuit
breakers are set to operate at suitably tapered values such that only the relay
nearest to the fault trips its breaker. (Fig. 22) illustrates the method.

(Fig. 22) Radial system with current

discrimination

For a fault at F1, the system short circuit current is given by:

I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1) A

Where Zs = source impedance = 11 2

/ 250 = 0.485 ohms

ZL1= cable impedance between C and B = 0.24 ohms

Hence I=6350/0.725 = 8800 A

So a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to operate at a fault current of
8800 A would in simple theory protect the whole of the cable section between C and
B. However, there are two important practical points which affect this method of
co-ordination.

1. It is not practical to distinguish between a fault at Fl and a fault at

F 2, since the distance between these points can be only a few meters,
corresponding to a change in fault current of approximately 0 . 1%.
2. In practice, there would be variations in the source fault level,
typically from 250 MVA to 130 MVA. At this lower fault level the fault
current would not exceed 6800 A even for a cable fault close to C, so a
relay set at 8800 A would not protect any of the cable section
concerned.
Discrimination by current is therefore not a practical proposition for correct
grading between the circuit breakers at C and B. However, the problem changes
appreciably when there is significant impedance between the two circuit breakers
concerned. This can be seen by considering the grading required between the circuit
breakers at B and A in (Fig. 22).

Assuming a fault at F4, the short-circuit current is given by:

I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT) A

Where
ZS = source impedance
=112 / 250 = 0.485 ohms

ZL1 = cable impedance between C and B 0.24 ohms

ZL2 = cable impedance between B and 4 MVA
transformer 0.04 ohms
ZT = transformer impedance
=0.07(112/4) =2.12 ohms
Hence I = 6350/ 2.885 = 2200 A

For this reason, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at B and set to operate at a
current of 2200 A plus a safety margin would not operate for a fault at F 4 and would
thus discriminate with the relay at A. Assuming a safety margin of 20% to allow for
relay errors and a further 10% for variations in the system impedance values, it is
reasonable to choose a relay setting of 1.3 x 2200, that is, 2860 A for the relay at B.
Now, assuming a fault at F3, that is, at the end of the 11 kV cable feeding the 4 MVA
transformers, the short-circuit current is given by:
I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT)
I = 6350 /(0.485 + 0.24 + 0.04)=8300 Amp.
Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130 MVA:
I = 6350 /(0.93 + 0.24 + 0.004)=5250 Amp.

In other words, for either value of source level, the relay at B would operate
correctly for faults anywhere on the 11 kV cable feeding the transformer.

3 Discrimination by both time and current

Each of the two methods described so far has a fundamental disadvantage. In the
case of discrimination by time alone, the disadvantage is due to the fact that the
more severe faults are cleared in the longest operating time. Discrimination by
current can only be applied where there is appreciable impedance between the two
circuit breakers concerned.

It is because of the limitations imposed by the independent use of either time or

current co-ordination that the inverse time over current relay characteristic has
evolved. With this characteristic, the time of operation is inversely proportional to
the fault current level and the actual characteristic is a function of both 'time' and
'current' settings.
The advantage of this method of relay
Co-ordination may be best illustrated by the system shown in (Fig.23) which is
identical to that shown in (Fig.21) except that typical system parameters have been
added.
In order to carry out a system analysis, before a relay co-ordination study of the
system shown in (Fig. 23), it is necessary to refer all the system impedances to a
common base and thus, using 10 MVA as the reference base, we have:

4MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10MVA base=7X (10/4) =17.5%

11 kV cable between B and A percentage impedance on10 MVA base

= (0.04 X 100 X 10) / 112= 0.33%

11 kV cable between C and B percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

= (0.24 X 100 X10) /112 =1.98 %

30 MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

=22.5 X 10 / 30 =7.5 %

132 kV overhead line percentage impedance on10 MVA base

= (6.2x100x10)/ 1322 =0.36%

1 3 2 kV source percentage impedance on 10 MVA base

= (100 x 10) /3500 =0.29%

The graph in (Fig.23) illustrates the use of 'discrimination curves', which are an
important aid to satisfactory protection co-ordination. In this example, a voltage base
of 3.3kV has been chosen and the first curve plotted is that of the 200 A fuse, which
is assumed to protect the largest outgoing 3.3kV circuit. Once the operating
characteristic of the highest rated 3.3kV fuse has been plotted, the grading of the
over current relays at the various sub-stations of the radial system is carried out as
follows:

Substation B
CT ratio 250/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse,
as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the 200A fuse at fault
levels up to:

(10 x 100) / (17.5+0.33+1.98+7.5+0.36+0.29) = 35.7 MVA

That is, 6260 A at 3.3kV or 1880 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of the CDG
14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 250 A and 4.76 MVA at 11 kV,
and at a time multiplier setting of 0.2, suitable discrimination with the 200 A fuse is
achieved.

Substation C
CT ratio 500/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse,
as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the relay in substation
B at fault levels up to:

(10 X 100) / (1.98 +7.5 +0.36 +0.29) = 98.7MVA

That is, 17,280 A at 3.3kV or 5180 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of the
CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and 9.52 MVA at 11
kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.7, suitable discrimination with the relay at
substation B is achieved.
 (Fig.23) Time and current grading
Substation D
CT ratio 150/1A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse,
as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the relay in substation
C at fault levels up to

(10 X 100) / (7.5 + 0.36 + 0.29) = 123 MVA

That is, 21,500 A at 3.3kV or 538 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics of the
CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 150 A and 34.2 MVA at 132
kV and at a time multiplier setting of 0.25, suitable discrimination with the relay at
substation C is achieved.

Substation E
CT ratio 500/1 A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely inverse,
as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the relay
in substation D at fault levels up to:

(10 x 100) / (0.36+ 0.29) = 1540 MVA

That is, 270,000 A at 3.3kV or 6750 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics of the
CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and 114 MVA at 132
kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.9, suitable discrimination with the relay at
sub-station D is achieved.
A comparison between the relay operating times shown in (Fig. 21) and the times
obtained from the discrimination curves of (Fig. 23) at the maximum fault level
reveals significant differences. These differences can be summarized as follows:

Relay Fault Time from Time from

level Fig.12 Fig.14
(MVA) (seconds) (seconds)
B 98.7 0.25 0.07
C 123 0.65 0.33
D 1540 1.05 0.07
E 3500 1.45 0.25

These figures show that for faults close to the relaying points the inverse time
characteristic can achieve appreciable reductions in fault clearance times.
Even for faults at the remote ends of the protected sections, reductions in fault
clearance times are still obtained, as shown by the following table:

Relay Fault level Time from Fig.14

(MVA) (seconds)
B 35.7 0.17
C 98.7 0.42
D 123 0.86
E 1540 0.39
To finalize the co-ordination study it is instructive to assess the average operating
time for each extremely inverse over current relay at its maximum and minimum fault
levels, and to compare these with the operating time shown in (Fig.21) for the
definite time over current relay.
 Relay Fault level Time from Average time
(Max./Min Fig.14 (seconds)
MVA) (seconds)
(Max./ Min)
B 98.7/35.7 0.07/0.17 0.12
C 123/98.7 0.33/0.42 0.375
D 1540/123 0.07/0.86 0.465
E 3500/1540 0.25/0.39 0.32

This comparison clearly shows that when there is a large variation in fault level all
along the system network the overall performance of the inverse time over current
relay is far superior to that of the definite over current relay.

4 GRADING MARGIN
The time interval between the operations of two adjacent relays depends upon a
number of factors:
1. The fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker.
2. The overshoot time of the relay.
3. Errors.
4. Final margin on completion of operation.

A. Circuit breaker interrupting time

The circuit breaker interrupting the fault must have completely interrupted the
current before the discriminating relay ceases to be energized.

B. Overshoot
When the relay is de-energized, operation may continue for a little longer until any
stored energy has been dissipated. For example, an induction disc relay will have
stored kinetic energy in the motion of the disc; static relay circuits may have energy
stored in capacitors. Relay design is directed to minimizing and absorbing these
energies, but some allowance is usually necessary.
The overshoot time is not the actual time during which some forward operation takes
place, but the time which would have been required by the relay if still energized to
achieve the same amount of operational advance.

C. Errors
All measuring devices such as relays and current transformers are subject to some
degree of error. The operating time characteristic of either or both relays involved in
the grading may have a positive or negative error, as may the current transformers,
which can have phase and ratio errors due to the exciting current required to
magnetize their core. This does not, however, apply to independent definite time
delay over current relays.
Relay grading and setting is carried out assuming the accuracy of the calibration
curves published by manufacturers, but since some error is to be expected, some
tolerance must be allowed.
 D. Final margin
After the above allowances have been made, the discriminating relay must just fail to
complete its operation. Some extra allowance, or safety margin, is required to ensure
that a satisfactory contact gap (or equivalent) remains.

E. Recommended time
The total amount to be allowed to cover the above items depends on the operating
speed of the circuit breakers and the relay performance. At one time 0.5s was a
normal grading margin. With faster modern circuit breakers and lower relay
overshoot times 0.4s is reasonable, while under the best possible conditions 0.35s
may be feasible.
In some instances, however, rather than using a fixed grading margin, it is better to
adopt a fixed time value, to allow for the operating time of the circuit breaker and
relay overshoot, and to add to it a variable time value that takes into account the
relay errors, the CT errors and the safety margin.

A value of 0.25s is chosen for the fixed time value, made up of 0.1 s for the fault
current interrupting time of the circuit breaker, 0.05s for the relay over-shoot time
and 0.1 s for the safety margin. Considering next the variable time values required, it
is first assumed that each inverse time over current relay complies with Error Class
E7.5 defined as normal British practice in BS 142:1966.

The normal limits of error for an E7.5 relay are ±7.5% but allowance should also be
made for the effects of temperature, frequency, and departure from reference setting.
A practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 2 x 7.5, that is, 15%,
this to apply to the relay nearest to the fault, which shall be considered to be slow.
To this total effective error for the relay a further 10% should be added for the overall
current transformer error. Hence, for the time interval t' required between inverse
time over current relays it is proposed to adopt the equation:

t' = 0.25t + 0.25 seconds

Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearer to the fault.

As far as the independent definite time delay over-current relays are concerned, it is
assumed that these comply with Error Class El 0, defined as normal British practice
in BS 142:1966. The normal limits of error for an El 0 relay are ± 10%, but allowance
should also be made for the effects of temperature, voltage, frequency and departure
from reference setting. A practical approximation is to assume a total effective error
of 2 x 10, that is, 20%, this to apply to the relay, nearest to the fault, which shall be
considered to be slow. However, unlike the inverse time over current relay, it is not
necessary to add a further error for the current transformers. Hence, for the time
interval t' required between independent definite time delay over current relays, it is
proposed to adopt the equation:
t' = 0.2t + 0.25 seconds
Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearest to the fault.
  STANDARD I.D.M.T. OVER CURRENT RELAY (TYPE CDG 11)
Limits of accuracy have been considered by various national committees and
(Fig.24) shows a typical example of the limits set by the British Standards Institution
specification BS 142:1966 for the standard inverse definite minimum time over
current relay.
The discriminating curves shown in (Fig.25) illustrate the application of such a relay
to a sectioned radial feeder; it will be seen that with the assumed relay settings and
the tolerances allowed in BS 142:1966 the permissible grading margin between the
over current relays at each section breaker is approximately 0.5s. With the increase in
system fault current it is desirable to shorten the clearance time for faults near the
power source, in order to minimize damage. It is therefore necessary to reduce the
time errors, which are in this situation disproportionately large when compared with
the clearance time of modern circuit breakers; this can only be achieved by improving
the limits of accuracy, pick-up and overshoot

(Fig. 24) Typical limits of accuracy set by

BS 142: 1966 for an inverse
Definite Minimum Time over current relay

NORMAL BRITISH PRACTICE ACCURACY

CLASS E7.5% TIME/CURRENT
CHARACTERISTIC ALLOWABLE LIMIT
At 2 times setting 222E
At 5 times setting 1.13E
At 10 times setting 1.01E
At 20 times setting 1.00E

NOTE: The allowance error in operating time should not be less than 100ms

All this must be obtained without detriment to the general performance of the relay; in
other words, there must be no reduction in the operating torque or weakening of the
damper magnets or contact pressures, and the construction must remain simple with
the minimum number of moving parts. While these requirements present considerable
difficulties in manufacture, owing to variations in materials and practical tolerances,
the progress made in the GEC Measurements relays has made it possible to
discriminate more closely by reducing the margin between both the current and the
time setting of the relays on adjacent breakers.
(Fig.25) application of an IDMT over current
relay to a sectioned
Radial feeder

These relays will thus enable the time setting of the relay nearest the power source to
be reduced, or, alternatively, make it possible to increase the number
of breakers in series without increasing the time setting of the relays
at the power source.