RB, 1995. 102-4 (pp. 506-521). | ; THE STELA OF KING PIYE: A BRIEF CONSIDERATION OF “CLEAN” AND “UNCLEAN” IN ANCIENT EGYPT AND THE BIBLE Suotany ‘The stata of the Nuboan king, Piye, describes his victory agsinst a coalition of Dalta princes, and his ascension to the Egyptian throne, The inseription Storms that, except for king Namott, no northern and southern rulers Could enter the Egyptian palace because they were uncircumeised and were saiams of fish The Author discusses the relation betwoon circumelsion and forbidden foods in ancient Egypt and in the Israelite religion. Soomans, May et aaa ly a ‘entre la circoncision et les aliments interdits en Egypte antique et dans la InrRopuction ‘The Piye stela describes in 159lines the war of the Nubean king Piye in the twenty-first year of his reign (728 B.C.E.) against a coali- tion of Delta princes. In addition to depicting Piye's vietory and his ascension to the Egyptian throne, the stela portrays in considerable dotail the surrender of the vassals to the Nubean king. 1 P.Gaveaz, “The Victory Stela of King Piya; The Biblical Perepective on War and ‘THE PIYE STELA : ON “CLEAN” AND “UNCLEAN* 307 ‘This article focuses on lines 150-151, which deseribe the arrival of the northern and southern rulers. They-had come to express their loyalty to the king : " “They could not enter the palace because they were uncircumcised and were eaters of fish, which is an abomination to the palace, but king Namart entered the palace because he was clean and did not eat fish. ‘Through the entire text of the stela, unique emphasis is given to the special status of king Namart, to whom Piye assigned an impor- tant-role in his own “new order’. Namart, assumed the role of the northern kings’ representative, and his loyalty and geographical posi- tion created a “security belt” that would, at a later stage, separate the northern and southern regions of Egypt.* ‘Namart has greater stature than the other rulers of the Delta; he is pure and, unlike his impure compatriots, he is permitted entry to the palace. In Egypt, the king’s palace was considered to be a holy site — virtually a temple, because the king was regarded as the representa live of the gods on earth. Entry into the palace thus required the same kind of purification rites that preceded entry into a temple.® In the inscription under discussion, the purification rites were expressed in terms of ritual instructions — consumption of fish and circumcision — rather than in terms of moral instructions. Up to the present time, researchers have not, yet found legal codes from which information can be gathered on permitted and forbidden foods in Egypt. Nonetheless, documentation already exists from the time of the Old Kingdom, Would-be visitors to tombs are threatened by the dead inhabitants not to enter after having eaten forbidden foods. According to Old Kingdom period documents, the priests knew which foods should be avoided, although specific mention of forbid- den foods is not made.* 2 The quotation presented here is taken from the English translation of the stela by BM, Liciritane, Ancient Egyption Lileralure vol-3 (Los Angeles: University of Califor~ nla, Press, 1980), p. 80. AE Grote a Ste romped Pi (Any au maate du Care” 254; Y. Yovorse, "Les Prinepeotés du Delta au temps de Yanar~ BI tt: A. Seatanonn, "he Miltary pean Paina xxiv and ch; 7-8, Niceacen “Bgftloe Bibbia sila dela St his" LA 39 (1989), 47-49, ‘GR, Haxence, The foundations of Primitive Thought (Oxtord, 1979), esp. 169-238; F. d. Simons Eol Not The Fesk: Pood Avoidance in the Old World (Madison, 1961); M."Douetas, Purity and Danger (London, 1965), BR. Lace, "Anthropological508 P. GALPAZ-FELLER i With the help of sporadic documentation, this article will attempt to identify forbidden foods and to establish the nature of the connec- tion (if any) between fish-consummption and circumeision, or, in more general terms, between forbidden foods and circumcision in both Ancient Egypt and the Israelite religion. UNDERSTANDING FOOD PROMIBITION IN ANCIENT EGYPT Ancient Egypt, the land of the Nile, was blessed with an abundance of fish, which constituted a readily available food source for the popu- lace. It is thus no wonder that, in their longing for the former land of bondage, the Israelites emphasized: ‘‘we remember the fish thal we used to eat to our heart's content in Egypt” (Num. 11:8). During the Old Kingdom period, Egyptian artisans demonstrated great expertise with regard to the world of silence.? Their paintings and inscriptions in tombs depict fishing expeditions, commerce in fish products, use of fish as barter, preservation of fish, and so forth. Des- pite the frequent occurrence of fish in burial scenes, they are absent from the list of temple sacrifices.* This fact might be evidence of a then prevailing view that the consumption of fish was a taboo. The ‘use of a fish form to construct the Egyptian word BWT, which means prohibition, abomination, taboo, perhaps hints at the Egyptians’ atti- tude towards fish. Nonetheless, from that very same period, there is also evidence that, in some regions, such as Elephantine and Mendes, Aspects of Language: Animal Categories and Verbal Abuse," in H.Lennenena, cd ‘New Dictiene inthe Stody of Language (Cambridge, Mes. 1964), 2804, K. SETHE, shuren dn gypltschon Aerts Ab 1: Urkanden dex allen Reichs, 2nd 6. (Berlin, 19, 188, 173,202. he abundant vaabiiy of hand ve euiteation of various ype of ah are sleo expressed sn serpt: the fish appear not only asa picture but are also par St the Phonett syloh booed en the ancien! names of rh On ths aus, ace P.M Sex; “Leg possons employes dans Vécrtare heroglyphique.” BIFAO 11 (1914), 39-48, Goien-Wartenr, Fiothe und Flachkule im Allen Aguplen, Aayploleiache Abhondlan ra (Wisbadeh, 1970) pp. 64 snd 2025: A. Ganoinen, Egyptian Grarumar. dre (Sndorde 1870), pps ATE-AD signe KI; W, J, Danny, P2 Cuauiouneur, and L- Gat ‘verry Foods ie Gif of Ovni (Landon, 197), 897 t : TTB, Lncau ""Suppressions et modiistions de signes dans les textes funéraire, AS 5i (1019), pp. Ves, A. Gardiner, sign ot K2: O- Bares, “Anciont Beyptian Fis hing,” Hareardfrcon Studies 11917), 198-272, An exoxption to Unis rue athe tomb tr andys fen Sagar) th to, eam eatin oh ern ould be that Ung owner of tor suffered from um diseases. He vas toothtes ot the {ime of douth ad was thus ona sh dit, because Ui Mesh is Sof and easy to chew. Seq Gamer'Wallet (1970), 68-67 WR. Ganon, tid, sign Tsk K2, \N" AND “UNCLEAN" 509 the Bgyptians actually worshipped certain types of fish. In such regions, Ube absence of fish from burial'sesnes could be attributed to their status as sacred objects of worship. "<-, We can find no Middle Kingdom document pointing to a prohibi- tion regarding the consumption of fish. In coffin texts, we note a positive attitude towards fish, which is also considered suitable food for the after life. The worship of certain types of fish continues during this period as well, and some kinds are even considered to be gifts granted by the goddesses of the marshes, Sekhet. and Hathor. How- ever, as was the case with the Old Kingdom period, fish worship coexists with expessions of abomination for fish. We find this eoexis- tence in two documents: Berlin papyrus 2024, “The Dispute between a Man and His Ba,” and the instructions appearing in ‘The Teaching of Daufs, Son of Khety”’, In both documents, prominence is given to the rejection of fish, an attitude that is expressed in the metaphor, ‘stinking like fish’. In addition, the Egyptian word for ‘stench, bad smell” is sometimes written with the determinative of a fish. During the New Kingdom period, fish are widely used in daily life. Fish dishes are presented on royal tables and fish sacrifices are offered in the temples of the gods. Furthermore, the worship of certain types of fish spreads. Fish are considered to possess magical properties and to be the articulation of divine attributes For example, the Talipa fish is identified with the process of childbirth and with the creation of the god Atum, who swallowed his own sperm and spat out the universe. Chrome-red fish are identified with the sun and, in after life art, they are assigned the important role of the Solar Barque’s escorts who warn others of the approach of the threatening serpent. M, Licurwzin, Ancien! Egyptian Literature, Vol. 1 (Berkeley, 1975), R. B. Bansanson, Voices from Ancient Egypt (London: British Muceum 2p 727, ep. . 74. Some canider tha the Prophecies of Netert expres «hose liitude towards fish, although this is not the opinion of M. Lichthein, ib and p. 144, .5; W. Danny ef aly ibid, pp. 380-882, and bibliography: D. J. Bnswen and K.P. Phisbwaw, Fisk on Fishing tn Ancient Eaypt (Cairo: Ameticon University in Coizo Brese, 1989) pp. 15 f, # For example, the gods give Ocorkon I 2 gift of gh. Ramesses IIT offers to the temple at Thebes 474,040 lsh, and another 16,600 toa second temple in Egypt. Sethi Us army lived on a fish dict, while Ramesses IT mentions workers who eat fh, siz, See 43.1, Breasran, Ancient Records of Egypt, Vel. 111, p, 207 snd Vol. TV, pp. 134-100 (Chicago, 1906-07); Gaten-Weusent, “Fiche profam,” La 2, (1978), 220 ® C. Desnocuss-Nomuecouns, "Poissons, tabous et transformations’ du mort Kéni 18 (1904), 99-42; B. Honnune, Cenceplions of God in Ancien! Enypl (lure 1962), pp, 70.86: E. Staxetin, “Zoe Halhorsymbolix in” der Agyptischen eine ansty "ZS 109 (1978, T684; Charan Wadeene, Feb Religie, LA ® (179), £00- 1990),510 P. GALPAZ-FELLER In the Mendes region, where the goddess Hathemit is adored, she is called the Head of the Fish. ‘The Latus fish is deeply admired and considered sacred to the goddess Neith, During this period, cemete- ries for fish were located in Gurds. ‘Alongside New Kingdom deification of fish, we also find the other, quite different, trend: fish are regarded as an abomination end their consumption is thought. of as a disgusting and ritually contaminating act, In the Book of the Dead, chants 64 and 148, and in a magic papyrus (Nut) dating from the Ramesses period (British Museum no. 10.447), we read the following: ‘“Man who is clean and is ceremo- nially pure, one who hath not eaten meat nor fish and who hath not (recently) had intercourse with a woman...” In a stela dating from the Ramesses IV period, the author claims that he has not consumed any abomination nor has touched or even hunted fish. We find a similar text in papyrus 3292 in the Louvre. As is the case with fish worship, the abomination of fish does not pertain to the consumption of all types of fish at all times and in all regions. In calendars, depicting lucky and unlucky days, the consumption of certain types of fish at ‘certain times is prohibited. For example, on the 22nd day of the first month, during the flood season, fish may not be eaten, because the god Re, who created fish, did so after the gods he had eaten upset his stomach and forced him to spew them out as fish. Besides the Piye stela, which condemns the consumption of fish, we find Late Period inscriptions that date from the Ptolomeie period and which were written above the entrances to temples. These descrip- tions refer to six types of fish that may not be eaten at certain times ‘and in certain regions. In some cases, the consumption of fish is tolally banned in certain regions. External evidence of the Egyptians’ repugnance for fish consumption can be found in the fifth century B.C.E, writings of Herodotus and in the first century B.C.E. writings of Diodorus; in both sources, emphasis is given to the fact that the ts abstain from eating fish. The attitude towards fish that emerges from such documents creates a multi-level picture, At the neutral level, fish constitute an important element of the Egyptian diet, primarily among the lower AL W. Bove, The Eatin Beak of the Ded (New York, 1997) p. 272% , avray, e attdtena “Ra 1160) 887 eG. Naoae "Papyras Lower Sine FAG (load BM. Renosroverey, "Ste Ge Rams IV BIPAO ee a eg 1 z ae (bane Wackint, 1970, pp. 7686; E. Baunwen-Taavr, “Tigensherel!” LA 6 18) 18 as ‘THE PIYE STELA ON “CLEAN" AND “UNCLEAN" su classes, and — during the-New: Kingdom period — among the mem- bers of the royal family. At another level, we find two simultaneous but contradictory trends: worship on’the one hand, and abomination on the other. What, characterizes both these trends is their relative nature: in no ease are all fish at all periods and in all regions included, and the ban on eating fish is imposed only on the priesthood and the members of the aristocracy. On the one hand, ish are described as creatures with divine/magical powers, while, on the other hand, they are also thought of as representing the forces of ritual impurity, such as Seth. However, whether they are worshipped or abominated, fish may not be consumed. It is possible to explain the taboo on the eating of fish by referring to the Tsis and Osiris myth, whose roots date back lo the Old Kingdom and which can found in all periods of ancient. Egyptian history. According to the myth, three fish, identified with the forces of evil — ie., with Seth — ale the phallus of Osiris (see the detailed discussion of this point below in the section on circumcision). With regard to the Egyptian prohibition of éating meat, we can glean information from several different sources. The Ptolomean ins- cription in the Isis temple in Philae' instructs visitors to the temple that entry is barred to those who have eaten forbidden foods and to those who are uncircumcised (II.6-10). In the above-mentioned Noth Papyrus, explicit reference is made to meat-eaters as being ritually impure individuals, but the text does not identify the type of meat. In the Hieratic papyrus dating from the Ramesses period, we read that a ritually pure individual may not eat fish or goat’s meat. Goats are mentioned in the Philae document, and are included in the list of animals that may not be brought into the temple, apparently because of the noise they make, With the exception of this source, we have no information on the prohibition of eating goat’s meat, which, however, ‘was presented at the temples as sacrifice offerings. In contrast, the eating of pork is described in the writings of Herodotus as ritually contaminating (Herodotus 1; 47)."* There are scholars who claim 4s H. Junken, "Vorschriften far den Tempelkut in Phils," Analecte Bilioa 12, 0,3 1959), pp. 191, exp. 187. See leo K Manweconcn, “Ein Agypliccher Pestersid™ Zeitschrift far papyrologie und Epigraph 2 (1968), 7°38, esp." 29, 0, reo, “inctructions for Temple Visitors in the Bible and in Ancient Eqypls” Seri Hlerosolymitana, Vol, 8, od. by S, Teraalit Grol (Magnes Press, 1292), pr 524-250 0 goats, see W. J. Dany ef al ibid, pp. 222-223, and bibliography; A; Gunpinens ice Falic Papyri isthe British Museum: Chester Beaily Gift I (London, 1588), p. 7. On the problein of historical authenticity in Herodotus’ writings, se, for example M. H. de MrvusnaEne, Heradolus over de nie Dynaste, Vol. Ul, 7 UI, 18 (Lauve 1961); W. Bauncantnaa,. “Herodotus Babyloneche und Atsyrische Nechechten’ Zum Allen Testament uci Seiner Umvaell (Leiden, 1953), pp. 282301. T-W. Armica.312 P. GALPAZ-FELLER, Lhat the pig was abominated throughout the entire Near Bast, inchi- ding Egypt.” Nonetheless, according to documentation dating from the Old Kingdom, both wild and domesticated pigs were used in daily life in Egypt. For example, in Abydos, plates in the form of pigs have been uncovered by archeologists. Similarly, tomb paintings depicting day- to-day life include pictures of pigs, and idols in the form of pigs have also been found. During the Middle Kingdom period, pigs are referred to in the biography of Mehten and, in the reign of Senwosret I, we hear of an individual who is defined as Overseer of the Swine. In addition, documents attesting to the raising of pigs have been found, as well as agricultural paintings that include pictures of pigs. Thus, some researchers claim that the pig was considered an efficient animal ‘whose role it was to spread wheat seeds over the ground. During the New'Kingdom, it appears that pork was part of the diet of laborers and its breeding was considered a routine matter. This assumption is based on the discovery of pigs’ bones in Der-El-Medina. Furthermore, it is a woll-known fact that Amenophis ITI and Sethi I offered pigs to the Lemples."* The attribution of magical powers to pigs can be learned from the many uses of pork products for medici- nal purposes and from fertility amulets in the shape of sow and her piglets, These amulets symbolized the goddess Nut, who took the shape of a sow. Surrounding the god Min, who was identified with the city of Coptos in Upper Egypt, a myth spread as to his having been the offspring of a white pig. During the Fourth Dynasty, there was a region near Meidum that was called The White Pig.” “Herodotus and Diodorus on Egypt,” JNES 212 (1963), 254.258; 7. 8, Browne, "Hero- totus Spoculates about Egypt’ “American Journal of Philiogy 86 (1960), 60-76, SOA: Whesony Herodotus in Epyp! (Lelden, 1990); D. Petar, Die Quellenangaban bet Tierodot Studien sur Brashikunct Herodols (Bertin and New York, 1971}, A. B. Lloyd, Herodotus Book Il: Inrodelion (Leiden, 1975); 0. K- Ansiavon, “Did Herodotus Ever Go to Kgypt?, JARCE U5 (1978), 59-73 1 w'tfousron, “Purity and Blonothelim, Clean and Unclean Animals in Biblical “iso? Supp. Series 140 (1983), pp. 178 {C, and bibliography; M. Dovctas, ibid, .B, Newoemny, “The Pig and the Cult Animal of Set," JA 14 (1928), 211-2255 A. de Vaux, “The Sacrifice of Pigs im Palestine and in the Anciont None East Bide Voun, The Bible ond te Ancient Neor Eas! (Londen, 1972), Originally published axe onerce des pores" in Von Ugarilnach Qumran’ Felschift fr Otte Etsfelat GGzAW7, Devlin, £58), pp. 250-265; A. von Roun Sven, “the Calli Rote ofthe Pig’ inAnsient Times” fn Me Black, and G. Fohrer, eds, In Memorial P, Kehle (BEAW 105, Bertin, 207 “W.R Dawsow, "The fig in Ancient Baypt: A Commentary on Two Paseoges of Herodotus." Journal of the Rayal Asiatic Sectety of Grel Briain, ond Ireland (1928), Ppt PBs Rewer hd. 231-315 WJ Dancy alti 17-208 QP i canon Pe Mimmetentiey Nok als Maticrchweinc” 248 71 (16), 45-7 Bisse pncaR e ‘THE PIVE STELA™ON“CLEAN" AND “UNCLEAN S13 totally different attitude was mani- fested during the various periods of ancient. Egyptian history. Accor ding to this latter attitude, the pig'was a disgusting, abominable ‘animal with contaminating and negative powers. In chant 112 of the Book of the Dead, the pig is identified with the forces of hell, with Seth. The chant describes how Seth attacked the god Horus and ‘wounded him in the eye (according to another version, Seth swallo- wed him). In this chant, Horus is depicted as having assumed the form of a black pig. Horus’ assumption of a pig's form can be found in tomb and pyramid inscriptions. In the Trial Scene of the Book of Gates (chapter 125), Osiris sits before a ship bearing a wild boar, which is Seth's incarnation, and is beaten by a baboon, which is the symbol of the god Thoth. Various versions of this illustration appear in the tomb of Harembab, in the sarcophagus of Sethi, in the tombs of Ramesses II] and IV and in the Teos sarcophagus in the Louvre. In @ carving that dates from the Ptolomeic period and which was found in the temple of Edfu, Seth appears in the form of a pig being hunted by. Horus. In the Harris papyrus, which includes a rather detailed list of the sacrifices presented from the time of Ramesses 11] onwards, pigs are conspicuously absent.* In Omina literature, the pig is depi- ted as an animal that brings about destruction, while, in a calendar that dates from the middle period of the 18th Dynasty and which was found in Der-El-Bahari, forecasts are given for the next year and the pig is referred to in the third month as an animal that is a harbinger of disaster and misfortune and with which all contact should be avoi- ded? From these sources, we learn that the duality characterizing the attitude towards fish is also present with regard to pigs. The primary difference is the fact that only the consumption of fish is explicitly prohibited. At one level, the pig is a common element in day-to-day life in Egypt and serves a variety of needs: for food, in agriculture, in hunting, and — during the New Kingdom —as a gift presented in the In contrast to this approach; W, Dawson, bid pp. $87-008; RO. Face, The Ancien Egyptian Pyne sid Tesle Translated into English (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909), 1208, p. 208; p. 201, fote 0; E, W. Buves, shidy p, 377 Ic. Seite, "Die Sprache for die Kennen der See- fen der heligen Orte,” ZAS 83 (1923), 2, 1215: M. Attiorr, Le Cue d Horus & Edfou (Cairo, 1940), V, Disiee Janncunt, “Dag Verbaltn's von Bildern und Texten Der Horus wn von Edfou,” ZDMG Supp. 11 (1972), 26-22. 2 3 Hh Barats, vol, 4 (1908-07), p. 199 KA. Kronen, Ramesside Inscriptions, Voki: (1986), 11 ‘2 'P. Vents, “Oming, calendériques ot com iératique de la XVITI" Dynastie.” Raf 38 (195 ilite doftrandes sur une tablette 91, 94514 P. GALPAZ-FELLER temples. In addition, pigs were raised in some of the temples. Ab another level, which can be found through the various periods of ancient Egyptian period, the pig is simultaneously revered and abo- minated. On the one hand, the pig is regarded as an animal with positive magical powers, while, on the other hand, evil powers are auiributed to it. The fact thal there are no Egyptian documents attes- ting to the offering of pork sacrifices until the Ptolemaic period sup- ports the view thal the pig was considered a taboo animal. Although Herodotus depicts the pig as an animal contaminating all who come into contact with it,* it seems obvious that he is referring only to a stnall segment of the population. With regard to fowl, there were certain birds in ancient Egypt that were considered holy, and there is no evidence that they ever formed « part of the Egyptian diet. The stork and cormorant are mentioned as being abominations and thus unfit for human consumption. ‘The falcon is identified with the god Horus, the ibis is depicted as being on incarnation of the god Thoth, and Nekhbet is described as having the shape of a falcon. These birds are referred to as holy creatures in the inscriptions found in pyramids, tombs, coffins, and temples, as well as in the Book of the Dead. According to these inscriptions, certai types of birds were adored, and thus their consumption was prohibi ted. Montet, mentions several districts in Egypt where various birds were worshipped and were considered forbidden food. In the Nekhen district, for example, the vulture was revered, while, in the Khent~ ‘Yeb district, such feelings were directed towards the falcon. Conside- rable symbolism was attached to birds, and this symbolism expressed itself in the depiction of the human soul as a bird, ba (b3).% Egypt was well known for its residents’ special altitude towards all living creatures. Human beings and animals were considered to be on an equal level and were thought to derive Uveir procreative and erea- live powers and their heart and tongue from the god Ptah. It was a commonly held belief that the god Khnum created both human beings and animals. Thus, the average Egyptian revered the qualities (1980, 768; W. R. Dawson, pp. 608 f, Dawson stress the point thatthe prohibition on the consumption and breed of pig was fk absolutely binding, even with regard to Une presa, As evidence, Dowson feer to the ‘om of Renn of fi: Kaby S00), pp. 94-05; PF. Houuimat, The Binds of Ancient Bpypl At and Pin Va Somer, Speoge und Verne” ts 1989), 127; L. Song, “Stelevoge," 6 (1985), 9.10; E. Wongune, “Die Bedeuton ‘es Tors in sit Agyplan,” Sludiam Generale 20 (1967), 77 15 W. J. Davey ef ‘Bid, vr pp. Bt ON “CLEAN" AND “UNCLEAN™ 515 of animals and saw in these qualities an expression of divine attri- butes. Almost every animal was linked to a god or goddess who would regularly incarnate himself or herself in its form. As incarnations of divine beings, animals in Egypt were worshipped, and this adoration ‘was expressed in the establishment of temples, in the devotions of priests, in embalming and in special burial ceremonies. In contrast, the Biblical attitude is that the animal world was crea~ ted specifically to serve humanity. The superiority of the human being over the animal is clearly articulated in Genesis 1: xxviii, where Adam assigns names to all members of the animal kingdom, Nonethe- less, despite their inferiority, animals in themselves are never conside- red to be evil or ritually impure. All animals were created by the god Khnum and they: cannot in themselves defile. This attitude is some- what similar to that of the ancient, Egyptians, who regarded the for- bidden animals, incarnations of noble or detestable powers, as being incapable in themselves of being ritually impure. The major diffe. rence, however, between the Biblical and ancient Egyptian positions expresses itself in the attitude towards forbidden food and in the way the consumption of this food is held to have an influence on human beings. Whereas, in Biblical society, the laws concerning “clean” and “unclean” food are permanently binding regardless of circumstance, in Egyptian society, they were dependent on time and place and apparently were, in any event, binding primarily on the nobility and on the priesthood. Whereas, in the Bible, the consumption of forbid- den food does ‘not contaminate a human being, the Egyptians most probably avoided the consumption of forbidden food because of the fear that the resulting defilement, would prevent entry into a temple or palace. * Egyptian taboos concerning the consumption of animals covered only certain types of fish, birds that were considered holy or impure, and, at times, pigs. The majority of Egyptians were unal- On the attitude towards anirials in ancient Egypt, see W. M. F, Pernt, Worship in Egypt,” BSBA 25 ( the Religious Signifieance of A Wumen 27 (1980), 76-82; UH, Feankrons, Ancient Egyptian Religion Mew York (1518), pp, ft; It, Honnune ibid. er, 69-84 IT. Brusnen, “Verkindigung an Tiere: Das Orende Herz,” Orbi BIL. Or. 80 (1977. ¥ ‘As in ancient Bgypt, the purification laws governing those serving in the sanc- toary were stricter in ancient Hsreel than they ‘were for the general populace (eg, ley, 21-22 and Deut. 19, The most stringent retitions applied tothe High Pre (ea Lev. 212 xx, and 16: ihaexiv). 3 A.B, Lovo, Herodolus, ibid. IT, section 37, pp. 168-169, Herodotus refers to the igen of ant n anc ent gp, although no Egyptian doraments hae yl been found to back up this claim, its actualy diffcut to helieve that the ancteat Bay: imal “A Rew Remarks upon516 P. GALPAZ-FELLER fected by these prohibitions. Nevertheless, some researchers attribute the prohibitions to an attempt on the part of the Egyptians to prevent assimilation or contact with non-Egyptians. A possible refe- rence to xenophobia might be seen in Genesis 43: xxxii, where the text uses the Lerm “abomination” (BWT in Egyptian). It is difficult to prove the validily of this argument, because of a scarcity of facts. In any case, each prohibition should be dealt with on an individual basis. # In the Bible, besides sporadic references, there are two detailed lists differentiating between “clean” and “unclean” foods: one is given in Lev. I]: i-xlvii, and Uhe second in Deut, 14: ifi-xxi. Although these lists specify which animals, birds, etc, are forbidden, the prohibited foods are not regarded as sources of defilement, despite their being termed “ritually impure.” Those who violate these prohibitions are not in themselves impure, and there is no Biblical injunction against contact with such forbidden animals (while they are alive). Nonethe- less, forbidden food can defile holy objects and places (Deut, 14: xxi). Levine stresses that, animals do have a certain element of holiness (@ rilually pure animal is distinguished by the food it itself consumes). tans regarded this legume as “unclean.” tn fact it is for more prob Fevers i true and that the Egyptions included beans in thei d the protein and carbohydrates contained in beans, tn the BayDk fed so far, elerences to beans are always postive ee, for exemple, J, Il. BREASTED, Vol. 4, phe 201, 360). Nonetheless, priests during the’ Plolemaie period stresed the point that they did not eat beans because they were regarded es an "unclean" vege Ele. On problems arking with regard to the text of Terodolas’ weling, see shove and. W. J. Danov, ef al pp-054 637, We'd. Dane eal ibid. pp. 178-174, 390-094 The seme direction is taken in explaining the sela of 2 foreign tues, the Nubean king Pige. See also Gamer-Wallert {Gr0}"p- 48; DJ. Brewer and M. F. Friedman (1980), p. 17; P.Blontt (1900), pp. 85: 16, 4 On “een” and “nels” foods, there i a considerable number of research studies, for example: J. Miwenow ibid, pp. 601 Mls B. A. Levine, The JPS Torah Gammentary: Levities (Jewish Publication Boiety, 1988), pp. 249-20; J.B. Hanus, WACO, vol 4 (Dallas, 192, p. 150, and bibliography. See also W. Mousron, tid, and Iibliograph "eB the dating of the laws in Ley. 11: Pxxxvit and Deut. 14: iia and on the links Between these laws, ace RK, Yeawes, "The Unclean Animals of Lev. 11 and Deut. 14°" JQM (NS) 14, duly 1992, 1-28 WL Monamy "The Literary Connection bevween Lev II. aiibads ond Deut. id: xiv,” CBQ 28 (1960), 271-277: B. B. Fine sxox, "The Biblical Dietary Laws and the Concepts of Ielines,” in J. A. EMERTON, ch Studies in fhe Pentteuch, V.t-Supp. al (Leiden, 1390), pp. 177-208, R Povzin, Kiet Hebe Fada Horta Typology of Bel etre Pro (ol 970}, Me Manan, Temples and Temple Service in Ancient Ierael (Oxford, 146-147, and Ages and fnatltions in he Bibte (Tel Aviv, 1972/73). pp. 187- 188 in Fiebrowls Ys Knowan, The Temple of Silence: Studies inthe Levels of Presly Grealiity tn the Bible Jerisalem:‘Mognes, 1072) {in Hebrew} B.A. Levine, “Researeh in the Priesity Source: The Linguistic Factor .* Brel: Israel 16 (1S61/82), 124-1 [in Hebrew] Fora different position, see A: Hunvinz, A Linguistic Stady ofthe Tilatsnship benno The Prcitly Sauce andthe Book of Bete, Cab, 20 (Pais. VeS2) ‘THE PIYE|STELA': ON “CLEAN* AND “UNCLEAN” SIT ee In the Biblical account of Noah's flood (Gen. 7: ii-iii), the text refers to pure and impure animals, and, in'the latter section of the account, Noah sacrifices “ritually pure animals and birds” (Gn. 8: xx). Refe. rences to pure and impure food are made throughout all the various periods of ancient Jewish history (Judges 8: v, vii, xiv; Ezek. 4: xiv, 83; xxv-xxvi; 1 Daniel I: viii ete). : The Bible prohibits the consumption of certain Lypes of fish ant twenty birds. As stated in the Bible, the pig, Ishin oanunistiea i also prohibited, is the only animal with a cleft hoof that does not chew its cud. CIRCUMCISION AS A MEANS OF PURIFICATION? According to the Piye stela, those who ate fish and who were not circumcised could not enter the royal palace. The Ptolomeic inscrip- tion in the Isis temple in Philae forbids Lhose who have eaten probibi- ted foods and who have not been circumcised from entering the temple. Is there a link between prohibited foods and circumcision, ot ‘are these separate categories, each of which plays a role with regard to the obligation of purification? Is there special significance in the fact that these two categories are adjacent in the Bible as well? In Lev. 11, we find a detailed list of prohibited foods, while, in the follo- wing chapter, there is a reference to circumcision. The reference to these two categories in a single context apparently appears in Isaiah 51: i, where we read: “for neither an uncircumcised nor a defi- Jed person will enter you (= Jerusalem)”. * J; Miugnon, “Bthies and Ritual: The Foundations of the Biblia Detar E. B.Firmage, J. W. Welch and B. Weis, ede, fetigion and Laur Bibi. sadot and {ganie Persecoes (Winona, Lake, IN, 199; J uanos, Leica 8 (am York ‘(on this stu, te U. Uma, “Schweine, Schweinknochen und ein Speier lin lian ‘eral? “V7 $9 (1908)" 286-258 and bon te Tudo" Vauny ide P Jerusalem; there ere, thus, several choles who suggest at the Hebrow word a Ya ay tsar er ssl the code of data lve teed to protect Jounal em uncon fh figesPiSesk Sat pag Senta i518 P. GALPAZ-FELLER Testimony to circumcision in ancient Egypt is given in engravings that date from the Old Kingdom and which depict the act of cir- cumeision. * On the basis of these engravings, it can be assumed that, in most cases, the Egyptians cut the foreskin in a V-shape or in a straight Tine along the length of the phallus without actually remo- ving the foreskin. There are ancient. Egyptian paintings where we can see naked men who have been circumcised, and some embalmed Egyptians have been found to be circumcised. Apparently, the act of circumeision was carried out with a flint knife, %* In Ankh-ma-Hor's tomb, there are two scenes connected with eir- cumcision. The topic of the engraving is a puberty rite, and we can see women who are bending over and holding a child. It is hard to determine the age of the circumcised Egyption males, although it seems that they are in their late childhood. At times, several people are circumcised simultaneously, as we can sce in the UHA stela dating from the First. Intermediate Period. Despite the many findings, itis difficult to state whether the prac- tice of circumcision was widespread in all sectors of Une populace or only in the priesthood. To date, no evidence has been discovered to indicate that circumcision was an act binding on all Egyptian males. ‘The reason for circumcision is not indicated specifically in Egyptian documents, and, only in later Greek documents, does Herodotus explain the act as a means for maintaining purity. Prohibitions on certain foods are also considered to be a purifying ‘element, and it might be that the link in the Piye stela between these prohibitions and circumcision is based on the Isis and Osiris myth. ‘The complete version of this myth can be found in the writings of Plutarch (first century B.C.E.). According to this version, Isis tried to put together the torn body of Osiris, who had been ripped apart. by % 6. de Wir, "La ciconcision chez les anciens Egypliens." ZAS 99 (1972), 41-48; 4.N. Sasson, “Circumetsion in the Ancient Near ‘Rast;" JBL 89 (1966), 473-476; ‘Wont, The Medical Skile of Ancient Epypt (Estes, 1989), pp. 9687. SA" Piuurr, "De nafsance ede erconcsion dans le Temple Nord-Bat de Mout & Karak," ASAE 82 (1968), 725104, exp. p. 98;.C. de. Wit, pp. 44 ft 3. N. Sasson, p. 479. Sason's assumption thatthe wor entered the Egyptian fexicon from the north E not convincing. wis" Gxpants Une rue de lombeaus & Saggarah (Brastls, 1908), 1, pl. bx, D. Dunuaon, Nage, ede Sllaof the Fire! Inlermeltate Period (Landon, 1937) ph. atx 30, 84) W. Wearnnoonr,. “Beschneldung.” LA 1 (1979), 728 de. Wrr, p42. P. Wenouawp, “Zur Geschichte der Beachneidung.” Archiv fir Papyrasforckang 3 (190g), 2-37; W. Waseinsks, Alles su ellégyplischen Kultur geschichle HH (Leitig, 1580), 2.25, "8 ACN. Lov, pp 15715, 16; on in evords, ee he comments on pp. 18 and DN "CLEAN" AND “UNCLEAN™ 519 Seth, It soon became clear to her, however, that Osiris’ phallus had been eaten by three fish, identified with the forces of evil, namely with Seth: morymyrus (oxyrhynchus), lepidotus (Nile carp), and pha- grus (which is difficult to identify).*” : While this version is late and raises certain problems as to authenti- city, it is based on an ancient Egyptian tradition. In the Tale of Two Brothers, we find a similar motif, when Bata, seeking to prove his innocence, flings his phallus into the Nile. The phallus is subsequently gaten by a catfish. The roots of this myth appear in the Shepherd’s Song, which dates from the Old Kingdom and which is found in the two tombs in Saqqara.## In a Philae document, where both prohibitions on food and ci cumeision are referred to as being factors in purification, the two categories are presented as separate entities: uncircumcised males and impure animals, both of which groups are banned from entry into the temple, * Gireum n_was the frst commandment given to Abrahain (Gen. 17: ix-xiv). This commandment is binding on all Israelites and is regarded as an eternal covenant, between God on the one hand and Abraham arid his descendants on the other. Because of circumcision’s importance in Judaism, detailed laws are provided on such points as: who is required lo be circumcised, how and when the act should be carried out, ete, The Biblical text explicitly mentions flint swords as circumcision instruments (Joshua 5: fi and in subsequent. phrases; Num. 4: xxiv-xxvi). In the cultures of the Near East, circumcision was an element of the puberty ceremony that prepared the youth for marriage. Ishmael an i ih rt te 2 a ne Sine Bitte ENG Gb, Mo 0, ie OO Ancient Egyptian Lit ; Lacerni, Ancien Egyptian Literature, vol. 11 (Berkeley, 1976), pp: 200-214, 0p 2063 TH Aureniduten. “Bemerkangen, sum. Hinsnlied dea Avex” Reches Ge 48 G7, 11 31. 2 Here the document distinguishes between prohibited foods and prohibited ani tals, with regard to entry to the Lampe. in Junker’ view:the sctpton tate sa tele hat make os, Such animals are ciloded, because the montana of enc an important clement in temple worship and service. The priests themelves ae commanded. to maintain ‘silence, See’ J. Junker, p. 184, The insertion serves to Temind those entering the temple to avoid bringing in pants or'a certain forbden fruit. Furthermore, the would-be visitors are cautioned nat to eat ths tot difcte to identity the forbidden frit im question, Iv is interesting to hots tha the trial mentioned in the pyramid inact puons (Pye 205) se Sn RO, Pavuxs nen, p. 207.520 P. GALPAZ-FELLER was circumcised at puberty (Gon. 17: xxv), and il can be assumed that this was the age of circumcision in two other Biblical texts: the “bloody bridegroom” (Exodus 4: xxvi) and the Dinsh episode (Gen. 34: xv and subsequent. phrases). According to the laws of the Bible, the act of circumcision must be carried out on the eighth doy after the birth of e male child. ‘The covenant between the Israelites and their God required them to purify themselves: “You must be holy, because I am holy.” This sacred character is also attained through the probibitions on food. On the surface, it would appear that the link between @ commandment — namely, circumcision — and the list of laws detailing prohibited foods is rather strange. Citing Rabbi Smelai, Rashi explains that the juxtaposition of these two categories is not coincidental, Just as in the creation of the universe, the creation of animals preceded that of human beings, the Book of Leviticus presents the laws concerning the purity or impurity of animals (in the Shemini section) before the laws concerning human beings (in the Tazriya section). 'N, Leibowitz observes that all animals are given the power to be fruitful and multiply. With regard to animals, procreation is a fact of life, whereas, human beings are specifically instructed by God to pro- create and to do so with God's blessing. Prooreation in the human consciousness thus becomes a cognitive fact (Gen. 1: xxii, as opposed to 1: xxviii)" The act of circumcision is intended to remind human beings that they must not use the power of procreation like animals, that is, simply as an instinct. Therefore, when the Bible refers to animals, it links up, in an associative manner, the laws concerning pure and impure animals with the laws of human purity. Tt can be assumed that the Bible distinguishes not only between pure and impure animals, but also between pure and impure animals fas far as human consumption is concerned. Whereas pure animals remain permanently pure, human insles are impure from the time of their birth, Acts arid failure to act can purify human beings or render them impure, and circumcision constitutes a purifying action (Lev. 19). Moreover, circumcision is a symbol whose role it is to we UKoswaca, “The Bloody Husband, V7 (195, (4B; S, TaLwon, Tie ised eset Bete eet 3 (4), 98.26 [in Hebron J. Musnont gp} 5 Be Er ie ee ceri eremion eal OTS 9} Feenees Pee Bicody Bridegroom (Bx. aaivereh" Fark 25 01989), 1 H(i Hebrew) FY ssowire, Sader in Leieus, trans. and adapts fom the Hebrew by Aryeh sikh Tp Ts dp. 12 fh IN CLEAN” AND “UNCLEAN" sah remind human beings of their obligations vis-a-vis God with regard to the maintenance of purity:-In the course of time, circumcision has come to represent. not only a physical quality, but rather a spiritual symbol of inner purity. a ‘This brief paper can hopefully serve as an introduction to a broad, comprehensive study with regard to purify. Sueh a study would deal with purity in general terms and would, inter alia, try to answer the question: Are human beings impure because they have violated a precept or have eaten prohibited food? Furthermore, one can ask which segments of the populace, besides the priesthood and the mem- bers of the royal family, were required to carry out rituals of purifca- tion, and what, was the nature of these rituals? Similarly, it would be possible to initiate a research study that would compare the various cultures of the Near East on this subject. Jerusalem, March 1994 Pina Gatbaz-Feuusn, © On cireumelsion 28a syiibol of spiritual alii derem ive & ions Beak He Gee Ge Baek lesa Be ow xv.