2012 Physics Notes

Section 1
Tuesday, 14 February 2012

12:51 PM
The World Communicates Page 1
Practical Activity 1.7 - Waves in one Dimension
Covering d1.2, 1.5, 1.7 and 1.8
Wednesday, 1 February 2012

6:16 PM
Aim: How are one dimensional waves produced in a slinky string? What are the properties of one dimensional waves?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating
Minimisation
Tripping over slinky
Medium Keep people away from your area
Skin caught in slinky
Medium Hold the slinky firmly, do not release
Recoil from the slinky Low
Do not release slinky while stretched
Tangled slinky
Don't overstretch slinky and do not release while stretched
Low
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Pair up with another person, each holding one end of the slinky.
Move back until the slinky is stretched around 4m or as much as necessary.
Both people kneel down.
One person will send the wave at a time.
For the first wave, one partner pushes the slinky towards the other partner, pulls it back and then pushes again,
the person on the other end observes the strength of the wave as it passes back and forth.
6. For the second wave, one partner moves their hand, the one holding the slinky, left and right continuously, the
other person observes the strength of the wave as it reaches the other side.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6, swapping roles.

8. Each person decides which wave they felt had more force.
Analysis/Results Questions
1. Which wave has the most energy?
The second wave has more energy as is displayed when your hand moves as the wave reaches you.
2. What are the medium particles in a slinky spring?

The coils act as the medium particles for the slinky.
3. In which direction do the medium particles distort (move) in the first and second wave?
In the first wave the particles move in the same direction as the energy, from the person that pushes the wave, to
the person on the other end, back to the person who pushed it.
In the second wave the particles move sideways, from the person on each end.
Energy ---->
4. What happens to the wave when It reaches the other persons hand?
The wave is reflected back to the person who pushed it and causes the hand of the receiver to rebound in the
same direction as the wave itself.
5. What is the effect on the wave when a smaller coil spring is attached to the larger coil?
The smaller coil is less stretchy than the larger one and so it is tougher for the energy to pass through, hence it
would absorb the energy, reducing the amount of force that reached the person on the receiving end of the wave.
6. Describe what happens when a piece of rope is attached to one end of the slinky.
There will be less distortion as the energy reaches the rope as it is hard for the energy to go through due to the
medium particles being closer together.
Conclusion
During this experiment, two types of waves were observed, longitudinal and transverse.
Longitudinal waves consist of compressions and rarefactions, where the medium particles come close together as the
wave passes through and are further apart once it has gone or is not there yet, respectively.
Transverse waves have cycles which involved the slinky moving in a curved shape as shown:
The Transverse Waves were stronger as they caused the hand of the receiver to recoil along with the movement of the
wave. This is supported by the seismic waves of an earthquake as P-waves (longitudinal waves) are less destructive
than S-waves (transverse waves).
Extension: Longitudinal and Transverse Waves
Longitudinal waves include sound waves when they travel through gases, liquids or solids, as the waves vibrate
through the air, allowing people to speak and others to listen, or any other sounds to be heard, hence all everyday
objects that have a functionality involving sound, use longitudinal waves. When we speak into the microphone of a
mobile phone, these sound waves are converted into electrical signals which are sent to the receiving handheld in the
form of radio waves, which are then converted back into an electrical signal when the radio waves reach the receiving
antenna. The electrical energy then goes through the speaker changing it back to sound energy. The radio waves and
electrical signals however are not longitudinal, but are transverse.
electrical signals however are not longitudinal, but are transverse.

Simple examples of visible mechanical Transverse waves include a ripple in a pond or a wave on a string, such as a
guitar string. The motion of waves on electric and magnetic fields are also examples of transverse waves as they
oscillate in a direction perpendicular to each other as well as in the direction of the energy. All Electromagnetic waves
are transverse therefore all types of electromagnetic radiation consists of transverse waves, including; Gamma rays, X rays, Infrared rays, Visible light, Microwaves, Radio waves and Ultraviolet rays. These electromagnetic waves however
can only travel through solids.
In everyday life, longitudinal waves are used in conjunction with transverse waves, such as the transfer of sound from
one mobile to another; sound and radio waves, or from a channel studio to your television screen at home; sound and
light signals.
1.1 Energy Transformation

Monday, 6 February 2012
9:50 AM
Energy is able to be transformed since waves carry energy. When we communicate, for example; mobile phone, radio,
voice, we use waves.
Mobile Phone - When you speak into a mobile phone, sound waves reach the microphone which converts the waves
into electrical energy. The electrical signal is sent from the handheld piece in the form of microwaves, which turns back
into electrical energy as it hits the receivers antenna. The electrical energy goes through the speaker which changes it
back to sound energy.
MP S.E > E.E > M.W > E.E > SE
Sound Energy > Electrical Energy > Microwaves > Electrical Energy > Sound Energy
Fax Modem Light Energy (scanner) --> Electrical Energy --> Light Energy
Transmitted down Print out on paper
telephone line
Radio and Television Sound Energy --> Electrical Energy --> Join carrier wave from transmitter --> Radio Waves --> Electrical Energy --> Sound
Energy
(microphone)
(trav els through air)
1.2 - Waves in one, two or three Dimensions

12:22 PM
Waves occur in one, two, or three dimensions.

One dimensional waves: e.g. Rope, spring
Particles movie up or down in one plane only
Two dimensional waves:
Particles travelling in two planes
i.e. X(horizontal plane), Y(vertical plane)
e.g. stone dropped in water, the ripple spreads two ways
Three dimensional waves;
Particles travelling in three planes which spread out into space around the source.
i.e. Length, Width and Depth
e.g. Light and Sound
1.3 - Mechanical and Electromagnetic waves

12:44 PM
Waves can be classified into two groups:

1. Mechanical waves
Waves travelling through a physical medium e.g. Ropes, Sound, Slinky, Water
Mediums include: Air particles, Wood, Water
Mechanical waves require a medium to travel in or through
2. Electromagnetic waves
Do not need a medium to travel through e.g. Gamma, X-Rays, UV, Visible light, IR, Microwaves, Radio waves
1.4 - The wave model terms

1:05 PM
Medium - Particles that the wave travels through or particles that make up the wave, particles that vibrate/move.
Displacement - The distance that the particles move from the origin
Amplitude - The maximum displacement
Period (T) - The time it takes to complete one whole wave (wavelength) T = 1/f
Compression - Medium particles are pushed together, for e.g., slinky.
Rarefaction -Medium particles are spread away from each other, go e.g., slinky
Crest - The highest point of the wave, the peak.
Trough - The lowest point of the wave
Transverse waves - The medium particles move 90 degrees to the direction of the energy
Longitudinal waves - The medium particles move in the same direction as the energy transfer
Frequency (f) - The number of wavelengths that pass a point in one second, measured in Hertz (Hz)
Wavelength - Distance between two corresponding points in the wave (m)
Velocity (v) - Speed in a given direction ( v = wavelength x f) ms-1
(cm --> m) IF MEASURING WAVELENGTH!
1.5 - Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

11:52 AM
Transverse waves move perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer.
In Longitudinal waves, particles move parallel to the energy transfer.
1.6/1.12 - Wave Velocity Equation

9:53 AM
Wave Velocity (v) = Distance/Time = No. of waves x Wavelength/Time

V = No. of wave/Time x Wavelength
V = Frequency x Wavelength
V = m/s
f = Hz
=m
1.10 - Displacement vs Time graph

12:07 PM
Find the:
i) Displacement at 4 sec: 15m
ii) of wave: 2cm
iii) Velocity of wave: v = f x
V = 0.25 x 2cm
= 0.25 x 0.02m
= 0.005 m/s
iv) Amplitude at 4 sec: 15m
Section 2
12:52 PM
Practical Activity - Sound Waves
Covering 1.9, 1.11

8:54 AM
Aim: What do sound waves look like on a CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating
Minimisation
Getting electrocuted
Medium Ensure that the electrical cords of the equipment are not damaged.
Loud sounds damaging ears Low
If the sound gets too high, turn of speaker or lower volume
Eye strain
Do not stare at oscilloscope screen for too long
Low
Procedure (18 STEPS!)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Plug in the Transformer, Audio Wave Oscillator and CRO.

Ensure that the transformer is on AC power.
Turn the transformer to 6 Volts.
Connect the output of the transformer to the input at the back of the Audio Wave Oscillator.
Connect the Audio Wave Oscillator output to the CRO input on channel 1.
Turn on the Transformer.
Turn on the Audio Wave Oscillator
Turn on the CRO
Ensure that the line visible on the CRO machine is at 0

If the line is not at 0, use the position adjuster to get it to 0.
Ensure that AC is set on the CRO
Set Y axis (Vertical scale - Volts) to 0.1V per cm on the CRO
Set X axis (Horizontal scale - Time) to 1ms per cm on the CRO
Change the settings of the frequency adjuster on the Audio Wave Oscillator and observe the wave, on the CRO
screen, as it changes in wavelength as you lower and increase the frequency.
Change the settings of the Volume adjuster on the Audio Wave Oscillator and observe the wave, on the CRO
screen, as it changes in amplitude, frequency and wavelength.
Observe how a change in frequency and volume effects sound.
Relate wavelength, frequency, volume and amplitude to sound.
Sketch waves to show how frequency affects wavelength
Sketch waves to show how volume affects amplitude,
Results / Analysis Questions
1. What is the relationship between a frequency and wavelength?
As wavelength increases, frequency decreases as the number of wavelengths has decreased. If frequency
increases, wavelength decreases as more waves need to pass through per second.
increases, wavelength decreases as more waves need to pass through per second.
2. What is the relationship between Volume and Amplitude?

When Volume increases, wavelength and frequency stay the same however, the amplitude increases.
3. What does the CRO measure in this part of the experiment?
The CRO measures electric current, which travels along the wires connecting to the CRO.
Conclusion - description of how air particles move as they transmit sound waves
This experiment has demonstrated how different sounds transmit different sound waves. As the frequency of
sound increases, the wavelength decreases as more wavelengths are required to pass through per second. As
frequency decreases, wavelength decreases. A higher amplitude of sound is caused by an increase in volume,
leaving frequency and wavelength unaffected.
When sound is transmitted through air particles, it causes them to vibrate against each other, in the direction of
energy transfer. As the pitch of the sound is increased, the particles vibrate faster. The particles vibrate
backwards and forwards, causing rarefactions, which are areas of vibration with low air pressure, and
compression, areas of high air pressure. When visualising this sound energy on the CRO screen, it is converted
into electrical energy and displayed as a voltage input and traced amplitude, in the form of a transverse wave.
Extension - What advantage does the CRO have in studying sound waves? How/where do we use the CRO,
real world, half a page
Practical Activity: Superposition of Sound Waves

8:53 AM
Aim: What is the superposition of sound waves? How does superposition work? What does superposition look like?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating Minimisation
Loud Sounds
hurting ears
Low
Ensure that the PC (running audacity) and radio have their volumes set to low before the
audio is played. Once it has been played, the sound can be increased slowly as required.
Dropping the
radio
Low
Ensure that the radio is placed on the desk and not held in your hands, depending on the type
of radio, it may
Procedure
1. Go to all programs and open 'audacity' (a sound recording/editing program that is used to view sound waves.
2. A sound source is required for the experiment, for example, radio, musical instrument.
3. Plug a microphone into the microphone port on the computer (So there is some way of inputting sound into our
program).
4. Set the radio to an AM radio station.
5. Record the sound that comes from the radio station for 10 seconds by clicking the record button on Audacity.
6. Click the stop button to finish recording.
7. Save the wave as a .wav file on the desktop.
8. Record another wave with different audio (FM station) by clicking the Record button.
9. Click the stop button to finish recording.
10. Import the previously saved .wav file into this new file.
11. Audacity will automatically create a 3rd wave, the superposition of the sound waves.
12. Use the timeline on the left to change the scale of the waves.
13. Zoom in to both waves by scrolling on the mouse.
14. Screenshot the three waves and paste into paint.
15. Save the image file as a jpeg and print off to observe the wave.
Analysis
16. What is a decibel?
The decibel is a unit used to measure the intensity of sound and can be shortened to dB. The smallest audible sound (near
total silence) is 0 dB, a sound 10 times more powerful is 10 dB, a sound 100 times more powerful than 0 is 20 db and a
sound 1000 times more powerful is 30dB, and so on. The average normal conversation has a decibel rating of 60 dB and a
gunshot or firecracker has a rating of 140 dB, therefore the gunshot is 100000000 times more powerful than an average
normal conversation. Sound is affected by the distance you are from the source and a sound above 85 decibels can be
harmful to your ears.
1. Explain what physically goes into the microphone?
When we speak into a microphone, sound waves physically enter the microphone until they reach the diaphragm which
When we speak into a microphone, sound waves physically enter the microphone until they reach the diaphragm which
vibrates when struck by the waves. As the diaphragm vibrates, other components of the microphone are also vibrated and
these vibrations are converted into electrical current, which is the audio signal received by the program.
Pasted from <http://www.mediacollege.com/audio/microphones/how-microphones-work.html>
2. Explain what the computer records/detects?

The computer detects the electrical current which is transmitted by the microphone and displayed on the program as a
wave, depending on the signal volume. The computer then has the ability to record this electrical (audio) signal and then
played back to the user. During this process, the electrical signal is converted back into sound waves and played through
the speaker.
3. What is the name of the medium for todays wave?
The medium that sound uses to transfer itself through its surroundings is air. Air particles vibrate against each other,
transferring the sound from one particle to another. When an air particle pushes against its neighbour to transfer the
sound, it is also pushed back, which keeps the particles to travel continuously in the direction of the sound.
4. Give three advantages of using the computer for superposition.
Using a computer to view the superposition is advantageous as it allows the user to:
- Adjust the scale of the wave to increase amplitude and wavelength for a clearer observation.
- Zoom into the wave to view a wider range of view, making it easier to observe how the crests and troughs join
together to form the superposition.
- Save the wave to view later as well as print it to keep a hard copy.
Conclusion - para on superposition, what it is and how it works
This experiment allowed for the observation of superposition on a computer screen, using the program audacity to
visualise the wave. Superposition is the resultant wave produced when two waves are superimposed. It is determined by
the crests and troughs of both waves as they pass each other.
When two waves meet they may be in phase, in which case, the crests and troughs match up and the waves are aligned.
This leads to an increase in amplitude and if both waves have the same amplitude, the amplitude of the superposition
doubles. This type of superposition is called Constructive interference.
Pasted from <http://lifshitz.ucdavis.edu/~dmartin/phy7/7C/screenshots/wave_superposition.png>
If the alignments are out of phase, and both waves have the same amplitude, they will cancel each other out and the
resultant will be zero or a straight line. This type of superposition is called Destructive superposition. Another form of this
type is when the waves are out of phase (crest meets trough) and their amplitudes are unequal, the resultant will be
smaller/ a reduction.
Pasted from <http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/super.htm>
Extension - Sound Recording - Microphones and Speakers

Microphones are transducers, devices that convert energy from one form to another, converting sound waves into
electrical energy. When sound waves vibrate air particles in the air, they reach the inside of a microphone, which contains
a diaphragm. This diaphragm is also caused to vibrate by the sound waves, moving back and forth, this leads the coil to
vibrate as well. This causes the permanent magnet to produce a magnetic field, through which the coil moves back and
forth, causing an electric current to flow through it. This electric current flows through the microphone to a recording
device (or an amplifier) which records the sound, allowing for storage and playback.
(Edited) from <http://www.explainthatstuff.com/microphones.html>
The microphones sensitivity determines how loud a sound needs to be for it to be detected by the microphone and
converted into a sound signal. Quieter sounds require a higher sensitivity to capture the sound. Distortion of sound can
occur if an extremely loud sound is detected by the microphone. This is due to the magnetic field losing contact with the
coil and could lead to a permanently damaged diaphragm.
Pasted from <http://visual.merriam-webster.com/communications/communications/dynamic-microphone_2.php>

Pasted from <http://visual.merriam-webster.com/communications/communications/dynamic-microphone_2.php>
When this electrical current, transferred from the microphone, is inputted into the computer, it can be recorded using
various programs and visualised as transverse waves, and edited or stored on the computer for playback, using speakers.
Loudspeakers work oppositely to microphones, at the front, they consist of a fabric, plastic or paper cone, which works
similarly to the diaphragm. The outer part of this cone is fastened to the speakers metal rim and the inner part is fastened
to an iron coil, behind which is the permanent magnet. When electrical signals travel through the speaker cables, into the
coil, the coil turn into an electromagnet. As electricity flows back and forth, the coil either attracts or repels the
permanent magnet, moving itself back and forth, vibrating the loudspeaker cone which pumps sound into the air.
2.1 - Sound Waves

12:51 PM
Sound is produced by vibrating objects, these vibrations are carried to our ears and then by the auditory nerve to the
brain. As the object vibrates, a series of compressions and rarefactions move through a medium (air) and are detected
by our ears.
2.2 - Wave similarities

1:03 PM
Longitudinal Wave
Rarefaction
Compression
Transverse Wave
Longitudinal : Transverse
Rarefaction : Trough
Compression : Crest
2.3 - Pitch and Frequency and Sound and Volume

Thursday, 16 February 2012
2:06 PM
The higher the pitch, the higher the frequency. As the pitch of a sound increases, so does the frequency (Low
pitch, the lower the frequency). Humans can hear frequency's of 20 - 20000 Hz. Sounds above 20000 Hz are
called ultrasound.
Amplitude and Volume the higher the amplitude the higher the volume, so you might say to someone "turn
down the volume, Rob what part of the wave are you asking to change? The amplitude. Frequency, you draw
more waves, wavelength increases and frequency becomes larger. Now, I do have 2.4 in my drawer so I miught
just quickly get that and ill show you 2.4. We''l prpobably work onto 2.5. 2.6 was the prac, 2.87 you're doingfor
your diagrams for wavelengths and stuff. M<ada whats sound again> Josh, what do all waves do? They carry
particles. Look at 2.4! What do longitudinal waves do? If you can see something reflecting, what it waving like
Luke? True. But whats it behaving like? An echo. What whats I behaving like, like madhur said. If it reflects what
is it? Its acting lieka wave now. It starts now and ends up in year 12, this thing about is it a wave is it a particl.
Sound waves are like any typical wave, for example, water, water will hit the side of a wave and reflect. If you
can see reflection, your material or your object is behaving like a wave. Here's the thingo, wave is the object a
particle. Now souns do hit objects and bounce off, we call them echos. Now ben are they a good thing? Give me
an wexample where it would be a good thing. A good example where you want sound to reflect so if youre in a
ship, send the sound down the sonar, and you can see how deep the water is. Ryan, is reflection of sound waves
always good? Give mean example. Hen you want quiet, could be an exam Sean, what elsed could it be? Eesh.
Where does that happen? It happens where you pay a hundred dollars to go hear something. And I pay a 170
doollars. Yeah if you do to a concerty, dou dont want to hear The biull for opera house is about a 110
moiillion, in 1920, when the oper house was finished
The government sacked the architect and redu ced the things he wanted to do.
If you're doing a perdormance, your sound hits a surface, and comes back , the next sound is generated.
What can we do Justi to get rid of it? You could have an opening, what else could you do arthyur. Could make it
larger, but the 110 million gonna endo being 220 milion.
Yeah. If you want to stop the echo happening in a concert, you could line the inside of your concert with
curtains. They've hired who would be in his 50s by now and hes started to look at his dads plan. So you could
put curtains. Yeah, the curtains absorb the soud so the sound has no chance of reflecting. Thank god you saw me
holding this I wonder why I went all the way down to get this? So what should we do? How do we do that? Its
sort of like bumps. Sso you have this pattern, soft material, comes in different colours. Where have you seen this
Luke? Where else have you seen it> Where else would you put it? This is really the stuff you would put in a
sound studio, recording studio, the only time you wanna have this echo is when youre reducing it. This is why
they use curtains and things. And this is called an acoustic tiles and it reduces echos. The surface area has
increased there really no angle where the sound can come in where its gonna meet a solid surface. Echos is the
word we give to sound waves reflecting. So if you said to somebody, did you hear the echo, you're saying to
someone, did you hear the soundwaves reflecting. We need to know an advantage, or ause for echo, know
where its harmful.
2.4 - Echo
2:22 PM
Echoes occur when sound reflects off an object, for example, Sound wave hits a solid material, for example,
timber, cement, cliff face, bounces off and the observer hears the reflection some time later.
Disadvantage: Concert, Recording/Sound studio - Minimised by Acoustic tiles
2.5 - Superposition
10:02 AM
If two waves meet (join up) the possible results are:

1. Add crest to crest = Higher Amplitude
2. Cancel (Subtraction) - Crest + Trough = Small amplitude or Zero
10
-10
1. Add the following wave together:

a)
b) +
c)
There are three possible outcomes for superposition:

1. The waves may be in phase (crest matchup, troughs matchup) - The waves are aligned. The resultant will have an
increase in amplitude (doubling) -> In superposition when the waves are lined, the amplitude increases or if their
the same, the amplitude doubles, its called constructive Interference.
2. Alignments are out of phase and the original waves have the same amplitude -> They cancel a each other out ->
Resultant = Zero seen as a straight line, perfectly out of phase -> Destructive Interference
3. The waves are out of phase but their amplitudes are not equal-> Resultant is smaller -> Destructive interference
4.
a) What is wavelength? - 40cm

What is amplitude? - 4cm
b) Velocity if frequency = 60Hz?
V=f x wavelength
= 0.4 x 60
= 24m/s
5. .
a) Period: 4 seconds
b) Frequency: 1/4 Hz
b) Frequency: 1/4 Hz
c) Amplitude: 2cm
6. 1 wave = 15cm. If the 4 waves pass a point in 30 seconds find the waves velocity.
Distance in 30 seconds = 15 x 4
= 60cm
Distance in one second = 60/30
= 2cm/s
= 0.02m/s
Section 3
1:01 PM
Practical Activity - Inverse Square Law
Covering 3.4 and 3.7
Thursday, 1 March 2012

2:04 PM
Aim: How is the intensity of light effected by distance ?

Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating
Electrocution
Mediu
m
Bright light
Low
damaging eyes
Minimisation
Do not use leads which are not completely covered in the insulating material.
Ensure that the power point being used is in a workable condition.
Do not turn on the Transformer with a high voltage, increase gradually. Do not get
too close to the light source, if the light is too strong, decrease the voltage of the
transformer.
Procedure (10 steps)

1) Hook up the transformer and connect the 2 leads into it.
2) Connect the 2 leads into the light source.
3) Lie down the edge of the 1m ruler in line with the light source.
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Turn on the transformer and ensure it is set to DC power.

Remove the cover of the light meter.
Face the window of the light meter as close to the light meter as possible and record the reading.
Move the light meter 10cm back and record the next reading.
Continue to move the light meter back and record the reading, up to the length of the ruler.
Table of Results
Distance
Intensity (Lux) 1/d2
cm
m
0
8000
10
0.1 280
100
20
0.2 114
25
30
0.3 56
11
50
0.5 35
80
0.8 15
1.6
100
12
Analysis
1) Draw a graph of intensity vs 1/d2
1) Describe what the graph's relationship is?

The graph indicates that a decrease in intensity is caused by a decrease in 1/d2distance, hence as the
amount of metres from the light increased, the Lux decreased. As 1/d2 takes the reciprocal of the
distance squared, an increase in distance would mean a decrease in 1/d2 so an increase in distance
results in a decrease in light intensity.
2) Explain what are the units for light intensity?
The unit used for light intensity or illuminance is the Lux. As light illuminates a surface dimly if it is spread
over a greater area, illuminance is inversely proportional to area -> Lux = Lumens / m2, where lumen is a
measure of the total amount of visible light emitted by a source. Hence, if an area of 1m2 is lit up by 1000
lumens, the intensity of illumination will be 1000 Lux. If an area of 10m2 is lit up by 1000 lumens, the
intensity will be 100 Lux.
Conclusion - what is th inverse square law? Equation, explain each letter - relationship. Explain shape of
graph, what does the line or shape indicate
Extension half page + diagram: 1- lightmeters where we use how they work, 2 - 1/d2 is a relationship in
physics, used for gravity - how is gravity affected by the inverse square law relationship
3.1 - Electromagnetic Waves

1:01 PM
Waves in springs, water and sand are all called mechanical waves and require a physical medium.
Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium and have two components (parts), electric field and magnetic fields
at 90 degrees to each other.
3.2 - Electromagnetic Waves and the Atmosphere

2:07 PM
The amount of electromagnetic waves that pass through the atmosphere will depend on the season (Summer,
Autumn, Winter and Spring) and the weather conditions. Due to this variation all frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation (EMR) penetrate the atmosphere to some degree.
3.3 - Detection of EMR

2:24 PM
Radio waves - Aerial/Antenna -> Connected to receiver (tuner/radio) with a speaker

Microwaves - Satellite dish connected to receiver (tuner) > Computer or Speaker
Infrared - detected as heat by skin > temperature receptors
Visible light - Light sensitive cells in retina
Ultraviolet - UV sensitive film, certain crystals absorb UV radiation eg. Calcite, fluoresce, Solar cells
X-Rays - Photographic film
Gamma Rays - Geiger counter
3.4 - Inverse Square Law

Monday, 5 March 2012
8:55 AM
The intensity of light (electromagnetic radiation) is a measure of the energy per unit area. The intensity decreases
greatly with a small change in the distance.
1) A candle emits 5 watts of light power at 1m. What is the intensity at 4m away?
1/16 x 5 = 0.3125 watts
2) A torch has a bulb produce 12 lumens of light at 1m. How many lumens is there 6 m away?
1/36 x 12 = 0.3333 lumens
3) A small globe emits light of intensity 1.2 watts at 8.7m. What will the intensity be at 5.3m from the globe?
Given - I1 = 1.2 watts
D1 = 8.7m
D2 - 5.3m
I1 x d12 = I2 x d22
1.2 x 8.7 x 8.7 = I2 x 5.3 x 5.3
I2 = 1.2 x 8.7 x 8.7 / (5.3 x 5.3) = 3.2335
3.5 - Modulation
Friday, 24 February 2012
3:02 PM
- Changing a visual (light), electronic or sound message.

Visual
- For example turning a light on or off (ship communication)
Radio uses amplitude modulation (AM) or frequency modulation (FM).
Audio Signal
3.6 - Limitations of EMR for communication

Friday, 16 March 2012
2:37 PM
Electro magnetic radiation is the fastest means of communications, but there are certain
problems:
1. Congestion of frequencies as more and more people use the bandwidths, the more room
is taken up.
300 GHz
EHF - Extremely high f
SHF - Super High
UHF - Ultra High
VHF - Very high
HF - High frequency
MF - Medium Frequency
LF - Low frequency
30 Khz
2. Police, Ses, etc.. Have their own private frequencies.

3. Health concerns :
a. Microwave radiation used with mobile phones are suspected of causing brain
tumors. Some research shows a link between radiation and brain tumors.
3.8 - Electromagnetic waves used in Energy Transfer

9:29 AM
Mobile phone -> Microwaves -> 900MHz

TV -> Radio waves -> 54 to 1600MHz
Radar -> Radio waves -> 1.6 - 3 GHz
+ Microwaves
Section 4
1:01 PM
Practical Activity - Reflection
Covering 4.9, 4.10

9:45 AM
Aim: What happens when light is reflected from plane, concave, convex mirror surfaces
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating
Minimisation
Heat from the

light box
Low
Do not touch the light box straight after operating and ensure that it is switched off
when not in use.
Electrocution
Medium Ensure that the wires of the transformer and light box do not have open cuts any
where. Turn off the power switch before removing plug from the power point.
Bright light
hurting eyes
Low
Start off with a lower voltage and increase gradually as required.
Procedure
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Hook up the transformer and set to DC 8 Volts (raise gradually if required)

Put the leads of the light box into the transformer.
Put the sheet of paper which the light will be reflected onto, under the lightbox.
Ensure that the side mirrors of the light box are closed.
Make sure the light box has a thin single slit card.
Place the plane mirror opposing the light as shown below:
7)
8) Reflect 5 points by moving the light box light around the normal.
9) Record the angles of the 5 points.
10) Turn the card around to a triple slit and reflect against a concave and convex mirror.
10) Turn the card around to a triple slit and reflect against a concave and convex mirror.
Concave
Convex
11) Label the focal point on these two reflections.

Results
1) Plane mirror
Incidence Reflected
RAY Angle RAY Angle
1
Analysis
1) Draw a graph showing angle of incidence vs angle of reflection. Describe the shape of this graph.
2) What is the purpose of using a light box?

3) Draw a diagram of a ray of light as a wavefront.
4) What do we use the focal point in a concave mirror?

How, why
Conclusion - para on law of reflection diagram, explain, explanation, what is it
2nd para - use the law of reflection to demonstrate or prove a person 2m tall needs a mirror approximately1m
to see their whole image. Diagram to how how its possible
3rd para - why is light thought of as a wave -- reflection is a wave property
Extension - how are waves reflected from the ionosphere
Practical Activity - Refraction

2:48 PM
Aim - What happens when light rays move from air into a Perspex prism.
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating Minimisation
Heat from the light

box
Low
Do not touch the light box straight after operating and ensure that it is switched
off when not in use.
Breaking the prism
Low
Keep it away from the table edges.
Bright light hurting

eyes
Low
Start off with a lower voltage and increase gradually as required, do not turn on
if not in use.
Procedure
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
Hook up the transformer and set to DC 8 Volts (raise gradually if required)

Draw a normal line on the paper.
Put the Perspex prism on top of the paper.
Shine a single beam from the light box at the normal.
Draw a dot at the beginning of the incidence ray and at the end of it.
Draw a dot fat the beginning of the refracted ray and the end of it.
Join these dots together.
Draw the second normal line.
10)
11) Measure the angles and record them in a table.

12) Repeat steps 5 - 9 for another 4 different angles by rotating the light box around the same first normal.
Results
Incidence Ray
Refracted Ray
Ray (i1) Angle to normal Sin i
Ray
Angle to normal (r1) Sin r
10
0.17
0.12
20
0.34
14
0.24
45
0.71
30
0.5
60
0.87
38
0.62
Ray (i2)
Ray(r2)
0.12
10
0.17
14
0.24
20
0.34
30
0.5
45
0.71
38
0.62
60
0.87
Analysis
Draw a graph of angle of incidence vs angle of refraction.
1) What shape is the graph? What does the shape mean?

The graph is a slightly curved line indicating a slight increase in the rise of the vertical axis as it moves along
the horizontal axis. The graph demonstrates that an increase in the angle of the incidence ray results in the
increase in the angle of the refracted ray however they do not increase by the same amount. The graph
shows that as the angle of incidence increases, the increase in the angle refraction is lower than it would be
for a lower angle of incidence.
2) Draw a graph of sin i vs sin r.
3) Comment on the values of two incident (i1 and i2) AND the two refractive (r1 and r2) angles.
The angles i1 and r2 are equal and the angles i2 and r1 are equal, this is because
i1 and r2 are both rays which are travelling through air. i 1 is the angle that the
ray of light hits the Perspex at and when this angle leaves the Perspex, it is
refracted at the same angle as it came in at. i 2 and r1 are both equal as they are
the angles inside the Perspex. These two angles are always less than i 1 and r2
because when light travels from a less dense medium into a more dense
medium, it bends towards the normal, which is what this experiment
demonstrates.
4) Diagram showing dispersion of white light with a triangular prism.
Conclusion
Refraction occurs when a wave travels from one medium to another and the change in density of the medium
leads to the change in the waves' velocity which also causes it to change direction. Refractive index (n) is the
measure of the bending of light rays as it passes from one medium to another. The refractive index of a vacuum
is 1 , so if a medium has a refractive index less than 1, it indicates that the ray will travel away from the normal.
It can be calculated by dividing the sine of the angle of incidence by the sine of the angle of refraction (n = sin i /
sin r). By using the values collected from the experiment, and averaging the refractive index of each set of
values, the refractive index of the Perspex prism comes to approximately 1.41.
When the ray of light entered the Perspex prism from air, it bent towards the normal and when it left the
Perspex prism, it bent towards the normal. Hence, this experiment has proved that light travelling from a less
dense medium into a more dense medium slows down, leading it to bend towards the normal. When light
travels from a more dense medium into a less dense medium it speeds up, leading it to bend away from the
normal. The frequency of the wave however, does not increase.
Extension
What causes a rainbow to form in nature? - physics refraction and dispersion

Or What does the refractive index tell us about a material
Practical Activity - Critical Angle
Covering 4.7, 4.8
Tuesday, 13 March 2012

12:54 PM
Aim: How does the critical angle cause total internal reflection?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating Minimisation
Heat from the light

box
Low
Do not touch the light box straight after operating and ensure that it is switched off
when not in use.
Breaking the prism
Low
Keep it away from the table edges.
Bright light hurting

eyes
Low
Start off with a lower voltage and increase gradually as required, do not turn on if
not in use.
Procedure
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Hook up the transformer and set to DC 10-12 Volts (raise gradually if required)
Draw a normal line on the paper.
Put the Semi circular prism on top of the normal.
Put the single beam slit into the light box
Aim the single beam from the light box at the prism, aiming for the normal at the flat end of the prism.
7)
Analysis
a) Explain how the angle of refraction varies as the angle of incidence increases.
b) State the value of the angle of incidence which gives angle of refraction of 90 degrees.
c) Explain what the incident ray does after the critical angle.
d) Using the formula below, calculate the critical angle for the semi circular prism.
Sin Ic = 1/n
Where:
Where:
Ic = Critical angle
N = refractive index of perspex prism
Compare this to the calculated value.
Conclusion
1st para -definition of critical angle, state critical angle for semi circular prism.
2nd para - how is the principle of total internal reflection affected by the critical angle
use 4.7 as part of the concusion
Extension - half page - diagram - how total internal reflection is used in optical fibres,
4.1 - Law of Reflection

1:04 PM
When a wave, for example light, sound, radio or water, hits an object it bounces off. Sound reflects off solid
surfaces, water reflects off a pool wall, light reflects off a plane mirror (Law of reflection)
All waves obey the law of reflection - the angle of incidence (I) = the angle of reflection, the incidence ray, reflective
ray and normal all lie in the same plane.
4.2 - Applications of reflection and Information transfer

2:05 PM
Light - Optic fibres for eg. Internet, Phone calls, Pay TV.
- A digital signal is sent through optic fibres and it bounces (reflects) along the cable.
Radio Waves - Radar for eg. Police, Airport.
- A radio wave is sent out and reflects back from a car/aeroplane.
- The reflected radio wave is detected and a measurement of speed and position is detected.
Microwave - Satellites for eg. Phones, TV.
- Signal is sent from ground TV station to satellite, where it is transmitted (reflected) to a second TV station on
the ground.
- This process continues until global coverage results.
4.3 - Applications of reflections

2:20 PM
Plane surface - Reversing mirror on a car, Dress mirror, Fashion mirror, Shaving mirrors, Make up mirrors
Concave - Head light, Spotlight, Torch beam
Convex - Side mirrors on car (objects may be closer than they appear), Car park mirrors, Mirrors at the back of
stores
4.4/4.5 - Refraction
12:03 PM
When a wave travels from one medium into another, its direction changes (velocity), for example, from air > Perspex.
Due to the velocity change, the wave also changes direction. For example - light travelling from a less dense medium
into a more dense medium bends towards the normal (slows down). Light travelling from a more dense medium to a
less dense medium bends away from the normal (speeds up). Frequency does not change from one medium to
another however the velocity does.
4.6 - Snell's Law

12:27 PM
Refractive index => n = sine of the angle i/sine of the angle r

N = sin i/sin r = v1/v2 = wavelength1/wavelength2
N indicates the velocity of light in the material.
If n = 1 then the wave is travelling at the same speed in both mediums
If n is greater than 1 then wave is travelling slower in the second medium
If n is less than 1 then the wave is travelling faster in the second medium
1) What is the speed of light in glass, given the speed in air is 2.7 x 108 and n = 1.42.
Speed of light in air = 2.7 x 108 = v1
N = 1.42
N = v1/v2
1.42 = 2.7 x 108 / v2
v2 = 2.7 x 108/1.42
V2 = 1.9 x 108ms-1
2) A ray of light travels from air to glass, what is the angle of refraction?
n = 1.49
i = 35
Sin i = 0.5738
N = sin i/ sin r
Sin r = sin i / n
Sin r = 0.5738 / 1.49
Sin r = 0.3851
R = 32.65 degrees
4.7 - Critical angle

2:41 PM
The critical angle occurs when the angle of incidence goes from a more dense to a less dense medium,
results in an angle of refraction of 90 degrees.
Sin Ic = 1/n
Where:
Ic = Critical angle
N = refractive index of perspex prism
1) What is the critical angle for light travelling from water to air.
n = 1.45
Sin Ic = 1/1.45 = 0.6897
= 44 degrees
4.8 - Total Internal Reflection

2:59 PM
If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle from a more dense > to less dense medium, no light
leaves and is totally internally reflected. This is used in fibre optics.
Section 5
9:17 AM
5.1 - Digital Systems

9:17 AM
Communication data that is stored or transmitted in digital form, include; sound, videos, pictures, text. The
data is sampled and the waveform is converted into a number. Digital systems use 'bits' 1 and 0 to write
numbers in the binary code (base 2). The binary numbers are stored for example; flash drive, hard drive, iPod.
1byte = 8 1s or 0s. 1kilobyte = 1000 1s or 0s. 1megabyte = 1000000 1s or 0s. 1gigabyte = 1000000000 1s or 0s.
A laser light reflects from the binary pattern on, for e.g. A compact disk.
Light reflects from the binary pattern, it's read by a detector and the presence or absence of light (interference
pattern, crest/trough) is used to represent the original byte, 0 or 1, of the binary code. DVDs hold greater
amounts of information i.e. sound and pictures. Some DVDs store data on both sides of a disk and use a smaller
laser i.e. blue lasers (smaller wavelength.
Lasers are useful because they are a coherent light source that can be focused onto a tiny area. (Coherent - one
wavelength) This makes the light energy, very powerful. Used in CD technology to burn a disk and read digital
information or transmit information large distances through optic fibres.
This point here has its unique code. Might be a number of these. And the next one will be a different set of
numbers. And this is done many times a second. So each letter, each letter on the kjeyboard here has a
different code. The computer doesnt know youre pressing a but when you press a it gets a code. Each leetter
has its own code. So basically what happens, is it okay to start?now we'll just do an example, compact disk. CD
comes up in year 12. What you can see is the rainbow. If you hit that with a laser, what you find is on the
surface of the compact disk you've got these pits and channels so if a laser hits here you get this time of
reflection. If the laser now hits here it has to travel a little bit of further distance. Once the laaser hits your cd
the whle surface has got thses pits and channels. They set up an interference patter, this is collected by a cd
player. In the original message when you go the supermarket and you scan the barcode and on that bardcode if
you look where they scan it, you put the food across, when that hits, this is whats set up. On a laster disk, the
laser hits the surface and every so often there's a pit. Two waes are not in phase anym,ore so you've got an
interference patter. And this is how we get that information transmitted as light. In the text it foes over these
couple of pages. So by all means what we're discussing you might need to read it again. Starts here, so this is
your laster, tour pit, by all means read this bit here, whats stored, the digital revolution. You do need to write
something down. This is total internal reflections. Hows total internl reflection works, it works with an optical
fibre. And then these things here, so you do need to look at this, dont just think the text book is of no use. Um
its not given any sort of particular name but the detector is, can be mirrors, in your cd this laser , you put the cd
down, this laser comes down this way. You can actually see it next time you do your shopping. Its a red light
thats reflecting off the barcode and that barcode when the laser reflects offf it sets up a series of patters. So
every item has its own barcode. Now put a full stop. Now I think we got uptooooo Ryan you were the last
personto do an answer so ben what oes coherent mean, you here coherent used in everyday language, in.
babbling on. Lasers can cut meterial, if you have enough energy, you can ;lose laser to cut therough glass and
so forth.
so forth.
5.2 - Global Positioning System

9:41 AM
A system of geostationary communication satellites are used to receive and transmit radio/TV signals around the world.
There are a set of non-stationary satellites to service the GPS for consumers. Simultaneous contact with four of these
satellites allows longitude and latitude to be fixed. GPS operate in the microwave band. The system operates on
knowing the exact time (atomic clock) and comparing this with the time at the satellite and receiver on Earth.
Section 1
2:46 PM
Electrical Energy Page 56
1.1 - Power through the ages

2:46 PM
First type of energy was sunlight and human muscle

Then came domestication and how to make fire
Wood became a major source of domestic power until,
Steam in the industrial revolution (1700s) where factories were fuelled by coal.
Electromagnetic induction, 1832, was discovered and production of electricity became possible.
Electricity has become primary source of energy in modern society.
Currently, electrical energy is produced in power stations that burn fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas). Non
polluting sources such as water, wind and solar are being increasingly used.
Reasons why electricity is the dominant power source in the world:
Easily generated
Easily transported
Modern appliances use electricity - Electrical jack hammer, Electrical drill, Electrical mixer
1.2 - Social implication

Monday, 2 April 2012
9:02 AM
Electricity has enabled people to obtain/use a vast range of labour saving devices which have produced a
consumer society (Throw away society) i.e. washing machines, ovens, refrigerators, TVs, Computers, Mobile
phones.
All goods have a limited life span and must be replaced eventually.
Positive impact - Labour saving devices > less physical work > more automation
Negative impact - Production of Greenhouse gases e.g. CO2:
Climate change > changing weather patterns
1.3 - Electricity in rural areas

2:05 PM
Type
Cost
Benefits
Drawbacks
Generator Cheap
Portable
Noisy
Widely available
Limited capacity
Doesn't rely on weather Pollution
Solar
Expensive
Free, Unlimited
Wind
Very Expensive Unlimited
Climate controlled
Space needed to set it up
Need unlimited wind flow
Hydro
Most expensive Unlimited
High environmental impact
Climate controlled
Efficiency
1.4 - Galvani and Volta

Galvani's ideas:
- Animal electricity -> the life force in an animal i.e. the energy, vitality in muscles was due to electricity
- Muscles twitch/move due to electrical impulses but not because they have electricity
Volta's ideas:
- Constructed a battery with two different metals (zinc/brass).
- This produced electricity without using animals.
- Volta explained that animal tissue was a source of detecting current and not associated with producing
current.
Section 2
10:02 AM
Practical Activity: Electrical Meters

10:02 AM
Aim: How are voltmeters and ammeters placed in a circuit? How do they work? What does each one measure?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Electrocution
Rating
Medium
Minimisation
Do not use leads which are not completely covered in the insulating material. Do not
touch the ends of the cables. Use a transformer which uses a low voltage.
Burning from Low

the light globe
Do not touch the light globe straight after operating and ensure that it is switched
off when not in use.
Dropping the
Transformer
Low
Ensure that the transformer is at the middle of the table, away from the edges.
Dropping the
Light globe
Low
Ensure that the light globe is at the middle of the table, away from the edges, as
dropping it and breaking glass could be dangerous. If it is dropped, tell the teacher
and warn other students.
Procedure
1) Set up the equipment below:
2)
3)
4)
5)
Connect the lead from the positive terminal of the transformer to the positive terminal in the voltmeter.
Connect the lead from the negative terminal of the transformer to the negative terminal in the voltmeter.
Ensure that the recorded numbers are the ones from the 0-20 range on the voltmeter.
Change the transformer setting from 2 to 4 to 6 and so on, and record the numbers on the voltmeter for
each setting.
6) Set up the equipment below:
7)
8)
9)
10)
Connect the transformer to the Ammeter.

Connect a terminal of the ammeter to the light globe.
Connect the second terminal from the light globe to the transformer.
Connect a lead from the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the terminal of the light globe, which is
connected to the terminal of the transformer.
11) Connect a lead from the negative terminal of the voltmeter to the terminal of the light globe, which is
connected to the terminal of the ammeter.
12) Change the transformer setting from 2 to 4 to 6 and so on, and record the numbers on the ammeter for
each setting.
13) Qualitatively record the brightness of the light globe.
Table of Results
Transformer setting Voltmeter Ammeter Light globe
Part 1
V
mA
observation
2
2.5
4.5
10
10
12
12
170
Very dim
3.5
220
Very low brightness
5.5
250
Low brightness
7.5
310
Fairly bright
10
9.5
360
Bright
12
11
400
Very bright
Analysis Questions
1) In which direction do:
a. The electrons move around the circuit
a. The electrons move around the circuit

b. Conventional current flow
2) Draw a graph of voltage vs current and comment on the shape of the line. What does the shape represent?
V vs I
V I
I
I _______
I
Calculate the gradient of your line.
3) How are the two meters placed in the circuit?
Extension - how do Voltmeters/Ammeters work?
Practical Activity: Ohms Law
Covering 2.13, 2.9 and 2.14

8:57 AM
Aim: How does voltage and current change in a circuit with a resistor?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Electrocution
Rating
Medium
Minimisation
Do not use leads which are not completely covered in the insulating material. Do not
touch the ends of the cables. Use a transformer which uses a low voltage. Turn off the
transformer before touching the components.
Heat from the Low

light globes
Do not touch the light globes straight after operating and ensure that it is switched off
when not in use.
Dropping the
Transformer
Ensure that the transformer is at the middle of the table, away from the edges.
Low
Procedure: 12 - 15 points
1. Connect the negative terminal of the transformer to the ammeter.
2. Connect a terminal from the ammeter to a resistor terminal.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
After connects, 50 connected

Put transformer onto 2, if the voltmeter is moving, its working
Record the numbers on the ammeters and voltmeters
Turn the transformer to 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 and record the readings.
Move the connections on the resistor, down to 100 ohms.
Turn the transformer to 2,4,6,8,10 and 12 and record the readings.
Repeat for 200 ohms.
Table of Results
Analysis
1. Find the resistance of each fixed resistor.
1. Find the resistance of each fixed resistor.

2. Draw a graph of Voltage versus Current. 3 lines one graph - Compare the gradient to the table V/I calculation.
( should they be similar? How close are they?)
3. What comment can you make about the reading on the two ammeters? Why they should be the same but
why practically they are slightly different in an exam you may not get them as identical.
Conclusion
Definition/Explanation of Ohm's Law?
Do our results confirm Ohms Law?
Extension - 2.10 - What factors affect resistance of a conductor
2.1 - Electric charge

Thursday, 5 April 2012
2:25 PM
Electric charges can be seen when:

taking off a jumper over your head a crackling sound is heard
Lightning from clouds
Rubbing shoes on carpet
An object is charged if it gains electrons (negative charge) or loses electrons (positive charge)
Positive attracts Negative, Positive and Positive repel, Negative and Negative repel
2.2 - The Coulomb

2:03 PM
A coulomb is the unit of charge.
2.3 - Electric field

1:58 PM
An electric field/ region is where a charged object experiences electrical force (E). Direction is given by a
forced line.
E = F/q
Where:
E = Electric field strength in Newtons per Coulomb (N.C -1)
q = Charge on object in coulombs (C)
F = Electric force in newtons (N)
1) What is a force?
A push, pull or twist
2) What is a charge?
An electric charge is the physical property of an object causing it to experience a force when placed in the
vicinity of other objects which also have electric charges. Electric charge is either positive or negative. Like
charges repel and opposite charges attract. It unit is the coulomb.
3) What is an electric field?
A region in space where if a charge were placed within it, the field would exert a force on the charge.
F=qxE
E=F/q
F = force on the electric field in Newtons (N)
Q = Charge in coulombs
E = Magnitude of the electric field - Amount of electrostatic force observer per unit charge.
Electric field lines point away from positive charges and toward negative charges
Electric field lines never cross
Electric field lines point away from positive charges and toward negative charges
Electric field lines never cross
Electric field lines always intersect conductors at right angles to the surface
Stronger fields have closer lines
Field strength and line density decreases as you move away from the charges
F = 3.6 x 10(-15)
Q = -1.6 x 10(-19)
E = 3.6 x 10(-15) / 1.6 x 10(-19) = 2.25 x 104 N/C
F = 2. x 1015
Q = 1.6 x 10-19
1.25 x 104
2.4 - Electric current

Friday, 4 May 2012
6:25 PM
Electric current is defined as the flow of electric charge.

It is measure in Amperes.
1 Ampere is defined as the flow of on coulomb of charge per second past a fixed point
Current is the at which charge q flows
If an uncharged object comes into contact with a charged object, charge will flow -> Current will induced.
2.5 - Direct and Alternating Current

Friday, 4 May 2012
6:28 PM
With DC, the flow of charge carriers occurs in one direction only.
Charge carriers in wire are actually negatively charged electrons
When the properties of electricity were still being discovered, it was defined that these charge
carriers move from positive to negative, this is called conventional current.
However electrons actually move from negative to positive.
The most common source of Dc power comes from dry cell batteries.
-----------------------------------------> Electric field
<---(-) <---(-) <---(-)
<---(-) <---(-)
Conventional current----------------------------------->
<-------------------------------------Electron current
In AC, charge carriers move backwards and forwards periodically.
In Australia charge carriers move back and forth 50 times per second
The mains power used in most homes is 240V however it cycles between +339V and -339V.
240V AC is the equivalent AC voltage that will heat up a resistor is 240DC were placed across it.
Many appliances need DC to operate and they convert Ac to DC using diodes.
Diodes allow current to flow in one direction, but not the other.
2.6/2.7 - Voltage/Potential Difference

Friday, 4 May 2012
2:45 PM
Voltage is the change in Electrical Potential Energy between 2 points i.e. the difference between positive
and negative electrical potential.
Units are the Volts (V).
Change in electrical potential energy per unit of charge joules per coulomb or volts.
Voltage changes in series if resistance increases
Potential difference is the same around a DC circuit and depends on the resistance
2.8 - Conductors and Insulator

Friday, 4 May 2012
2:53 PM
Conductors allow the flow of electrons for example, metals.

Insulators do not allow the flow of electrons through the material, for example non-metals
2.9 - Ohm's Law

Tuesday, 1 May 2012
12:14 PM
The current that flows through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage
V proportional to I
V/I = Constant = Resistance
V = Voltage (Volts)
I = Current (Amps)
R = Resistance (Ohms)
1) A conductor 25m long has a resistance of 6 ohms and a cross sectional area of 10mm squared. Find the
resistance of the wire if:
a) The length is 50m
12 ohms
b) Cross sectional area is 30mm
2 ohms
Practice Qs
Data for two conductors are given below:
Wire A (Amps) 0
0.18
0.39
0.57
0.78
0.95
1.1
Voltage (V)
10
12
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.32
0.35
Wire B (Amps) 0
a) Draw a graph of V vs I for the 2 wires
b) Find the resistance for each wire.

Wire A = Approximately 10.5 Ohms, Wire B = 13-34 Ohms
c) Label the wires ohmic or non ohmic.
Wire A is ohmic as the Voltage and Current are proportional and Wire B is non ohmic as it has a variable
resistance.
2.10 - Resistance
Tuesday, 1 May 2012
12:27 PM
Resistance of a material is affected by:

a) Length of the conductor - The longer a conductor, the greater the resistance, not for fixed resistors
b) Cross-sectional area - A thick wire has less resistance than a thin wire because the thick wire has more
pathways for the electrons to travel through, leading to less resistance.
c) Temperature - Atoms in the metal vibrate faster when the conductor is hot, leading to more collisions and
higher resistance.
d) Material - Outer shell electrons/valence electrons are held to the atom in the crystal lattice and the number
of electrons available affects the resistance. This varies from metal to metal.
2.11 - Electric Fields around charges

Tuesday, 1 May 2012
12:54 PM
Section 3
Friday, 4 May 2012
2:56 PM
Practical Activity: Series and Parallel Circuits

Tuesday, 15 May 2012
12:08 PM
Aim: What are the differences between a Series and Parallel circuit?
Risk Assessment
Procedure
1) Set up the circuit below:
Results Table
Type of Circuit Transformer Setting Current A Voltage (Volts)

1 2 3
Series
Parallel
Observation
Total
0.1
1 0.6 0.25 1.85
0.1
1.5 1.2 0.5 3.2
0.1
2.6 1.9 0.9 5.4
0.2
3.1 2.5 1.4 7.0
10
0.2
12
0.25
4.7 4
0.45
1.9 1.8 1.7 Average: 1.8 More bright
0.52
3.5 3.1 3.1 3.3
0.6
5.25 5 4.9 5.1
0.8
7 6.9 6.6 6.8
10
0.9
9.1 8.8 8.1 8.6
12
1.1
3.3 2
Less bright going down
9.3
2.4 11.1
as you go down
Analysis
1) Comment on the brightness in a- Series, b - Parallel
Resistance is greater in series therefore lights are not as bright and the voltage is shared and the
current is low due to higher resistance.
current is low due to higher resistance.

In parallel, every light gets the full voltage, making them brighter than series, lower resistance leading
to higher current.
2) Explain why the globes are brighter or dimmer in series and Parallel and circuits.
The voltage is shared in series between every globe so they do not all get maximum voltage. The
current is lower due to higher resistance.
In parallel they are brighter because each globe gets full voltage. The current is higher as there is less
resistance.
3) Explain which circuit has the most resistance.
The series circuit has the most resistance since the lights are dimmer.
R in series = R1 + R2 + R3
2+2+2 = 6 ohms
1/R in parallel = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R2
1/2 + 1/2 + 1/2 = 3/2
R in parallel = 2/3
4) Explain what happens and why if a globe is removed from series and parallel.
In a series circuit the circuit is broken down and all the globes go out. In a parallel you take one out the
other 2 are still on.
Conclusion 3.1 - how are the circuits different discuss the setup, current, voltage, para 2 - which at
home and why - each light can have its own switch, one goes out other doesnt
3rd para - what happens when you add more resistors to a series and parallel circuit-current
decreases, resistance increases in parallel total current increases because the resistance decreases
Extension - explain what happens to a powerpoint when it has several electrical appliances (double
adaptors) are added to it. Diagram to explain look at current overloads, electric fires
3.1 - Electric circuits

Monday, 21 May 2012
9:00 AM
Electrics circuits allow electrical energy to be transported from one place to another.
An electrical circuit is an unbroken loop of conducting material, around which charged
particles (electrons) move.
Electric circuits have; Connecting wires i.e. conducting pathway, Potential difference
source (EMF) for example, 240V or battery and a Load, a device that consumes the
electrical energy for example, a light.
3.2 - Series and Parallel Circuits

Thursday, 17 May 2012
2:03 PM
Type of circuit
Current
Voltage
Series
Same across all components
Vps = V1 + V2.
Parallel
Partially divided between components Same across all components
Series:
One conducting pathway
Current is the same through each component
ITOTAL = I1 = I2 = I3
Voltage across each component is equal to the total voltage of the EMF
VTOTAL (ps) = V1 + V2 + V3
Resistance total = R1 + R2 + R3
Placing resistors in series increases total resistance which in turn reduces current
Parallel:
Current can travel in multiple pathways
Current flowing out of the transformer equal the current flowing back to into the transformer, but
splits/divides between the branches
Current Total = I1 + I2 + I3
The voltage across each component is the same

VT = V1 = V2 = V3
Putting resistance in parallel decreases total resistance which in turn increases current
1/RTOTAL = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
Series:
Rise in voltage equals the gain in electric potential energy that each coulomb of charge experiences
as it passes through a power supply.
A drop in voltage equals the loss of electrical potential energy that each coulomb of charge
experiences as it passes through a power supply.
For example, Vps = v1 + v2 + v3, where Vps is the voltage rise across power supply and V1 V2 and V3
are voltage drops across corresponding resistors.
If R1 = R2 = R3 then the voltage drop across each will be the same.
If the resistors have different values, then the resistor with the greatest value will have the greatest
voltage drop
3.3/4 - Ammeters and Voltmeters

2:12 PM
Ammeters:
Measure current passing through them (circuit).
Ammeters measure (count) charge carriers (electrons) passing through every second -> Coulombs per
second (Amps/Amperes/A).
Ammeters are connected in series -> makes charge carriers (electrons) pass through one single
pathway -> ensures electrons are all counted.
Voltmeters:
Voltmeters measure potential difference (voltage) across a component i.e. the negative to positive
difference in potential energy between two points.
Voltmeters are connected in parallel, since they have a fuckin massive resistance -> forces the current
the component and not through the voltmeter
3.5 - House circuits

Monday, 21 May 2012
9:47 AM
Lighting circuits require less power to operate, are usually on a 10 Amp circuit breaker and are made with
thinner wires.
This makes lighting circuits more cost effective.
Heating circuits are still in parallel but are on a separate circuit because they require more power for
example, stove, oven, hot water, 20-30 Amps.
This higher current allows the circuits the power to reach the higher temperature.
Thicker wires are used in the circuits to carry this higher current.
Other appliances (powerpoints) use around 15 Amps and have a thicker wire than light
Different circuits allow for appropriate circuit breakers, cost effective, thickness of wires used for the
purpose intended.
1. Draw the circuits below using 3 resistors, 1 switch, 1 cell:
Parallel
Series
2. Find the current through each resistor and the potential different across each.
2. Find the current through each resistor and the potential different across each.
Current across each resistor is 8 Amps. I = V/R, R = 5+6+4
Potential difference across 6 ohm resistor -> V = IR = 6 x 8 = 48 volts
4 ohm -> 4 x 8 = 32
5 ohm -> 5 x 8 = 40
3. What is the voltage of two 1.5V dry cells connected in series and parallel.
In series: Total voltage = 1.5 + 1.5 = 3V
In parallel: Total voltage = 1.5V
Section 4
12:10 PM
Practical Activity: Heating coils

12:10 PM
Aim: How much heat energy can be obtained from an electrical current?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating
Hot coil
Medium Keep hands away from coil while water is heating.

Keep voltage of transformer to 6/8.
Electrocution Low
Minimisation
Turn off the switch on the transformer before

adjusting the circuit
Procedure
1) Set up the circuit below:
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Turn on the transformer and switch to 6V.

Turn on the power and adjust the rheostat to a current of 4-4.5 amps.
Measure 200mL of water and place in to the foam cup
Measure the initial temperature of the water and record.
Put the heating coil and thermometer into the foam cup.
Use the rheostat to keep the current around 4.5 amps and record the temperature every 2 minutes.
Keep the thermometer in the middle of the water.
Table of Results
Time
Voltage (V) Current (A) Temp (Celsius) Power (Watts)(VI) Energy (J)(VIt)
3.5
4.4
19
3.5 x 4.4 = 15.4
15.4 x 0 = 0
4.6
22
4 x 4.6 = 18.4
18.4 x 120 = 2,208
4.6
22
4 x 4.6 = 18.4
18.4 x 120 = 2,208
4.5
27
4 x 4.5 = 18
18 x 240 = 4,320
4.6
30
4 x 4.6 = 18.4
18.4 x 360 = 6,624.0
3.8
4.4
33
3.8 x 4.4 = 16.72
16.72 x 480 = 8,025.6
10
3.5
4.4
36
3.5 x 4.4 = 15.4
15.4 x 600 = 9,240
12
3.5
4.4
40
3.5 x 4.4 = 15.4
15.4 x 720 = 11,088
Analysis
1) Calculate the amount of heat energy absorbed by the water using

H = mct
h = Heat absorbed (J)
m = Mass of water (g) -> 200mL = 200g
c = 4.18 J/g/Celsius Specific heat
t = temp Final - temp Initial
Specific heat of a substance is its ability to absorb heat
H = 200 x 4.18 x 21 = 17,556J
2) Do the values of E and H equal? Discuss if they should be equal. May not be equal do to heat loss from top
3) Why did we use in this practical; a: The Rheostat, b: Keep the current around 4-5 amps, c: stir the water
a: Rheostat to adjust current, which can increase or decrease resistance, Highest possible current wanted to
make sure that you get a greater heat. And because the limit for the transformer, anything higher will
overload.
c: To ensure that the heat was spread around the whole cup
4) Why does the voltmeter read around 3.5 Volts when the transformer was on 8V?
Resistance of nichrome heating coil is high i.e. a drop in electrical potential

Conclusion: 4.1 para1 -> Explain what power is, what does a power rating of an appliance tell the consumer?
Para 2 -> 4.3: what is electrical energy? How do we obtain it form a circuit?
Extension: Heating coils are used in a number of common electrical appliances, describe how they are used?
Kettle, Toaster, Heater, Oven, Grill, Hair dryer, Light globe, Iron
4.1/4.2 - Power
1:58 PM
Power is the rate at which energy is transformed.

Power is the rate at which electrical potential energy (electricity) is transformed into another form of
energy.
P = VI
P = Watts
V = Voltage Volts
I = Current Amps
P = I2R
P = V2/R
Appliances have a label on them that tells the consumer, how much power it uses and the cost of
using the appliance/electricity for example, 1500 Watts is the power and kilowatt (kW) tell you the
cost every year.
4.3 - Energy
Monday, 28 May 2012
9:16 AM
E = Vit
V = E/q
E = Pt
1. The potential difference or voltage, V, across two points is defined as the energy, E,
dissipated or transferred by a coulomb of charge, Q, that moves through two points.
2. V = E/q
V is potential difference in Volts, V (or J.C-1)
E is electrical energy dissipated in joules
Q is charge in coulombs
3. Current is the rate of charge flow.
Therefore, the total charge flows through the two points is given as:
Q=Ixt
T = time in seconds
4. The energy dissipated or transferred is given:
E = qV
E = VQ
V = E/q
5. Therefore the relationship between E, V, I and t is:
E = Vit
6. P = VI
Where P = power in watts
FORMULAS
E = VIt
P = VI
V = E/q
Write units in calculation
I = 6, t = 12, E = 320
E = VIt
V = E/It
= 320/72 = 4.4444V
--V = 230
P = 60
T = 120 x 60 = 7,200
a) I = P/V
= 60/230 = 0.2609 A
b) E = 230 x 0.2609 x 7200 = 4.32 x 105 J
5.26 x 2 x 20.4 = 214.608
4.4 - Kilowatt hour (kWh)

Monday, 28 May 2012
9:36 AM
Consumers are charged by the electrical energy they use, the amount of electrical energy used
can be given by the Joule -> which is too small a unit for practical use
So a much larger unit is used for calculating the cost of electrical energy, the kilowatt hour.
Energy in kWh = Power in kW x time in hours
1 - What amount of energy does a 170 Watt hairdryer use if its on for 10 mins.
1) P = 170
T = 10 mins = 10 x 60 = 600 seconds
E = Vit
VI = P
E = Pt
E = 170 x 600 = 102,000
2) V = 125W
I = 11.6A
Find the: a- Resistance, b: Power
R = V/I
R = 125/11.6 = 10.7759 Ohms
P = VI
P = 125 x 11.6 = 1,450 Watts
3) A resistor uses 8.7A and has a resistance of 2.5 ohms, what would be its a- Potential difference,
b- Power, c- Energy dissipated for 2 hours
I = 8.7A
R = 2.5
a: Potential difference = Voltage
V = IR
= 8.7 x 2.5 = 21.75V
b: P = VI
= 21.75 x 8.7 = 189.225W
c: E = Vit
= 189.225 x 2 x 60 x 60 = 1,362,420J = 1.4 x 106J
4) The school heater uses 75V and 3.6 kW.
a: How much current does it use?
b: What is the energy released if it takes 5 mins to warm a room? Energy in Joules and kWh
V = 75V
kW = 3.6 = 3600kW
a: P = VI
I = P/V
= 3600 / 75 = 48 Amps
b: E = Pt
= 3600 x 5 x 60 = 1,080,000 Joules
kWh = 3.6 x (5/60) = 0.3kWh
5) If one kilowatt hour costs 12 cents, how much will the charge be to operate a 110W for 1.5
hours? b: If the clock operates on 36V find its: current, resistance and how many hours will 18
hours? b: If the clock operates on 36V find its: current, resistance and how many hours will 18
kW be consumed?
1kWh = $0.12
a. 0.12 x 0.11 x 1.5 = 0.0198
b. P = VI
I = P/V
= 110/36 = 3.0556
c. V = IR
R = V/I
= 36/03.0556 = 11.7816
d. 18/0.11 = 163.6364
Section 5
12:06 PM
Practical Activity: Electricity and Magnetic Fields
Covering 5.6,5.7,5.1,5.2,5.3,5.4,5.5

12:06 PM
Aim:
1: What's an electromagnet? How is an electromagnet made?
2: What is the direction of an electric field around a conductor?
Risk Assessment
Identify
Rating
Minimisation
Electrocution Low
Turn off electricity before adjusting the electromagnet. Do not use

more than 6V.
Overheating
Use a maximum of 6V.
Mediu
m
Procedure
Part 1: The Electromagnet
1) Set up the following diagram:
1) Switch the transformer to DC 0V.

2) Pick up metal objects. Observe the effect of the electromagnet on the metal.
3) Start at 0V, moving, to 2, 4, and the 6V.
Results Table
Transformer setting Observation
0
Nothing
Minor Vibration, strong attraction from a few centimetres away
More Vibration, stronger attraction, vibrates from greater distance
Vibrates from greater distance, stronger attraction from further
Part 2 - The Solenoid
Results
Analysis
1) What can electric current be used to produce?

Magnetic fields, an electromagnet
2) How are electromagnets made?
Iron, wrap a coil of wire around the ferrous material
3) Where are electromagnets used?
Scrap metal yards separate metals, Transformer, Alarm bell
4) Describe the differences between the bar magnet and electromagnet.
Electromagnet requires current
Electromagnet is temporary
Magnetic field strength varies in an electromagnet
Electromagnets can be turned off
Part 2 Analysis
1) Explain what happens to the compass needle when;
a- current flows in the solenoid?
b- no current flows
2) What is the affect of;

a- distance from the solenoid from magnetism
b- current size on magnetism
Conclusion
1st para - what magnetism is? What does a magnetic field indicate?
Extension
Draw the magnetic field lines around a straight DC current carrying conductor.
Why didn't we include this in the prac?
Too weak
What was the limiting factor?
Not enough current flowing through
What was the limiting factor?

Not enough current flowing through
5.1 - Magnetism
Monday, 4 June 2012
8:55 AM
Magnetism is a property possessed by certain materials for example; Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, that allows
them to attract small pieces of Iron.
Magnets are found in:
1- Electric motors and generators
2- Radios and TV
3- Telephones and Loudspeakers
4- Audio and Video tapes
5- Computer hard disks
6- MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging
5.2 and 5.3 - Magnetic field

Monday, 4 June 2012
9:00 AM
The symbol for magnetic field is B

A magnetised field surrounds a magnetized object and is a region where objects containing iron experience
a force.
The magnetic lines of force come out of the north pole and goes into the south pole.
5.4 - Magnetism and right hand rule

1:58 PM
Jenkins doesnt know

The Magnitude of a magnetic field has the symbol B in equations and diagrams and the has the unit Tesla
Magnetic fields correspond to electric fields.
Ever bar magnet has 2 regions, north pole and south pole
When two poles are brought near they exert force on each other
2 north poles will repel
North and south pole will attract
Compass is comprised of a freely spinning magnet which rotates in a magnetic field so that the north pole
always points in the direction of the magnetic field
Features of magnetic fields around magnetic poles
Magnetic fields are represented by magnetic field lines
Magnetic field lines start at north and finish at south
Direction of the magnetic field lines shows the direction of the magnetic field
The closer the magnetic fields are to each others, the stronger the magnetic field
Magnetic field lines do not cross each other
Magnetic field lines and electrical current
Many early scientists thought that magnetism and electricity were related due to the similar nature of
electric and magnetic forces
In 1820, as he was demonstrating the flow of an electric current in a wire, Danish scientist Hans Christian
Oersted noticed that the needle of a nearby compass changed direction.
Oersted noticed that a magnetic field surrounded the electric field flowing though the wire.
He proved that every electric wire has an associated magnetic field surrounding it.
Magnetic field lines around a current carrying long straight wire form concentric circles around the
conductor.
The direction of the magnetic field is given by the right hand rule
Thumb of the right hand points in the direction of conventional current and the fingers curl in the direction
of the magnetic field.
Magnetic fields in and out of a page
The importance of Oersted's experiment is that it linked magnetism and electricity
5.5 - Solenoids
Monday, 4 June 2012
9:21 AM
A solenoid is a coil of wire, when electricity flows through it magnetic field is produced
Solenoid increases magnetic field as current increases
Solenoids magnetism can be turned on and off
Bar magnet is a permanent magnet
Bar magnet is weaker
Both produce a magnetic field
5.8 - Application of Magnetic Fields

Monday, 4 June 2012
9:26 AM
Electric motors are used to operate air conditioners, refrigerators, fans, washing machines, clothes
dryers etc.
Electric motors convert electrical energy into another form of energy, for example; mechanical energy.
All electric motors use a magnetic field in them.
Section 6
Monday, 4 June 2012
9:31 AM
6.1 - Electrocution
Monday, 4 June 2012
9:31 AM
Electrocution and fires result from faulty electrical appliances.

Fires result from overloaded circuits (circuits taking more current than they were designed for).
Electrocution is when current passes through muscles of the body, giving an electric shock or death.
About 50V and only 50mA may be enough to cause death.
Textbook (128-134)
Two biggest risks with electricity in the home are fire and electric shock.
Electricity is delivered to the home into a switchboard. From there, it through a fused or circuit breaker box,
and is divided into a number of parallel circuits throughout the home.
Alternating voltage is delivered the home by wires.
These are the neutral wire and the active wire.
The neutral wire is connected to the earth at the power station, and as such there is no voltage between
this wire and the earth.
Electrocution occurs when electric current passes through the body and violently disrupts the muscular and
nervous systems.
Electric shock occurs when a person comes into contact with active wire while connected to ground.
This can occur if the casing of a faulty piece of equipment
Electrocution can also occur when cleaning gutters
Accidentally touching the active wire whilst on a ladder can cause electricity to "short circuit', and connect
to the ground via a person on the ladder.
Electricity always looks for the shortest path between active and ground.
If electrocution occur fibrillation can occur.
This means that the heart stops beating regularly, and oscillates rapidly.
Defibrillators work by sending a current in excess of 200mA to clamp the heart to stop fibrillation.
Table 7.1 page 130
Hearth and chest muscles are affected in different ways depending on the path electricity takes through the
body.
Current passing from foot to foot is usually fatal,
Current between hands can be fatal.
The most dangerous electric shock occurs when current passes between one hand and the opposite foot.
Current, not voltage, determining the severity of an electric shock.
Fire can occur as a result of a short circuit, or an overloaded household circuit.
131-134
6.2 - Safety Devices

Monday, 4 June 2012
9:42 AM
There are a number of ways of making electricity safe.

Circuit design
In a house, there are a number of different circuit for example, lights, power, oven, air con, pool
Each has a suitable circuit breaker to protect people/appliances for example, lights 8A, power 15A,
oven 30A
2- Insulation. Plastics, rubber stop people coming into contact with live wires.
Some appliances for example, shavers/hair dryers, are double insulated -> Only have 2 pins
3- Circuit breakers/fuses
Circuit breakers are resettable switches that turn off if too much current passes through it.
Fuses are pieces of metal wire that melt/break when too much current passes through it.
Safety switches (Earth leakage device)
If there is a leakage they protect against the flow of current to earth.
They are essential when using devices for example power tools.
ELD monitor current inflows and outflows from an appliance
Power points have 3 pins
4- Earthing
1: Brown (red): active/ live wire (LEFT)
2: (RIGHT) Blue (black): Neutral wire, returns electrons back to the power grid/power stations
3: (BOTTOM) Green and Yellow (green): Earth wire and not part of a normal circuit. This earth wire is
connected to a metal stake in the ground. Carries current leaked onto appliance to earth.
Section 1
Tuesday, 5 June 2012
1:05 PM
2T at 100km/h for 2km

Total friction = 400N
Find work done by Engine
F = 20000 + 400 = 20400N

W = 20400 x 2000 = 40800kJ
--------50ms at 1500kg
10ms at 10000kg
Find momentum of each vehicle

Find the velocity of the wreck immediately after the collision
Momentum Car = 1500 x 50 = 75000N/s
Momentum Bus = 10000 x 10 = 100000N/s
M1v1 + m2u1 = m1v2 + m2u2
7500+100000 = v (1500 + 10000)
175000 = (11500)v
V = 175000/11500
= 15.2174m/s
----------A bus of 9001kg accelerates from rest to 25m/s in 8 seconds.

The buses rate of acceleration
Net force applied to bus during acceleration
Impulse during the acceleration
a) 25/8 = 3.125m/s/s
b) F = ma
= 9001 x 3.125
= 28128.125N
c) Impulse = Ft
= 28128.125 x 8
= 225025N/s
------------------People are advised to not to carry heavy items on the parcel rack above the rear seat of cars. Explain, with
reference to Newton's laws of motion, why this practice is dangerous.
Moving About Page 105
Practical Activity: Linear Motion

11:56 AM
Aim: How does a ticket tape timer record the motion of an object?
Risk Assessment
Identify
Rating
Electric Shock
Medium Turn off the transformer before adjust the ticker tape.
Ticker hammer pinching skin Low
Minimisation
Hold it from the handle
12
1. Set up
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Positive for ticker to positive of transformer

Negative to Negative
AC
8-10 V
Take a test piece of ticker tape and put it through 2 guides, going underneath the carbon
Turn on transformer to hear metal bar tapping
Move the paper and you should see dots, if not check if the adjustment is tight and/or
rotate the carbon paper
Take 30cm of Ticker tape and feed it through the Ticker tape
Turn or transformer and pull it out
Cut it out into 3 sections
Label each one, slow, fast and medium depending on the spread of dots
More spread is faster
If unsatisfied repeat with other side
Results
Motion
Distance Distance Number of time spaces

d
d
between dots
Total time
Number of spaces x time
Velocit
y
d
cm
d
m
between dots
Spaces betw dots
1. Slow
Number of spaces x time

of one space
y
V=d/t
X 0.02
2. Mediu
m
3. Fast
a) Distance between dots is the same

b) V = d/t
c) A = (V - initial)/t
f) Pulling consistently
Conclusion - para explaining linear motion, description explanation
Para 2 - what information does the ticker tape timer tell us? Acceleration, velocity, time
Extension - half a page + diagram, another instrument or device that records motion
Radar gun, Speedometer, touch pads
Practical Activity: Motion and Friction
Covering 2.11

11:57 AM
Aim: What are the forces of resistance on a moving body?

Risk Assessment
Procedure
1)
2)
3)
4)
Spring balance : 0-1

Connect the spring balance to the hook at the end of the wood
Move the spring balance and record the reading just before the wood slides.
Ensure that the wood does not move.
Results
Surface
Spring Balance reading (N) Observation
Table top
0.55
Easy
Sand paper
Difficult
Cloth
1.1
Difficult
Bubble wrap
0.7
Medium
Cork
0.8
Medium
Lino
0.7
Medium
Carpet
0.8
Medium
Metal
0.45
Easy
Perspex
0.9
Difficult
Ramp Flat
0.6
Easy
Ramp Elevated
(45 degrees)
1.25
Difficult
Curtain Nylon
0.55
Easy
Analysis
1) Graph -->
Friction N I
Draw a graph of Friction versus Surface.
I
I__________
Surface
2) Draw a diagram to show the microscopic view of a smooth and rough surface.
How do the projections cause resistance to motion?
Rougher surface has more projections into the second surface
3) Explain how friction could be reduced?
Powder, Pencils/Rollers
4) Diagram showing all the forces acting on the body.

Gravity, Driving force, Friction, Normal force
5) List 3 examples where friction is an advantage and 3 examples where friction is a disadvantage.
Brakes, Walking, Spikes
Formula 1 Racing -> Air resistance, Ice sport, Car engine pistons -> Oil
Conclusion
Para1 - How do frictional forces affect the motion of a body -> Resistive force
Explain what friction is, definition
Para 2 - How does friction occur and why
Each surface has projections and they come into contact and find it difficult to slide past each other
Friction is a resistance force and occurs when two surfaces come into contact
Extension
How is energy lost to friction.
Heat created lost as heat
Half page + Diagram
Kinematics and Dynamics

Friday, 8 June 2012
2:38 PM
Kinematics is the study of motion without regard to its causes

Dynamics investigates the causes of motion, for example, forces
1.1 - Speed changes

Friday, 8 June 2012
2:49 PM
Typical journey from one place to another involves changes due to stop signs, speed lights, turn,
wait.
Speed limits
1.2 - Instantaneous/Average Velocity

Friday, 8 June 2012
2:47 PM
Instantaneous -> Speed = Distance/Time (D/T)

-> Velocity = Displacement/Time (R/T)
Any point in the journey.
Could be 0 at a point.
Speed or Velocity at 1,2,3 seconds
Average -> Speed = Total distance/Total Time
-> Velocity = Total displacement/Total Time
Km/h / 3.6 = m/s

m/s x 3.6 = k/h
1)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
2)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
3)
a)
b)
c)
4)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
5)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
6)
a)
30/5 = 6m/s west

15/5 = 3m/s to the direction of the building
2/0.8 = 2.5 m/s away
120/0.15 = 800.0m/s towards the target
10/8 = 1.25m/s south
60000000/0.2 = 300000000m/s away from the sun
6000/0.5 = 12000m/s upward
100/1000 = 0.1km/h
360/3600 = 0.1km/s
10x60 = 600km/h
60x1000 = 60000m/h
72/3.6 = 20m/s
25x3.6 = 90km/h
180km
180/3 = 60km/h
60km east
100x5 = 500m
20x3 = 60km
250x0.5 = 125m
60/3 = 20km
100/2 = 50km
10/10 = 1km
50x600 = 30,000m
10x3600 = 36000m
200/100 = 2 seconds
500/100 = 5 hours
60/120 = 0.5 hours
20/100 = 0.2 seconds
10/50 = 0.2 seconds
2000/100 = 20 seconds
Town X
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
Town X
Town Y
50km East
50km
125km
200km
50km
50km
50km
50km east
50km east
50km east
1.3 - Scalar and Vector Quantities

Friday, 8 June 2012
2:56 PM
Scalar
Quantities that have a magnitude (size)
No direction -> Distance, Length, Mass, Time, Volume, Speed, Temperature, Energy,
Power, Volume, Density
Vector
Quantities that have both size and a direction.
Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration,
Vectors are represented by arrows
The size of the vector is indicated by the length of the arrow
The direction of the vector is indicated by the direction of the arrowhead
Vector Addition
Join vectors head to tail and the resultant vector is the distance form where you started to
where you finished.
Vector Subtraction
The difference between 2 vectors is obtained by reversing the direction of the vector to be
subtracted, then adding it to vector 1.
1) Add 3km North to 4km North.
A: 7km North
2) 7km E + 5km W + 4km E
A: 6km East
Friction
Friday, 15 June 2012
2:41 PM
Useless Jenkins work

Friction is the force that resists motion. Friction depends on the surfaces which contact each
other, and the nature of the normal and reaction forces involved. The reaction force
opposes the force due to gravity (F) because the bodies involved have mass.
The effect of the surfaces in contact is called coefficient of friction, and has the symbol, (mu)
utorrent. The coefficient of friction is dimensionless, meaning it has no units. The coefficient
of friction is unique to the surface contacting each other.
Friction is the force which acts in the opposite direction to an applied force. Hence, it is
called a resistive force. For example, in the picture below, say the car has a friction force of
50N. If a force of 100N to the right is applied to the car, the friction force will point to the
left, and the total force acting on the car will be 100N + (-50+N to the right.
The result of friction is heat, sound, light.
Friction demonstrate Newton's first law of motion, which is often called the Law of Inertia.
Inertia refers to a body's resistance to changes to its motion, and is dependent only on the
body's mass. For example, a large adult on a playground swing is more difficult to get
moving than a small child.
Adding Vectors
Friday, 15 June 2012
2:47 PM
Adding Vectors that are at 2 angles (Not 90 degrees)

Add 15m/s East to 12m/s North 35 degrees East
Vector
15
Cos55 = x/12
X = 12cos55
X = 6.88
Sin55 = y/12
y = 12sin55
y = 9.83
Total
21.88
9.83
Resultant 21.88 x 21.88 + 9.83 x 9.83 = 575.3633

24N North 66 degrees East
1) Add 15N East to 20N North 45 degrees East

Vector X
15
20cos45
20sin45
14.14
14.14
Total
R
29.14
14.14
32.39N North 64 degrees East
2) Add the following forces acting on an object, 10N N, 15.2N E, 11.5N N20W
Vector X
10
15.2
-11.5cos70
-3.93
11.5sin70
10.81
Total
11.27
20.81
11.27 x 11.27 + 20.81 x 20.81 = 560.069

23.67N E61.6N
3) Subtract 7km W from 9km S
Vector X
-9
-7
Total
-7
-9
49+81 = 130
11.4km S38E
4) Subtract 18km N from 6km E
Vector X
-18
Total
-18
36 + 324=360
19km S18E
1.8 - Displacement vs Time Graph

Monday, 18 June 2012
10:02 AM
Between
A->B = 100m from origin at a constant velocity -> 20m/s
B->C = At rest
C->D = Constant velocity of 10m/s
D->E = At rest
E->F = Constant velocity of 30m/s back to the origin
What information can you obtain from a displacement versus time graph.
1.
2.
3.
4.
If the object is moving with constant velocity

Distance object has travelled from origin
Time of journey
If the object is at rest or stationary
Velocity = Rise/Run
Velocity vs Time Graph

12:17 PM
A->B = 5m/s constant acceleration

B->C = At a constant velocity
C->D = 10m/s constant acceleration
D->E = Constant acceleration
E->F = Deceleration at 10m/s
What information can you obtain from a Velocity Time Graph?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Time of Acceleration, Velocity

Sloped line slows or tells when the object accelerates
Constant velocity is horizontal
Distance/Displacement = Velocity x Time
Section 2
12:40 PM
Practical Activity 2.15: Forces and Motion

12:35 PM
Aim: What are the forces involved in a single fixed pulley and how do these influence the motion of a mass.
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Clamp pulley to edge of desk

Cut a string 1m long
Tie a loop at each end of the string
Put the string through the pulley as shown:
The string should not touch the ground.
Measure and record the distance from the bottom of mass A to the top of mass B.
Add a mass to the mass carrier A (top) and record the results in the table.
Release the mass A and use a stopwatch to record the time it takes for mass A to reach the bottom of the pulley.
Results
Distance: 0.8m
Mass B F = mg Mass A F = mg Net
(g)
(g) (kg) N
Time
1 2 3
50
000
0.49
50
A-B
100
0.9 0.8 0.9
150
0.6 0.5 0.6
200
0.5 0.5 0.4
Average
Analysis
1) Calculate the acceleration of Mass B (changing mass) by A = F(Net force on A)/M
2) Draw a diagram of the forces acting on the pulley. Weight force down from the mass, Normal force other side
mass going up, Air resistance, Friction around string pulley
Conclusion
Definition of force F = MA
Describe it
2.1 - Relative Velocity

12:40 PM
All motion and hence all velocities are relative (Galileo) i.e. they are compared to a frame of reference.
Roadway, Lab walls
The objects motion is compared to what's in the background
Car A ----> 20ms-1 East
Car B ----> 10ms-1 East
To the stationary observer, the velocity of the 2 cars are 20m/s and 10m/s
How fast does a person in Car A appear to Car B?
Subtract velocity of Car B from Car A -> 10m/s East
Person sitting in Car B, what would there velocity be relative to Car A?
20m/s West - 10 East = 10m/s West
2.4 - Change
1:01 PM
An object must have a force acting on it to change direction or speed.
2.5 - Friction
8:58 AM
Friction is a force that always opposes motion.

Friction occurs whenever to materials move against each other.
Air Resistance
A form of friction between air and the moving object, for example; forces occur in pairs.
2.6 Accelerations
9:03 AM
The time rate of change of velocity.

A = (V - U) / T
A = Acceleration m/s/s
V = Final velocity m/s
U = Initial velocity m/s
T = seconds
For example: speeding up -> 60km/h to 80km/h, slowing down (deceleration) -> 80km/h to
60km/h, changing direction is also acceleration
2.7 - Mass and Weight

9:12 AM
Mass is the amount of matter in an object (does not change)

Weight : W = mg
The weight of an object depends on the gravity in an area/location
If a location has a different gravity value, your weight will also change
2.8 - Forces Involved in Velocity of a Vehicle

9:25 AM
Pg202 in textbook
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Driving force
Air resistance
Road friction
Normal Force
Weight force
1) Coasting/Cruising
1. Wheels turn by the motor, tyre pushes onto the road -> Road pushes forward on the car = Car moves forward.
The forward push of the road the tire is traction (grip), if tires do not have enough tread or road is icy -> not
enough friction to push the car forward -> car slides/skids
2. Air resistance, drag, increases as car moves faster.
3. Rolling friction acts on the non-driving wheels in a direction opposite to the motion. When brakes are applied,
wheels turn less/slower -> speed reduced
4. A normal reaction force pushes up on all four wheels
5. Weight acts through the centre of mass(car) towards centre of the earth
2) Pressing accelerator
1. When the accelerator is pressed, the Driving force increases -> Cars velocity increases until the sum of air
resistance and road friction grows large enough to balance cars velocity. Now the car moves at a constant but
higher velocity.
3) Pressing brakes
When the brakes are applied the wheels turn too slowly for the current velocity at which the car is moving.
Wheels no longer rolling freely (cruising) -> This increases road friction and car eventually stops. If brakes are
pressed hard enough, the wheels can lock/skid
4) Icy patch
Car wheels can lose friction when passing over ice/water on the road i.e. car tread no longer touches the road
surface, car slides.
5) Climbing/Descending hills
Driving uphill
The driving force is greater than air resistance + road friction + component of the weight parallel to the slope
= car accelerates up slope.
Descending
Normal reaction force is balanced by weight force (90 degrees to the surface).
The net force is parallel to the slope and the car will accelerate down the hill
6) Following a curve in the road
Turn steering wheel to follow curve, the direction of the driving force changes therefore velocity changes
(new direction) --> No change in magnitude i.e. still 60km/h but car is accelerating since a change in direction
changes velocity.
2.9/10 - Newtons Laws of Motion

12:08 PM
Newton: 1642 - 1727

Book - 1687 - Principa Mathematica - Book still available - contained his famous laws of motion
First Law
An object is at rest or moves with constant velocity unless acted on by a force e.g. Inertia
Second Law
The acceleration of an object is proportionate to the force acting on it.
Third Law
To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.
Forces occur in pairs...
F = ma
F = Force in Newtons (N)
M = Mass in kilograms (kg)
A = Acceleration in metres per second per second (ms-2)
Average Acceleration
Thursday, 28 June 2012
2:04 PM
Average Acceleration = Difference in Velocity/Difference in Time
2.17 - Circular Motion

Monday, 23 July 2012
8:57 AM
Centripetal forces are directed towards the centre of a circle and act on an object travelling in a circle
travelling at constant velocity.
Because the object is continually changing direction it is accelerating and this acceleration is also
directed towards the centre of the circle.
Fc = mv2/r
Where:
F = Centripetal Force in Newtons (N)
m = Mass of moving object in kilograms (kg)
v = Velocity of the object in metres per second (m/s)
r = radius of circle metres (m)
ac = Fc/m
ac = v2/r
1) A car mass 1.5 tonnes is driven at a constant velocity of 20m/s around a corner of radius 15m, find
a) The net force acting on the car
b) The acceleration of the car
m = 1500000
r = 15
v = 20
F = mv2/r
= 1500 x 400 / 15
= 40000
= 40kN
A = F/m
= 40000/1500
= 26.6667m/s-2
1) A 925kg motorbike has a velocity of 90km/h as it turns around a bend radius of 20.5m. Calculate the
a) Centripetal force
b) Acceleration from the friction between tires and the road.
M = 925
R = 20.5
V = 25m/s
F = mv2/r
= 925 x 625 / 20.5
= 28,201.2195N
a = F/m
= 28201/925 =
= 30.49m/s-2
Sections 3
Thursday, 19 July 2012
2:04 PM
Practical Activity: Simulating a Collision

Tuesday, 17 July 2012
11:55 AM
Introduction: Two Physics trolleys are used to simulate collisions between vehicles with different masses.
Theory: The Law of Conservation of Momentum says that the momentum of a system will not change if the net
force acting upon it is zero. If no external force acts upon two vehicles involved in a collision, then the total
momentum of the system will remain constant. This means that the change in momentum of the first vehicle is
equal and opposite to the change in momentum of the second vehicle.
1. Momentum: P = mv
2. Newtons 2nd Law: Sum F = ma
3. Impulse: Sum F x Difference in t = m x Difference in Velocity
Aim: To show that momentum is conserved in collisions which have no unbalanced forces acting on the system.
Equipment:
Physics Trolleys
Stopwatch
Masses
Ruler
Procedure
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Attach mass to the heavier trolley.

Measure out a 1 or 2m track.
Set a trolley at either end of the track
Push the heavier trolley towards the latter trolley.
Record how long it took to hit the lighter trolley.
At the instant a collision occurs, use a second timer to time how long it takes for the two trolleys to travel
a further 1m (or to stop).
7) Calculate average velocity, before and after collision and calculate momentum.
8) Repeat steps 3 and 4 with both trolleys pushed towards each other.
Conclusion
The change in momentum of the heavier trolley is equal and opposite to the change in momentum of the
lighter trolley, thus proving that the net force on this system is zero, however external forces due to friction and
other forces.
3.1 - Kinetic Energy and Work done

2:04 PM
When mechanical energy is travelled to and from an object.

The formula for work is W = Fs
It is scalar and has units of joules.
Kinetic Energy is the energy associated with the movement of an object by the forces
applied to that object.
The formula for kinetic energy is KE = 1/2mv2
3.2 - Energy transfer in Collisions

2:07 PM
When a collision occurs between two objects, some or all of the kinetic energy
possessed by the first object may be transferred into other forms of energy.
This may include heat, light, sound and thermal energy.
Potential energy of deformation of objects.
Work
2:14 PM
W = Fs
W = work, Joules (J)
F = Force, Newtons (N)
S = Displacement, metres (m)
Examples
1) A force of 70N is applied to a cart for 3 metres. What is the work done over the
displacement?
70 x 3 = 210J
2) A force of 100 N results in work of 200 J being done. Over what displacement did this
occur?
W = Fs
S = W/F
Displacement = 200/100
= 2m
3) Over a distance of 10m, a 3kg cat accelerates at 2ms-2. What is the work done?
F = Ma
= 3x2
= 6N
W = Fs
= 6 x 10
= 60J
3.3 - Collisions: Elastic and Inelastic

9:39 AM
In a collision a cars' (object) energy is transformed into another type of energy for example, sound,
heat, light, deforming of the car.
Elastic: Kinetic energy is conserved i.e. stays the same before and after the collision, for example,
collision between atoms, molecules. Best approximation is billiard balls.
Generally collision between large objects are not elastic.
Inelastic: Kinetic energy is not conserved (in the object) i.e. kinetic energy is not the same before and
after the collision.
The energy is used to deform the car, sound, light, heat.
Kinetic energy after collision is less than kinetic energy before the accident.
The loss in kinetic energy is converted into other forms, heat, light, sound, therefore the total kinetic
energy of the system is conserved in both elastic and inelastic collisions i.e. individual kinetic energy
of objects in inelastic collision change before/after accident but total kinetic energy of system before
equals after.
The Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed it can only be changed into different forms of energy.
For example, Petrol: Chemical Energy -> Kinetic Energy
1) A ball 1.5kg moving at 7m.s east collides with a stationary 2kg toy car. After the collision, the ball is
stationary, while the toy car moves east. Find
a) The velocity of the toy car
Momentum before = Momentum after
1.5 x 7 = 2 x X
X = 1.5 x 7 / 2
= 5.25m.s east
1.5 x 7 + 2 x 0 = 1.5 x 0 + 2 x X
X = 1.5 x 7 / 2 = 5.25m.s east
b) If the collision is elastic or inelastic
KE before = KE after
1/2 m1u12 + 1/2m2u22 = 1/2 m1v12 + 1/2m2v22 =
1/2 x 1.5 x 7 x 7 + 1/2 x 2 x 0 x 0 = 36.75
1/2 x 1.5 x 0 x 0 + 1/2 x 2 x 5.3 x 5.3 = 28.09
They are not equal therefore the collision is inelastic.
GPE = mgh
Section 4
12:25 PM
4.1 - Momentum
12:26 PM
The property an object has and is calculated by the mass of an object times its velocity.
P = mv
Units of momentum are kilograms metres per second, kg/m/s -> Vector
Units can also be Newtons per second, N/s
4.2 - Impulse
12:32 PM
Impulse is the change in momentum of an object.

Impulse = Delta (Change in momentum)
= mv - mu
Final - Initial
Force x time
Impulse = Ft
Force vs Time Graph
Area under the curve is the Impulse.
4.3 - Newtons Third Law

12:41 PM
To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

For example, if one body pushes or pulls on another body, then the second body also pushes/pulls
back on the first body with the same size force.
i.e. forces occur in pairs
Conservation of momentum/Newtons Third Law
The total momentum before the interaction is equal to the total momentum after.
1) What is the momentum of a toy car mass = 5kg x 0.3m.s.
Momentum = 5 x 0.3
= 1.5 N.s
2) Given a tractor 3 x 104 kg has a momentum of 7500 N.s, what is the tractors velocity?
P = mv
V = P/m
= 7500/(3x10000)
= 0.25 m.s
3) A marble of mass 0.02 kg travels at 3.7 m.s North. If the marble changes its velocity to 4.2 m.s
North find the change in momentum.
Change = mv - mu
= 0.02 x 4.2 - (0.02 x 3.7)
= 0.01 N.s North
4) A snooker ball mass 0.18 kg hits the pool table with velocity of 9m/s and rebounds with a velocity of
5m/s. Find the change in momentum.
Change = mv - mu
(0.18 x 5) + (0.18 x 9)
= 2.52 N.s
CHECK DIRECTION
IF DIRECTION CHANGES VECTORS ARE SUBTRACTED SO ADD THE INITIAL
5) A 125kg wheelbarrow starting from rest reaches a velocity of 7m/s East in 8s. Find the
wheelbarrows change in momentum over this time.
P = mv
P1 = 125 x 0 = 0
P2 = 125 x 7 = 875 N.s
P2 - P1 = 0
6) A taxi has a Force of 375N applied for 10 seconds.
i) What is the impulse
ii) If the taxi has a mass of 900kg and it accelerates from rest, what is its velocity at the end of 10
ii) If the taxi has a mass of 900kg and it accelerates from rest, what is its velocity at the end of 10
seconds.
Impulse = Ft
= 375 x 10
= 3750N.s
Mv - mu = 3750
900 x v = 3750
V = 3750 / 900
= 4.167m.s
7) A ball of mass 0.27kg travels east at a velocity of 6m/s, it bounces back from a goal post due west
with a velocity of 6m/s. The ball touches the goal post for 0.19 seconds. Find:
i) Change in momentum of the ball
ii) Average force acting on the ball while in contact with the goal post
P = mv - mu
= 0.27 x 6 + 0.27 x 6
= 3.24 N.s
Impulse = Ft
F = Impulse / t
= 3.24 / 0.19
= 17.05N
Section 5
8:52 AM
5.1 - Inertia
8:54 AM
Any object persists in constant motion along a straight path, or remains at rest, unless
it is acted upon by an external force.
Inertia is defined as a an objects tendency to remain either in constant motion or at
rest, unless it is acted upon by an external force.
5.2 - Newton's First Law not obvious

9:02 AM
Always forces acting on objects

Friction
Gravity
Air resistance
A body with constant velocity has either no forces acting on it, or is experiencing forces which act in
equal and opposite directions to cancel out.
Acceleration involves a change in velocity, which implies a force is present.
To change velocity, we either alter its direction or its magnitude.
5.3 - Safety procedures

9:16 AM
ABS - Antilock Braking System:

Keep control
Maximises braking force
Seat belts
Restraint device
Crumple Zone - Increase time of collision, and so reduce force experiences
By increasing the length of time of the crash, it spreads impact over a longer period of
time - therefore there is less impact on the driver.
Areas which deform to absorb the force of an impact, and so reduce the forces
experienced by occupants.
Airbags
Rapid expansion of gases inside a pillow which increases the time of collision, and so
reduces the forces experienced by occupants.
Radar cruise control
Pedestrian airbags
Driver education
5.4 - Effectiveness of Safety features

9:57 AM
Seatbelts are perhaps the most effective safety feature in a vehicle, along with airbags
and ABS.
5.5 - Dangers of loose objects in a vehicle

11:59 AM
Objects and occupants inside a vehicle travel at the same velocity as the vehicle.
In a collision, a loose object in a vehicle continues to travel at the same velocity.
It experiences a force for an amount of time when it meets an obstruction.
The result is a change in momentum.
The objects mass speeds up, slows down or changes direction.
The impulse of the object is equal to the change in momentum.
5.6 - Avoiding or reducing the effects of a collision

12:06 PM
Lowering speed limits -> Takes less time to stop

Driver education:
Drugs and Alcohol
Manage Fatigue
Safety equipment
A airbag spreads the force of an impact evenly over a wide area
A seatbelt concentrates the force of an impact across a smaller region.
Airbags and seatbelts work together to increase the time of an impact and reduce the
net force experienced.
NOTES
Monday, 3 September 2012
9:17 AM
1600 - Kepler - 3 Laws of planetary motion: Law of ellipses -> Each planet moves in an oval shape (ellipse) with
the sun at one focus. Law of areas -> Speed of planet changes during its orbit, slower away from sun and faster
around/closer to sun-> Radius line sweeps out equal areas in equal time. Law of periods -> The square of the
period of the planet is proportional to the cube of the distance form the sun. Closer planets to the sun, travel
faster and planets further away, travel slower around sun.
1600 - Galileo - Heliocentric model - Observes the moon, craters. Sees the moons of Jupiter and realised that not
everything goes around the earth.
Newton - Law of Gravitation - Gravity is the force that holds planets in orbit around the sun.
2.2 - 3- Nucleo-synthesis formation of elements.
Cosmic Engine Page 149
Section 1
1:05 PM
Practical Activity: Elliptical Orbits
Covering:
Monday, 6 August 2012

8:57 AM
Aim: What did Kepler's work tell us about the orbits of planets in the solar system.
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating
Minimisation
Sharp Pins Low Risk Handle with care
Equipment
Thumb tacks
Paper
String
Cardboard
Method
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Cut a piece of string of length 15-30 cm.

Tie the two ends of the string together to make a loop.
Measure the length of the loop and double that value to find the string length (s).
Place the paper over the cardboard, and push two thumb tacks into the paper.
Wrap the string loosely around as shown:
2c
2a
6) Use a pencil inside the loop to draw an ellipse.
Results
A:
String length, S = 18cm
String length, S = 18cm

Pen separation 2C = 5.5cm
Major axis 2a = 13cm
Part B
Eccentricity = 2c/2a = c/a = 2.75/6.5 = 0.4231
String length method, e = 2c/ s-2c = 5.5/(18-5.5) = 0.44
Eccentricity of various planets

Planet
Eccentricity (e) Pin separation (cm)
Mercury 0.21
18x0.21/(1+0.21) = 3.124
Earth
0.02
18x0.02/(1+0.02) = 0.3529
Mars
0.09
18x0.09/(1+0.09) = 1.4862
Pluto
0.25
18x0.25/(1+0.25) = 3.6
2c = es/(1+e)
Conclusion
Kepler found that each planet moves in an ellipse with the sun at one focus, as represented by
one of the thumb tacks in this experiment.
Introduction
Friday, 3 August 2012
2:50 PM
Astronomy is the oldest science, the motion of the sun, moon and planets affects the daily lives of humans
Humans since the beginning of time, have looked at the beauty and majesty of space.
The seasons on earth are linked with movement of our planet in space.
Studying the universe allows us to understand how the sun, earth and all matter began.
1.1 - Models of the Universe

Friday, 3 August 2012
2:53 PM
Aristotle: Greek Philosopher

330BC
His views were accepted for 2000 years
Aristotle believed;
4 elements comprising the earth and its contents, Earth, Fire, Air and Water
After Earth, Wind, Water and Fire, the stars had a fifth element -> Quintessence
Terrestrial objects were earth bound
Celestial -> they obey different rules
Perfect shapes were for the motion of the sun, moon and planet
Earth was at the centre of the universe
Geocentric -> Earth in the middle
Concentric spheres carried heavenly objects around the earth
Aristarchus: Greek Philosopher

240BC
Earth rotated on its axis which explains the motion of the moon, sun and planets
The Sun at the centre of the universe
Heliocentric model
Ptolemy: 120AD -> Egypt
Section 2
9:45 AM
1 to 10
Tuesday, 7 August 2012
12:09 PM
1) Which of the following lists contains only supporters of the Heliocentric Model of the
Universe?
a) Aristarchus, Copernicus, Kepler
2) In Ptolemy's model of the Universe the planets moved in epicuycles. What was at the
centre of each epicycle?
d) An empty point in space
3) Who was the first person to predict the expansion of the Universe?
a) Friedmann
4) How does a white dwarf star produce its energy?
d) Gravitational collapse
5) What quantities are plotted on the axes of a Hertzsprung Russell diagram?
b) Luminosity against surface temperature

11:55 AM
http://www.caresa.com.au/cosmicengdp.htm
Mhhe astonomy applets physsci hr frame
Red Shifting
Thursday, 9 August 2012
2:08 PM
1) What is Red shifting?
2) What can you say about the wavelengths of red and blue light?
2.1 - Aleksander Friedmann

9:59 AM
Aleksander Friedmann
Aleksander Friedmann read how Einstein had solved the problem of an expanding universe by adding a "fudge
factor", and Friedmann thought this was an error.
1888-1925
Basing his reasoning on Einstein's general theory of relativity which suggests that the universe is expanding,
Friedmann made two assumptions:
No matter which way you look, the universe appears identical,
Point one is true no matter where you are in the universe.
Friedmann said that the curvature of space increases with time.
Einstein later accepted that this was correct.
There are three different types of expanding universe theories.
Closed universe:
Discovered by Friedmann
Equal forces of gravity stop expansion and cause the universe to contract
Flat universe:
The force of gravity just bounces the expansion of the universe, which slows but doesn't fully stop.
Open universe:
Universe is expanding so fast, that gravity cannot stop it.
Edwin Hubble
While studying nebula, which were thought to be clouds of glowing gas, Hubble noticed that they were in fact
made up of individual stars.
Hubble found that the Andromeda nebula was about 800000 light years away.
And this showed that our galaxy, the milky way, was not the only galaxy in existence.
Hubble discovered many galaxies, and as part of his discoveries, he measured the Red Shift of their light.
Red Shifting refers to the movement of stars away from earth.
The degree of red shifting determines how fast an object is moving away from the earth.
This relates to the doppler affect with sound.
In 1929, Hubble published the results of a study which showed that every one of the many galaxies he had
observed was moving away from the earth.
He found that the further away a galaxy is from the earth, the faster it is receding from us.
Hubble's discovery that the universe is expanding, led to the Big Bang Theory.
He says that like an exploding bomb or exploding orange with a singularity.
The furthest parts of the universe travel the fastest.
Using Hubble's constant Ho , the universe has been found to be 12-14 billion years old.
Hubble's Law
V = H oD
V = km/s-1
D = Mpc
Ho = approx 70km/s MPc
A parsec is 3.26 light years
A Megaparsec is 3.26 Million light years
You are given an elastic band and a pen to explain Hubble's law, how do you do it? Write a paragraph whilst
watching this video.
Mark 4 points equal distances apart on the rubber band. Then with the band on the ground, put your find on
the inside of the rubber band on the left edge and stretch it to the right. Notice the distance that each mark
has moved from where they originally were. The mark on the right, which was furthest from the mark on the
left (which was not moved) moved the most and hence had to have had a higher speed to move a greater
distance in the same amount of time. The marks represent galaxies and the one furthest on the left represents
distance in the same amount of time. The marks represent galaxies and the one furthest on the left represents
our galaxy. As the universe is expanding, galaxies further away have to move further in the same amount of
time and hence move faster.
2.2 - Transformation of radiation - Big Bang

12:42 PM
The Big Bang was an expansion of space at the beginning of time.

Instant of this event, the universe was hot: 1035 Kelvin.
As the expanding universe cooled, energy was transformed into pairs of matter and anti-matter.
These anti-matter/matter pairs would immediately recombine into energy.
The particles would be made of quarks and anti-quirks and lepton and anti-leptons.
The balance between matter and anti-matter is called symmetry, and for some unknown reason,
symmetry was broken to form more particles then anti-particles.
As the universe cooled, quarks combined to form protons and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons combined to form deuterium and helium.
Evidence for Big Bang
There are a number of observations which support the Big Bang Theory
1) The universe is expanding for example, red shift of light from distant stars due to Doppler effect ie.
when light or sound (waves) travel at speed their frequency (pitch) increases as it approaches the
observer and decreases as it moves away.
When light from distant stars is observed it shows a shift towards the red end of the spectrum.
Poor physics if you write the star looks red, it does not appear red, but the lines of the spectrum move
closer to the red end
This is a red shift, which means the light has a lower frequency (longer wavelength).
This indicates the star is moving away from the observer.
Light from all galaxies shows this red shift.
2) The origin of background radiation
After the big bang, temperatures were extremely high, this released large amounts of radiation which
can still be detected in space.
3) Nucleosynthesis of light elements
The formation of elements as the universe expanded, High temperatures resulted from nuclear
reactions -> matter formed from radiation.
2.3 - Albert Einstein

9:44 AM
Albert Einstein formulated a special theory of relativity, which says that if objects travel fast enough, they
shrink, and time slows down in their "reference frame".
Einstein showed that no object can travel faster than light.
Einstein's theory predicted that if an object is accelerated towards the speed of light, some of the energy
used to do this is transformed into the objects mass.
Its size increases, and the object becomes harder to accelerate.
Einstein thought that energy can be converted to mass and vice versa and he came up with an important
formula to explain this; E = mc2
Energy used to accelerate an object = Mass x (Speed of light)2
Einstein thought that the universe was static and unchanging.
His theory predicted an expanding universe, to make it fit with his thinking, he introduced a "fudge factor"
in his calculation.
2.4 - Accretion of Galaxies and Stars

8:55 AM
Accretion refers to the accumulation of matter in one place, usually by gravitational attraction.
By the time the universe was about 380000 years old, it was spread throughout with matter in its current
form - atoms with protons and neutrons in the nucleus with electrons orbiting the nucleus
The most prevalent atoms were hydrogen.
For some unknown reason, matter was not distributed evenly.
Regions with higher densities began to become attracted and clumped together, under the influence of
gravity.
With tiny variations in density, gravity caused the denser regions to "fall into" themselves or coalesce into
large lumps.
This in turn resulted in the formation of the first stars, in which the heavier elements were formed.
Regions where stars were more densely spaced collected themselves into huge groups that we now observe
as galaxies.
At about 300000 years old, the universe had cooled to around 3000 kelvin, from an initial temperature of
1032 Kelvin, a split second after the big bang.
As the universe continued to expand, it continued to cool.
Heat energy formed as a result of the kinetic energy of particles, decreased, and over time, this lead to a
reduction in the kinetic energy of particles.
2.5 Monday, 13 August 2012

9:10 AM
Outreach.atnf.csiro education senior cosmicengine cosmology links
Section 3
9:17 AM
Practical Activity: Radiation Penetration

8:51 AM
Aim: What distance can different types of radiation penetrate through certain materials.
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating Minimisation
Contaminating hands
Low
Use gloves to hand radioactive samples
Spreading radioactivity
Low
Do not allow radioactive samples to become wet
Getting samples in mouth Low
Handle samples away from mouth
Equipment
Radiation detector (Geiger Muller Tube Counter)

Geiger Counter
Alpha Source
Beta Source
Gamma source
Paper
Lead foil
Aluminium foil
Method
1)
2)
3)
4)
Plug the Geiger Muller Tube into the counter and connect to a power supply.
Record a background radiation reading.
Place the Alpha source directly in front of the tube, and record the number of counts per second.
Move the source away from the tube until you obtain the background reading. Record this distance. Record
readings at 0, 10, 50 and a 100cm.
5) Place the alpha source directly in front of the tube and insert a sheet of paper between the source and the
tube and repeat step 4.
6) Repeat step 5 with lead foil and aluminium foil.
7) Repeat the experiment with Beta and Gamma sources.
Type of
Radiation
Penetration
distance in air
(cm)
Penetration
Penetration
distance in paper distance in lead
(cm)
foil (cm)
Alpha
7164(0)+42(10)+ 294(0)+20(10)+
38(50)+36(100) 44(50)+40(100)
54(0)+32(10)+
40(50)+30(100)
216(0)+26(10)+
38(50)+32(100)
Beta
192(0)36(10)32( 142(0)+22(10)+
50)+50(100)
30(50)+38(100)
38(0)+24(10)+
38(50)+38(100)
40(0)+28(10)+
40(50)+38(100)
Gamma
808(0)+34(10)+
36(50)+32(100)
342(0)+34(10)+
20(50)+14(100)
814(0)+418(10)+
220(50)+28(100)
554(0)+54(10)+
30(50)+22(100)
Initial Background Reading: 13 counts/s

Alpha Source: Am - 241 (Americium)
Beta Source: Sr - 90 (Strontium)
Analysis
1) Which source gave off the greatest count?
Penetration distance Penetration

in aluminium foil
Power
(cm)
(L/M/H)
Alpha
2) Why is it necessary to record the background count?
If you don t know the bg count, your result can be contaminated, measure radiation without a source.
Subtract/Compare that frm the counts we got we can see whats coming from the environment or nature and whats
coming from the source.
3) What is the source of background radiation?

Some coming from the sun, space, natural radiation from the ground on earth
4) Which source (Alpha, Beta or Gamma) showed the greatest penetration through the materials?
Gamma
5) Which source showed the greatest penetration through air?
Alpha
6) If you were going to make containers for each of the sources, what would you make each container out of?
Alpha Beta Gamma 7) Why should we record 3 readings and then calculate the average, for this experiment?
If you repeat and take an average, you increase a reliability by seeing if we can get the same counts.
Conclusion
4.2 ->
1st part - Discuss each source
Describe nature in terms of ionising power -> air
Penetrating power -> Materials
Effect of magnetic field
Effect of electric field
AlphaBetaGamma2nd part -> Is there a relationship between particle size and penetration power -> Explain what it is
Extension
Half page+diagram -> Choice:
Benefit of nuclear radiation and disadvantages, medical industrial, japan fookushima radiation leak OR
Geiger counter -> How does the radiation when it goes through the tube, turn into an electrical signal which
the counter picks up, changes it to electrical signal
3.1 - Blackbody Radiation

11:55 AM
A blackbody is a body which absorbs all radiation falling upon it.

It is also a perfect emitter of radiation, and as such, has a steady temperature.
If you heat a piece of wire, you will notice that as the temperature rises, its glow will change colour from
red to orange to white.
Discovered the relationship between the temperature of a body, and the dominant wavelength emitted
by that body.
This became known as wien's law.
l max = W/T
Where L(lamda)max = wavelength in metres
T = Temperature in Kelvin
Wien's constant -> 2.89 x 10-3 mK
Stars and other Celestial bodies are near perfect examples of black bodies.
Note that there are many wavelengths present in the light that they emit, but Lmax(lamda max) refers
to the wavelength of the most abundant light, ie the most intense.
Plots of blackbody radiation, show that as the temperature of a body increases, the dominant radiation
increases in intensity and decreases its wavelength.
HW- Google search blackbody radiation
3.2 - Radiation wavelength and Temperature

11:55 AM
According Wien's law, the dominant wavelength of a stars radiation is related to its temperature.
This means that the colour of the star is related to its surface temperature.
As a result stars may range from very cool red, to orange, yellow and white, to very hot blue stars.
3.3 - Hertzprung Russel diagram

9:17 AM
Hertzprung Russel diagrams, plot a stars luminosity (on the vertical axis) against its surface temperature
or its colours (on the horizontal axis).
Luminosity refers to the total amount of light energy admitted by an object.
Luminosity has units of Joules per second(J/s) or Watts.
The sun's luminosity is estimated to be 3.83 x 1026 Watts.re
The brightness of an object is the intensity of light as seen some distance away from it.
It is the energy received per square metre per second.
HR DIAGRAM QUESTIONS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
Surface temperature of the sun: around 6000 degrees.

White dwarfs have higher surface temperatures than red super giants.
Blue giants have the highest surface temperature.
Red dwarfs have the lowest surface temperature.
Blue, White, Yellow, Red
Main sequence is the main type
White dwarfs are smaller in size than the sun so are less Luminous but hotter
Sun
Medium luminosity and medium temperature and yellow
3.4 - Energy Sources of the Stars

1:59 PM
Stars are made mature and die out.

As stars mature, their chemical composition changes which affects the star's physical properties for example;
luminosity, size.
In 1939, Hans Bethe proposed that high temperatures in stars was due to nuclear fusion reactions of
hydrogen atoms -> into helium resulting in a release of energy.
Therefore nuclear fusion of two hydrogen atoms, releases energy ie. E = mc2
Red giants have a large diameter, are very luminous even though their surface is relatively cool.
These red giants, emit light from the red section of the visible spectrum.
When our sun becomes a red giant, the earth will touch its outer surface.
Red giants form from stars which have a mass less than 8 solar masses (our sun is 1 solar mass).
In the shell of a red giant, H + H -> He.
There is a different relationship between luminosity an temperature -> There is more helium and less
hydrogen, indicating a different fuel process is occurring.
In the core, He + He + He -> C
In a main sequence star, Hydrogen is fused to form Helium, this produces a core Helium and a Hydrogen shell
surrounding it.
Eventually the Helium core collapses, which increases temperature, this cycle may take a hundred million
years to expand a star 100X the size of our sun.
Gradually, the brightness decreases and red light emitted, for example, red giant.
Stars that are less than 8 solar masses, their nuclear reactions stop the helium production.
At the end of a red giant, the star collapses forming a white dwarf.
A white dwarf are low mass high density stars in the last stage of star evolution
For example, a white dwarf has the size/radius of approximately the earth (5000km).
The core that remains is hot and dense, no longer performing nuclear fusion and it slowly cools down.
Stars with masses greater than the solar masses explode as super novae, leaving behind neutron stars and
black holes.
Stars that are greater than 8 solar masses have nuclear fusion reaction beyond Helium.
The helium core itself begins to react to form carbon and oxygen.
When helium runs out carbon and oxygen fuse to form Iron.
3.6 - Inverse Square Law

12:30 PM
The luminosity of a star is the total amount of Power (Energy/sec) emitted by the star
Unit: Watt
The Brightness of a star is the amount of that Energy that lands on a square meter of Earth every
second
Unit: Watt/m2
Energy/sec = power = Luminosity of the star, L
Total area of the sphere = 4pir2
So the energy flowing through each square meter of the sphere every second is L/4pir2
Brightness = L/4pi(distance of earth from star)2
B = L/4pid2
B = Brightness of star in w/m2
L = Luminosity of star in watts
d = distance to the star in meters
This is called the Inverse Square Law.
Inverse: B gets smaller as d gets larger
Square: The relationship goes by 1/d2 no just 1/d.
Jupiter: L = 109 watts, d = 4.2 au, B = 109/4pi x (4.2 x 1.5 x 1011)2 =
1000000000/(4 x 3.14 x (4.2 x 1.5 x 150000000000) x (4.2 x 1.5 x 150000000000)) = 0
Cosmic Engine Test 3

2:01 PM
1)
i) A fixed luminous point visible to us in the Sky at night.
ii) The total amount of energy emitted by a star or astronomical object in joules per second/watts.
iii) A black body is a perfect radiator that completely absorbs all the radiation that strikes it, and heats up until it
reaches a temperature at which it emits radiation at exactly the same rate as it receives radiation.
iv) A
v)
Section 4
9:16 AM
4.3 - The Sun

9:16 AM
The Sun is about 4.5 billion years old.

The Sun has a number of zones which release emissions including;
a) The Core - Hydrogen fusion reactions produce energy, temperature approximately 16 million Kelvin, 25% of
sun's size.
b) The radiative zone - 25% - 70% of the size of the sun, energy from the core travels out as radiation, for
example; infrared, Light, Gamma rays, anything from the electromagnetic spectrum. Temperature
approximately 7-2 million Kelvin.
c) Interface zone - Sun's magnetic field is produced
d) Convection zone - Outer layer where heat is transferred through the surface by convection currents,
temperature 5700-2 million Kelvin
The Sun produces electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths, but it is the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum, that is the most intense.
The earths atmosphere absorbs most of this radiation.
Radiation which can penetrate the earths atmosphere includes light and radio waves, short wavelength
infrared waves and long wavelength microwaves.
X rays and Gamma rays absorbed by the upper atmosphere and do not reach the earths surface.
4.4 - Solar winds

9:27 AM
Solar winds are made up of particles, a stream of ionised particles (protons and electrons) that flow from
the sun at speeds of 400km/s.
Solar winds come from the suns outer layer (corona).
The corona is only visible during a total solar eclipse.
Solar wind consist mostly of protons and electrons, as well as positive ions of several elements (Hydrogen 95%, Helium - 4%, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Neon, Magnesium, Silicon and Iron - 1%).
These ions are positive because they have lost electrons due to the high temperatures they experience
Solar win is produced when radiation pressure causes parts of the suns corona to be ejected into space.
Solar wind is most prominent during times of increased sun spot activity.
4.5/6/8 - Sun spots

9:43 AM
Sun spots are relatively cool areas (approximately 4500 Kelvin) with magnetic field strength's thousands
of times stronger than the earth's magnetic field.
Sun spots appear dark and result from magnetic field lines within the sun.
Sun spots last for several days to several weeks.
When the sun has high sun spot activity -> High magnetic field strength, this strong magnetic activity ->
Effects earth electricity grid / Satellites ie. Magnetic fields interfere with electrical signals / electrical
transmission as greater solar wind activity results.
4.5 Cyclic nature of Sun Spot activity
Sun spot activity on the sun tends to be cyclic with a period of 11 years.
Some cycles show more sun spot activity then others.
Increased sun spot activity results in more solar flares.
More solar flares leads to increased solar wind.
During a period of solar wind, the earth's magnetic field traps most of charged particles, making up solar
wind and deflects them towards the poles.
There, the particles react with the atmosphere to cause an Aurora Borealis or Australis.
Satellites are very susceptible to the affects of solar wind.
The increase in charged particles can damage the controls and communication equipment on board.
Astronauts in space shuttles and space stations must take care to avoid ionizing radiation during high
solar activity.
The increase in magnetic activity on earth can cause circuit breakers on power grids to trip and cause
wide spread black outs.
The stars in our galaxy

1:56 PM
1) Very large and bright stars (around 25 solar masses) become black holes.
2) Smaller stars become black dwarfs - <3 solar masses.
3) As Mass is less, generally lifetime is too. Highest mass stars have the highest brightness and temperatures.
The Hottest stars are blue, then white for cooler ones, then yellow and then orange or red for the coolest
stars.
4)
a)
Prycon A
1500 million years 12 Brightness compared to

sun
7200
degrees
Yellow/whit Black
e
dwarf
Proxima
Centauri
50000 million
years
2000
degrees
Black
dwarf
0.2
b) As there is a direct relationship between the properties and the mass of the stars.
c) Black dwarfs
Surface Temperature (degrees Celsius)

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Section 1

Tuesday, 14 February 2012

The World Communicates Page 1

Practical Activity 1.7 - Waves in one Dimension

Covering d1.2, 1.5, 1.7 and 1.8

Wednesday, 1 February 2012

Tripping over slinky

Medium Keep people away from your area

Skin caught in slinky

Medium Hold the slinky firmly, do not release

Recoil from the slinky Low

Do not release slinky while stretched

Don't overstretch slinky and do not release while stretched

7. Repeat steps 5 and 6, swapping roles.

2. What are the medium particles in a slinky spring?

The World Communicates Page 2

electrical signals however are not longitudinal, but are transverse.

The World Communicates Page 4

1.1 Energy Transformation

The World Communicates Page 5

1.2 - Waves in one, two or three Dimensions

Waves occur in one, two, or three dimensions.

The World Communicates Page 6

1.3 - Mechanical and Electromagnetic waves

Waves can be classified into two groups:

The World Communicates Page 7

1.4 - The wave model terms

(cm --> m) IF MEASURING WAVELENGTH!

The World Communicates Page 8

1.5 - Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

Transverse waves move perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer.

In Longitudinal waves, particles move parallel to the energy transfer.

The World Communicates Page 9

1.6/1.12 - Wave Velocity Equation

Wave Velocity (v) = Distance/Time = No. of waves x Wavelength/Time

The World Communicates Page 10

1.10 - Displacement vs Time graph

iv) Amplitude at 4 sec: 15m

The World Communicates Page 11

The World Communicates Page 12

Practical Activity - Sound Waves

Covering 1.9, 1.11

Monday, 13 February 2012

Loud sounds damaging ears Low

If the sound gets too high, turn of speaker or lower volume

Do not stare at oscilloscope screen for too long

Procedure (18 STEPS!)

Plug in the Transformer, Audio Wave Oscillator and CRO.

Ensure that the line visible on the CRO machine is at 0

1. What is the relationship between a frequency and wavelength?

2. What is the relationship between Volume and Amplitude?

3. What does the CRO measure in this part of the experiment?

The World Communicates Page 14

Practical Activity: Superposition of Sound Waves

Pasted from <http://www.mediacollege.com/audio/microphones/how-microphones-work.html>

2. Explain what the computer records/detects?

Pasted from <http://lifshitz.ucdavis.edu/~dmartin/phy7/7C/screenshots/wave_superposition.png>

The World Communicates Page 16

Pasted from <http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/super.htm>

Extension - Sound Recording - Microphones and Speakers

(Edited) from <http://www.explainthatstuff.com/microphones.html>

Pasted from <http://visual.merriam-webster.com/communications/communications/dynamic-microphone_2.php>

Pasted from <http://visual.merriam-webster.com/communications/communications/dynamic-microphone_2.php>