BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

THE SEARCH FOR BETTER HEALTH

Answers to end of chapter revision questions
Please note that the following answers are sample answers only.
There may be many alternative answers to the same question that
are also correct. These are examples of correct answers.

Health and disease

1. Define
1
Define the terms:
(a) health
(b) disease.
Answer:
(a) Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing, and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
(b) Disease is any condition that adversely affects the normal functioning of any
part of a living thing.

CHAPTER

2. Discuss the difficulties encountered when trying to define both health and
disease.
Answer: When defining both of these terms, one of the difficulties encountered
is that when these terms are used in everyday conversation their meanings are
different.
A problem with the definition of health is that if the WHO definition is to
be taken literally then it would be very difficult to achieve a complete state
of physical, mental and social wellbeing at any one time. Another difficulty
encountered is the fact that different individuals have different perceptions of
what is healthy for them. Health is a fluid state that is constantly changing relative
to others and ourselves over a given time.
The definition of disease is very broad and, if followed closely, then something
as simple as a cut to our writing finger could be said to affect the functioning of
the body. Also to be taken into consideration is the fact that normal functioning is
at different levels for different people.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

3. Copy the following table and complete:

Answer:
Outline of how this process assists in the
maintenance of health

Process/structure

Definition

Cell differentiation

Cells mature and take on different structural

features, so that they become structurally suited
to perform a specific function in the body.

Cell specialisation

Specific genes are switched on in order to

perform a particular function in the body.

Genes

These are hereditary units that control the

production of polypeptides that make up the
proteins in the cell.

The maintenance of health is dependent on the

information stored in the genes. The production
of proteins that are responsible for normal cell
functioning, growth and repair are controlled by
the genes. Genes code for the proteins that are
responsible for the regulation of the cell cycle
and mitosis in healthy cells. The information
contained in genes also prescribes how and when
an organisms body tissues are maintained and
repaired.

Mitosis

Mitosis is the process of cell division by which

identical body cells are produced to allow for:
growth
repair of damaged tissue, replacement of
worn-out cells, and
genetic stability in which there is a precise
and equal distribution of chromosomes to
each daughter nucleus, so that all resulting
cells contain the same number and kind of
chromosomes as each other and the parent
cell.

It allows all cells to function normally and tissues

in the body to be repaired and maintained. If cells
are damaged through injury or disease, they are
replaced by the division of healthy cells close to the
injury or disease site.

Differentiation and specialisation enable cells

to work together in a healthy body to carry out
complex functions in a controlled and co-ordinated
way in order to maintain and repair tissues.
If differentiation and specialisation of cells do not
occur for any reason, the cells will not be able to
function effectively and processes in the body will
not be co-ordinated.

4. Analyse the links between gene expression and the maintenance and repair of
b
d ti
l d an example
l iin your answer.
body
tissues. IInclude
Answer: Gene expression involves the switching on of genes so that the relevant
proteins that they code for are produced. Many genes code for proteins that are
responsible for the control of the maintenance and repair of body tissues. If these
genes are expressed properly then the maintenance and repair of body tissues
occurs as it should. Problems with the normal maintenance and repair processes
will occur if the relevant genes are not expressed properly due to such things as
mutation of the genes.
For example, the BRCA1 gene is responsible for coding proteins that repair
the PTEN gene. This PTEN gene controls the cell cycle and mitosis required for
the repair and replacement of dead and damaged cells. When the BRCA1 gene
is expressed properly, the damaged PTEN genes are repaired and the cell cycle is
controlled.
If the BRCA1 gene is mutated, then it is not expressed properly, the PTEN
gene is not repaired and the cell cycle is not controlled. Rather than the body
tissues being maintained and repaired, the cells undergo uncontrolled division
and tumours develop.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

The importance of hygiene

1. Distinguish between the terms infectious and non
1
non-infectious
infectious and give two
examples of each type of disease.
Answer: An infectious disease is one that has been caused by a pathogen and can
be transferred from one person to another, whereas a non-infectious disease is one
that is not caused by an organism and, with the exception of inherited diseases,
cannot be passed from one person to another.
Infectious disease examples: measles, AIDS
Non-infectious disease examples: Down syndrome, lung cancer
2. Identify the name given to an organism or infective agent that has the conditions
necessary to cause a disease and list the different types of these organisms or
infective agents.
Answer: A pathogen is an organism or infective agent that causes disease. The
different types of pathogens are prions, viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi and
macro-parasites.
3. Describe three ways in which pathogens can be transmitted.
Answer: Three ways in which a pathogen can be transmitted are:
1. direct, where the pathogens pass directly from person to person
2. indirect, where the pathogen is transferred from the environment (e.g. air, food
and water) to the person
3. by being carried by another organism (a vector).
4. Describe a first-hand investigation that you carried out to identify microbes in
food or in water.
Answer: To investigate the microbes in water we followed these steps.
1. Four different sources of water were collected. These sources were tap water,
bottled water, pond water and water from a bottle that had been used and
refilled constantly over a 1-week period.
2. Five sterile nutrient agar plates were obtained.
3. One plate was left unexposed to act as a control, sealed and labelled.
4. The bench was cleared of unnecessary equipment and then wiped down with
alcohol to sterilise the working area.
5. An inoculating loop was sterilised in the correct manner and a sample from
one of the sources was collected in the loop.
6. This was then spread out on the agar plate while the lid was lifted slightly and
the opening pointed away from any members of the class.
7. The agar plate was then sealed tightly with sticky tape around the edge and
labelled around the edge of the underside of the plate with the group name,
the date and the source of the water.
8. Steps 5 to 7 were repeated using each of the other sources of water.
9. The Petri dishes were then stacked upside down and placed in an incubator
set at approximately 30C for a period of 1 week.
10. The dishes were observed on a regular basis and the number of different
bacterial and fungal colonies recorded. Descriptions and diagrams of the
characteristics of each colony were also recorded.
11. A comparison of the number and types of colonies was made between the
different water sources.
12. All Petri dishes and equipment were disposed of safely.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

5. Explain why precautions such as swabbing the bench with alcohol, sterilising the
inoculating loop and lifting the lid of the agar plate away from you at an angle of
no greater than 45C were all used in the investigation described in the previous
question.
Answer: These are all sterile techniques designed to reduce the risk of microbes
from sources other than those being tested from landing on the agar and being
cultured.
By swabbing the bench, any microbes will be killed and therefore the chance
of them contaminating the agar plate is reduced.
Sterilising the inoculating loop kills any microbes already on there and therefore
reduces the risk of contamination of the plate.
Opening the lid of the dish at a small angle and not allowing anyone to breathe
on it reduces the risk of microbes from the air falling on the agar plate and
contaminating it.
6. Explain how each of the following assists in the control of disease:
(a) cleanliness in personal hygiene practices
(b) cleanliness in food practices
(c) cleanliness in water practices.
Answer:
(a) (i) Personal hygiene practices are important because they involve keeping our
bodies and any openings into them clean to reduce the risk of pathogens
entering our bodies, or transmission of these pathogens to others, thus
causing disease. It also inhibits the build-up of micro-organisms on our
bodies.
Good personal hygiene practices that should be followed are the
washing of hands with soap before eating and after going to the toilet,
washing the body and hair regularly and cleaning the teeth daily.
Coughing or sneezing should also be done into a tissue or handkerchief.
(ii) Community hygiene practices are important as they help to prevent the
build-up of pathogenic organisms in the community and reduce the
spread of disease.
Good community hygiene practices involve the efficient removal of
waste and sewage, sterilisation and disinfection of equipment in hospitals,
doctors surgeries etc., and planning to prevent overcrowding.
(b) The more closely cleanliness in food practices is followed when storing,
preparing and serving food, the smaller the chance of bacteria in the food
multiplying and being transmitted to individuals consuming the food, thus
controlling the occurrence and spread of food-borne diseases.
(c) It is important that cleanliness in water is maintained in order to minimise the
risk of pathogens multiplying and to reduce the risk of the transmission of
pathogens in contaminated water. The treatment of water to destroy pathogens
and prevent further multiplication will reduce transmission of disease and is
very important in the successful control of disease.
7. Describe the processes involved in the treatment of water to ensure that it meets
the guidelines required by the National Health and Medical Research Council to
make it safe for drinking.
Answer: A combination of coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation; filtration
(to remove particulate matter); and disinfection (to kill or inactivate microbiological
organisms) is the most widely applied water treatment technology around the world.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

Sedimentation, coagulation and flocculation

Some particles will settle out from still water in the process called sedimentation.
When particles are slow to settle or will not settle, a coagulant is added to the
water, causing the particles to stick together and form larger particles called floc.
This process is called flocculation. The floc will either sink and be removed as
sludge, or float and be skimmed off the top.
Filtration
Whatever particles are left in the water are removed by the process of filtration.
This occurs in many cases by the water being passed through a bed of fine
sand particles. Membrane filtration in the form of microfiltration (passing water
at pressure through membranes with a small pore size) is the most widely used
method of filtration in Australia.
Disinfection
After all the particulate matter has been removed from the water, it is disinfected,
usually by adding chlorine in some form. Other methods of disinfection include
treating the water with ozone or irradiation with ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
If chlorination is used for disinfection, enough should be added to ensure that
the water remains free of micro-organisms on its journey to the consumers.
8. Explain how the methods described in the previous question reduce the risk
of infection from pathogens.
Answer: Sedimentation, coagulation and flocculation are very effective at removing
fine suspended particles that attract and hold bacteria and viruses to their surface.
They can remove up to 99.9% of the bacteria and 99% of the viruses from water
supplies. This reduces the risk of infection from pathogens.
Filtration can remove some of the larger micro-organisms from the water, which
again will reduce the risk of infection from pathogens in the water.
Disinfection will kill any remaining pathogens in the water, further reducing the
risk of infection.

Infectious disease
1. Describe the contributions of:
(a) Louis Pasteur
(b) Robert Koch
to our understanding of infectious disease.
Answer:
(a) Louis Pasteur
Found that micro-organisms are responsible for the spoiling of wine and
beer and found that they could be killed by heating them to a certain
temperature, which led to the process of pasteurisation.
Disproved the theory of spontaneous generation and showed that the
micro-organisms that were responsible for causing disease and decay
came from the air and did not just appear out of nowhere. He showed this
with his swan-necked flask experiment.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

Produced vaccines that prevented organisms from developing a disease

when exposed to the micro-organism that causes it. He developed a
vaccine for chicken cholera and anthrax.
Was the first to use a vaccine on humans, using the vaccine he had
developed for rabies.
(b) Robert Koch
Developed many bacteriological techniques, such as the agar plate
technique to grow colonies of micro-organisms, which are still in use today.
Showed that there is a specific micro-organism for each type of disease.
Developed Kochs postulates to be used to determine which microorganism is responsible for causing a particular disease.
Identified the bacteria that were responsible for causing tuberculosis and
cholera.
2. Outline Kochs postulates. Identify one of the limitations of these postulates.
Answer: Kochs postulates are:
1. The same micro-organism must be present in every diseased host.
2. The micro-organism must be isolated and cultured in the laboratory and
accurately described and recorded.
3. When a sample of the pure culture is inoculated into a healthy host, this host
must develop the same symptoms as the original host.
4. The micro-organism must be able to be isolated from the second host and
cultured and identified as being the same as the original species.
Kochs postulates cannot be used successfully with diseases that are peculiar only
to humans, as there are ethical guidelines that prevent humans acting as healthy
hosts to be inoculated with the micro-organism being tested.
3. Describe an experiment to show how you modelled Pasteurs experiment. Assess
the validity of your model.
Answer: When we modelled Pasteurs experiment, we used the following
equipment:
beef broth made using beef stock cubes, filtered to remove any cloudiness
two conical flasks, each with a single-hole stopper to fit
glass tubing bent into an S-shape fitted into one of the stoppers
straight glass tubing fitted into the other stopper
heating equipment.
We carried out the experiment using the following method:
1. Add the filtered beef broth to each of the flasks until they are approximately
one-third full.
2. Fit the stoppers, one with the straight tubing and the other with the S-shaped
tubing, to the flasks.
3. Heat each flask so that it boils gently for 15 minutes. Ensure that after boiling
there is a small amount of water trapped in the S-bend.
4. Leave both flasks in a warm position out of direct sunlight for several weeks.
5. Every 2 or 3 days, observe the contents of each flask. Look for cloudiness,
scum, bubbles and fungal colonies. Record any changes.
Our model is valid for the following reasons:
A nutrient broth was provided to allow the micro-organisms to grow when they
came into contact with it.
We used flasks that had a bend in them to trap the microbes from the air and
prevented them from reaching the broth, just as Pasteur did.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

We also used another flask, with a straight tube that allowed microbes to enter,
to show what would happen when the broth was exposed to the air. This acted
as a control.
We ensured that all flasks, with their broth and their tubing, were heated and
the broth was boiled for at least 15 minutes so that all micro-organisms that
were present in both the broth and the tubing were killed and the equipment
was sterile.
We also ensured that sterilised water was trapped in the S-bend of the tube in
order to trap the micro-organisms so that they could not reach the broth.
One limitation of our model is that the corks would sometimes become loose,
which may compromise the sterile conditions and allow micro-organisms into the
flask.
4. Describe characteristics that could be used to distinguish between the following
pathogens and name one example of a disease caused by each type of pathogen:
(a) bacteria and viruses
(b) fungi and protozoans
(c) prions and viruses
(d) bacteria and fungi
(e) protozoans and macro-parasites.
Answer:
(a)
Bacteria

Viruses

Cellularprocaryotichas a cell membrane

Non-cellulargenetic material surrounded by a

protein coat

Reproduces by dividing in two

Cannot reproduce by itselfmust get genetic

material into a cell so the cell can copy it many
times

Larger than virus

Smaller than bacteria

(b)
Fungi

Protozoans

Cell wall

Cell membraneno cell wall

Single or multi-cellular

Single cell

Non-motile

Most are motile

Reproduce asexually/sexually

Reproduce asexually

(c)
Prions

Viruses

Proteinno genetic material

Genetic material surrounded by protein coat

Reproduce by coming into contact with normal

proteins in brain and changing them into prions

Reproduce by putting genetic material into a cell

and allowing the cell to copy it many times

Much smaller than viruses

Size 30300 nmlarger than prions

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

(d)
Bacteria

Fungi

Procaryotic cellno membrane-bound nucleus

Eucaryotic cellmembrane-bound nucleus

Cell membraneno cell wall

Cell wall

Size0.5100 m, smaller than fungi

Larger than bacteria

Reproduces by splitting in twoasexually

Reproduces asexually and sexually

(e)
Protozoans

Macro-parasites

Microscopic

Macroscopic

Single cell

Multicellular

Diseases caused by pathogens

Pathogen

Disease

Prion

Variant Creutzfeld-Jacob

Virus

Influenza

Bacteria

Meningococcal disease

Fungi

Tinea

Protozoa

Malaria

Macro-parasite

Tapeworm disease

5. Summarise the historical development of our understanding of the cause and

prevention of malaria.
Answer:
Time

Development

1000 CE

Chinese recognised disease.

240 CE

Anti-fever properties of qinghao plant described.

2000 years ago

Greeks described symptoms of disease and called it malaria.

2000 years ago

Greeks and Romans built drains to take away stagnant water.

Mid-1600s

Quinine, extracted from the cinchona tree, used to treat malaria in Europe.

1880

Charles Laveran discovered the pathogen that causes malaria.

1885

Golgi established that there were at least two forms of the disease.

1897

Ronald Ross discovered the main steps in the transmission of malaria and
identified the Anopheles claviger mosquito as the vector of the malaria parasite.

1898

Giovanni Grassi and Guiseppe Bastenelli showed that human malaria is

transmitted in the same way as malaria in birds.

1898

Measures such as draining stagnant water, spraying oil on water to stop

breeding of mosquitoes, and wearing protective clothing were carried out.
continued . . .

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

Time

Development

1901

Pyrethrum used as insecticide.

1930

Anti-malarial drug called Atebrin developed, but its use was discontinued due
to side-effects.

1944

Synthetic quinine developed.

Late 1940s

Chloroquine developed.

Late 1950s

WHO implemented a program to try and eradicate malaria.

DDT spraying, protective measures, biological control of mosquitoes.

1970s

Use of drugs as prophylactics to try and prevent the disease.

Incidence of malaria decreased.

1971

Chinese isolated artemisinin from qinghao plant.

1970s on

Many different anti-malarial drugs used by themselves or in combination.

Mid-1980s on

Incidence of malaria increases.

1981

Start of search for malaria vaccine.

2000 to present

Combination drug therapy that includes the highly effective artemisinin.

Netting treated with long-lasting insecticide and other protective measures.

Developments in understanding the cause

Developments in understanding the prevention

6. Explain why the incidence of malaria is increasing.

Answer: The main reason for the increase in the incidence of malaria is that
the malaria parasite is so successful at very quickly building up a resistance
to the drugs that are used to treat it. The mosquito that acts as a vector in the
transmission of malaria also quite quickly builds up a resistance to the insecticides
that are sprayed to try to control its numbers.
Other reasons include the fact that human populations in susceptible areas
are increasing both in numbers and density. Another reason may be that
pharmaceutical companies have not been devoting money to research into malaria
treatment because it is primarily a disease of the poor and developing nations.
7. Copy the summary table below and complete it using the infectious disease you
have studied:
Answer:
Disease

Influenza

Cause

Influenza is caused by infection with the influenza virus. Influenza A and influenza
B virus are the two main types of influenza viruses that infect humans and each
contain RNA surrounded by a protein coat.

Transmission

The transmission of the influenza virus can be either direct or indirect:

direct contactthe viral particles are inhaled through the nose and mouth in
droplets that have been exhaled by an infected person when they sneeze or
cough.
indirect contactthe infected person touches their respiratory tract and then
something else, such as a handrail. A second person touches the handrail
soon afterwards and then places their hand on their nose or mouth.
continued . . .

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

Disease

Influenza

Host response

The immune response is initiated by the presence of the virus in the body. This
produces antibodies and other immune response cells specific for the particular
strain of influenza virus that has infected the body. The immune response is
responsible for destroying the viral particles that have invaded the body.

Major
symptoms

Treatment

The main method of treatment is to relieve the symptoms and get plenty of bed
rest and drink extra fluids.
Bed rest allows the body to fight the disease and then recover. Aspirin or
paracetamol can be given to help alleviate headaches, sore throat and muscle
pain and to reduce fever.
Antibiotics are ineffective in the treatment of viral diseases, but can be used if
secondary bacterial infections develop.

Prevention

The primary method of prevention of influenza involves the use of influenza

vaccines. New vaccines are produced each year and are derived from influenza A
and B viruses that circulated the previous influenza season.

Control

To reduce the spread of the disease through the population a number of

strategies could be employed. These include:
the implementation of immunisation programs along with education programs
to encourage at-risk individuals to be vaccinated.
the isolation of infected individuals to reduce the spread of influenza
throughout the populationthis would include infected individuals remaining at
home to stop the spread of the virus to their work or school colleagues.
quarantine procedures followed to prevent the spread of the disease from one
country to another.

Fever
Headache
Inflammation of the upper respiratory tract
Sore throat
Myalgia (muscle pain)
Nasal catarrh (inflammation of the mucous membrane causing excess
production of mucus)
Coughing and sneezing.

8. Define the term antibiotic. Outline how different antibiotics work.

Answer: Antibiotics are chemicals that are capable of destroying or inhibiting the
growth of bacteria that cause disease.
Some antibiotics, for example penicillin, accumulate in the cells of the bacteria
and prevent them from forming a new cell wall when they are dividing.
Other antibiotics, for example amphotericin, destroy the cell membrane, thus
effectively destroying the bacteria.
Still other antibiotics interfere with protein synthesis so the bacteria are unable
to make essential compounds, resulting in the death of the cell. Erythromycin is
an example of an antibiotic that acts in this way.
9. (a) Describe how antibiotic resistance develops.
(b) Michael was suffering from a very bad cold and went to the doctor to get
antibiotics to make him feel better. Explain why the doctor should not
prescribe them for him.
Answer:
(a) When antibiotics are administered to treat a bacterial infection, some of the
bacteria present may possess a natural resistance to that particular antibiotic
and survive. They then reproduce and can quickly build up a population that
is resistant to the antibiotic. In conjunction with this, the bacteria are also

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

capable of passing this resistance on to other bacteria they come into contact
with, further building the population of resistant bacteria.
(b) Colds are not caused by bacteriathey are caused by viruses. Antibiotics
are used to treat infections caused by bacteria and therefore would not be
suitable to treat a cold. If the doctor were to prescribe them, Michael would
be increasing the chance of bacteria developing a resistance to the drug that
is being used.
10. Discuss some problems related to antibiotic resistance.
Answer: Antibiotics were hailed as a miracle cure when they were first introduced.
As bacteria began to develop a resistance to these first antibiotics, more were
developed. Strains of bacteria resistant to many of the antibiotics that are in use
today have now developed. One problem with the resistance of bacteria to the
more common antibiotics is that the diseases will be more severe and, because
they take longer to cure, there is a greater chance of them spreading throughout
the community. Another problem is that, in order to destroy the bacteria, more
toxic and expensive antibiotics have to be used. If the individuals or countries
cannot afford to use this more expensive cure, the disease will spread throughout
the population. For example, a multi-resistant strain of the bacteria that causes
tuberculosis is very hard to treat and many countries cannot afford the antibiotics
required to cure this disease. This leads to a large increase in the incidence of the
resistant strain of the disease.
There are now several infectious bacteria that are resistant to vancomycin,
one of our strongest antibiotics. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) and
vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are superbugs that resist all treatment
and if they were to become widespread in the community it would cause great
problems.
The current trend indicates that, unless there is a breakthrough in the
development of more effective drugs, our inability to successfully treat antibioticresistant bacteria could lead to the spread of the diseases they cause throughout
populations.
Factors that are increasing the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria are:
the overuse of antibiotics for many diseases and not just bacterial diseases
not completing the course of antibiotics when they are prescribed
feeding antibiotics to food-producing animals such as pigs and chickens to
enhance their growth
using cleaning products that contain antibacterial substances.

Defence of the body I

1. (a) Identify the barriers in the human body that make up the first line of
defence.
(b) Describe how cilia and mucous membranes work together to prevent the
entry of pathogens into the respiratory system.
(c) Explain why most pathogens do not survive in the digestive tract.
Answer:
(a) The barriers are:
skin

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

mucous membranes
cilia
chemical barriers
other body secretions.
(b) The mucous membranes produce mucus, which traps the pathogens, and
the cilia beat in an upwards direction to move the mucus containing the
pathogens out of the respiratory tract.
(c) If a pathogen makes its way past the saliva in the mouth and enters the
stomach, it will most likely be destroyed by the concentrated acid in the
stomach. If the acid in the stomach doesnt kill it then the alkaline conditions
of the intestine may destroy it.
py the following
g table and complete
p
it to summarise the first line of defence.
2. Copy
Barrier

Location in the body

Mechanism by which the barrier prevents

the entry of the pathogen

Skin

Covering the surface of the body

It forms a tough outer barrier that covers the

body and prevents penetration by microbes.

It is fairly dry, helping to prevent the growth

of pathogens.

It contains its own population of harmless

bacteria that help to stop the invading
microbes from multiplying.
Oil and sweat glands in the skin produce
antibacterial and antifungal substances
that further inhibit the growth of invading
pathogens.
Mucous
membranes

Digestive, respiratory,
reproductive and urinary tracts

They produce a thick layer of viscous mucus

which traps the entering pathogens.

Pathogens are held in the mucus until they

are removed by processes such as coughing
and sneezing.
The mucus can contain a chemical that
prevents bacteria and viruses from attaching
to the surface layer.
The mucus also provides a moist, nutritious
layer in which the harmless microbes live and
produce substances that inhibit the growth
and entry of pathogens.
Cilia

Chemical
barriers

Tiny hairs that line the

respiratory surfaces of the
trachea and bronchial tubes.

They constantly beat in an upwards direction

Alimentary canal

Pathogens entering with food or drink, or

Urinary and vaginal openings,

surface of skin

swallowed with mucus, will be destroyed by

the acidic conditions of the stomach or the
alkaline conditions in the intestines.
These are acidic, which inhibits the growth
of pathogens.

to move the mucus containing the trapped

pathogens towards the throat where they are
removed by coughing, sneezing or swallowing.

continued . . .

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

Barrier

Location in the body

Mechanism by which the barrier prevents

the entry of the pathogen

Other body
secretions

Urine

It is sterile and slightly acidic and flushes and

Tears

Saliva

cleans the ureters, bladder and urethra. It

helps to prevent the growth of microbes.
They contain lysozymes that destroy the cell
walls of some bacteria. As the tears are
produced and the eyelid blinks, the surface
of the eye is cleaned and the pathogens are
washed away.
It contains lysozymes and washes microorganisms from the teeth and the lining of
the mouth.

3. Draw a flow chart to show how the disease candidiasis can develop from an
i b l
i flora.
imbalance
off microfl
Answer:
Normal balance of microflora in the mucous membranes of the vagina

Numbers of Candida albicans kept in check by competition

from other micro-organisms

Antibiotics used to fight an infection

Some of the good microflora are destroyed

Increase in numbers of Candida albicans

Development of the disease candidiasis

4. (a) Describe what makes it possible for the body to identify cells that belong
to it.
(b) Define an antigen.
(c) Explain why organ transplants trigger an immune response.
Answer:
(a) Cells in the body have on their surface chemical marker molecules that allow
the body to identify them as belonging to it.
(b) An antigen is any molecule that is identified as being foreign and triggers the
immune response.
(c) When a person has an organ transplant, the new organ they are receiving from
somebody else has on the surface of its cells marker molecules (antigens)
that are different to the marker molecules on their own cells. The transplanted
organ is therefore identified as foreign and the immune response is activated
to attack the organ in order to defend the body.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

5. Describe how each of the following defence adaptations help to protect the body
against invasion by foreign particles:
(a) the inflammation response
(b) phagocytosis
(c) the lymph system
(d) cell death to seal off pathogens.
Answer:
(a) Inflammation response:
The inflammation response is non-specific and occurs at the site of
infection.
When the cells are infected or injured in some way, they release chemical
alarm signals such as histamines and prostaglandins.
These chemicals cause the blood vessels to dilate, increasing the blood flow
to the site of infection or injury and causing the area to become red and
warm.
These chemicals also increase the permeability of the blood vessels,
allowing the movement of phagocytes from the blood into the tissues so
they can attack the invading pathogens.
Plasma also moves into the tissues, bringing more phagocytes and
producing swelling in the area of the infection, thus forcing tissue fluid into
the lymph and taking debris with it.
Other chemicals that increase the temperature, which inhibits the growth of
bacteria, are released.
When the pathogens are destroyed, they are removed along with any toxins
and the tissues are repaired.
(b) Phagocytosis:
White blood cells called neutrophils and macrophages are two types of
phagocytes.
They are capable of changing their shape so that they can surround any
foreign particle, such as a bacterium, and completely enclose it within their
cell.
Once inside the cell, enzymes are released to destroy the foreign material.
This process is known as phagocytosis.
(c) Lymph system:
The lymphatic system is made up of the lymph vessels, lymph nodes,
lymph and spleen, the thymus, the tonsils and the adenoids.
As the blood circulates around the body, some of the plasma moves out
of the capillaries into the tissues, especially at the site of infection, and
becomes part of the tissue fluid.
The lymph vessels form a one-way drainage system from all parts of the
body back to a point near the heart where clean lymph fluid is drained
straight into the blood. The muscles that surround the vessels squeeze the
fluid in a one-way direction. Valves prevent the fluid moving backwards.
If there is an infection in the tissues, the foreign particles, along with dead
cells and other debris, move with the tissue fluid into the lymph vessels.
At different points along the lymph vessels, there are structures called
lymph nodes where the waste particles are filtered and the foreign particles
are destroyed by macrophages.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

(d) Cell death to seal off pathogens:

Sometimes cells die to seal off an area of tissue that is infected and is not
being successfully defended by the body.
If the infected cells are surrounded by a wall of dead cells, it prevents the
infection from spreading to other areas and infecting them. Macrophages
also surround the dead cells.
This wall of dead cells forms a capsule or cyst. The cells inside will then
die, causing the destruction of the pathogens that are infecting them.
The debris inside the capsule or cyst will be destroyed by the macrophages.

Defence of the body II

1. MacFarlane Burnet developed the clonal selection theory which allowed us to
better understand the functioning of the immune system.
(a) Define the clonal selection theory.
(b) Outline two other areas of research that he undertook to increase our
understanding of the immune system.
Answer:
(a) The clonal selection theory states that all the B cells and T cells for all the
possible antigens are already present in very small amounts in the immune
system of the body. When an antigen is present in the body, the B cell or
T cell that is specific for that antigen is activated, and then cloned so that the
antigen can be destroyed.
(b) MacFarlane Burnet studied viruses and how the body defends itself against
invasion by viruses. He also investigated the way in which the body can
recognise cells that are foreign and cells that are self, and how it can defend
itself without attacking itself.

CHAPTER

2. Outline some of the features of each of the following components of the immune
response:
(a) T cells
(b) B cells
(c) antibodies.
Answer:
(a) T cells are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland.
From here they move to the blood, lymph nodes, spleen and tonsils. Each
T cell has a surface receptor protein that recognises only one type of
antigen. T cells are involved in the cell-mediated immune response in which
cytotoxic T cells move to the site of the infection and release chemicals that
destroy the infected cell and the antigens contained within it.
(b) B cells are produced and mature in the bone marrow and then move to the
blood, lymph nodes, spleen and tonsils. Each B cell has, on its surface, its
own unique antibody that will identify only the antigen that matches it. B cells
are involved in the antibody-mediated immune response and, once activated,
produce plasma cells that make antibodies specific to the antigen. These
antibodies move to the infection site and combine with the antigen to render
it harmless.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

(c) Antibodies are proteins, called immunoglobulins, that are produced by the
plasma cells in the antibody-mediated immune response. Each antibody has
the shape that corresponds to the antigen that it is specific for, and joins with
that antigen to render it harmless by forming the antigenantibody complex.
3. Identify the different types of T cells and outline the role of each type.
Answer: The four main types of T cells are:
1. helper T cells
2. cytotoxic T cells
3. memory T cells
4. suppressor T cells.
Helper T cells: Each helper T cell will recognise only one type of antigen and
when it is present the helper T cell becomes activated. It then releases a cytokine
chemical called interleukin-2, which activates the cytotoxic T cells and B cells.
Cytotoxic T cells: When the helper T cells activate the cytotoxic T cells, they
are stimulated to produce many copies of themselves. These activated cytotoxic
T cells then move to the site of the infection, bind with the infected cells and
release chemicals that destroy the antigen-infested cell, stimulate the inflammatory
response and increase phagocytic activity.
Memory T cells: These cells are produced at the same time as the cytotoxic
T cells and are specific for the antigen that stimulated their production. They
remain in the body so that the body can respond more quickly the next time the
same antigen enters.
Suppressor T cells: When the infection has been defeated, the suppressor T cells
are responsible for stopping the immune response.
4. Interactions between the B cells and T cells are important for the correct
functioning of the immune system.
(a) Explain how the helper T cells are activated in the immune response.
(b) Describe how the activated helper T cells interact with both the B cells and
the cytotoxic T cells.
(c) Outline the process by which the immune system is turned off.
Answer:
(a) Helper T cells can be activated in two ways. One of these involves the
macrophage attaching a portion of the antigen to its surface and transporting
it to the lymph nodes. When this antigen-presenting macrophage encounters
a helper T cell that has a receptor that corresponds to the particular antigen
being presented, the helper T cell is activated.
Helper T cells can also be activated when a B cell that has encountered an
antigen and has attached it to the surface of their cell presents it to the helper
T cell that has a receptor that matches the antigen.
(b) The activated helper T cells release chemicals called cytokines, which activate
more helper T cells and cause the production of clones of the B cells that are
specific to the particular antigen. The cytotoxic T cells that are specific to the
antigen are also activated to produce clones of themselves.
(c) Suppressor T cells suppress the activity of the B cells and the T cells when the
infection has been defeated.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

5. MHC molecules are an important part of the mechanisms that allow interaction
between the B and T cells.
(a) Outline the structure and function of the MHC molecules.
(b) Identify the two different types of MHC molecules and outline the function
of each.
(c) Identify two other mechanisms that allow for interactions between B and
T cells.
Answer:
(a) MHC molecules are glycoprotein molecules composed of a carbohydrate
molecule and a protein molecule. These molecules occur on the surface of the
cells and allow the B and T cells to recognise that they belong to the body and
prevent them from attacking each other. This system allows the identification
of foreign cells, as these cells will have different MHC molecules.
(b) MHCI molecules are present on all cells that have a nucleus and are involved
in the recognition of antigens by T cells. MHCII molecules are present only on
B cells and macrophages; they are involved in the recognition of antigens on
macrophages by helper T cells and the recognition of antigens by B cells. This
then leads to the activation of the B and T cells by the helper T cells.
(c) Two other mechanisms that allow for interactions between B and T cells are:
the close proximity of the cells to each other
the regulation of their activities by the secretion of chemicals by the helper
T cells.
6. Explain,
Explain with the aid of a flow chart, how each of the following types of immune
response destroy the invading antigens:
(a) cell-mediated immunity
(b) antibody-mediated (humoral) immunity.
Answer:
(a) Cell-mediated immunity:
Foreign material is engulfed by macrophages, which then display the antigen
attached to their MHCII molecules.

The antigen-presenting macrophages move to the lymph nodes, where

they are inspected by the helper T cells that have the antigen receptor that
corresponds to the antigen being presented.

These helper T cells then activate the cloning of millions of cytotoxic T cells
and memory T cells that are specific for this antigen.

The cytotoxic T cells leave the lymph nodes and migrate to the site of the
infection, where their antigen receptors bind with the antigen displayed on the
infected cell.

They then release chemicals that destroy the cell and any pathogens within it.

These chemicals also increase the inflammation and attract more macrophages
that carry out phagocytosis to help destroy the pathogens and clear up any
debris.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

Some of these cytotoxic T cells produce a chemical, interferon, which protects

the cells around an infected cell from viral invasion.

Once the infection has been defeated, the suppressor T cells release other
chemicals to stop the production and action of the cytotoxic T cells.

The memory T cells that are produced at the time and are specific to that
particular antigen remain in the body in the lymph nodes and, on re-exposure
to the same antigen-containing pathogen, cause the rapid production of more
of the same cytotoxic T cells. This prevents the body from developing the
symptoms of the disease again.
(b) Antibody-mediated immunity:
Antigen-presenting B cells or macrophages move to the lymph nodes.

They are inspected by helper T cells that have the antigen receptor that
corresponds to the antigen being presented.

These helper T cells release interleukin-2 to stimulate the cloning of millions

of the B cells that are specific to the antigen being presented.

At the same time, millions of memory B cells that are specific for that antigen
are cloned. The activated B cells produce plasma cells that remain in the
lymph nodes.

These plasma cells secrete antigen-specific antibodies that then move via the
blood and lymph to the infected areas.

The antibodies then combine with the antigens to form the antigenantibody
complex that inactivates the pathogen or its toxin.

The pathogen is then destroyed in a variety of ways, depending on its type.

The inflammatory response is also activated, attracting phagocytes and leading

to the clearing of the debris.

The memory B cells produced can lead to short-term immunity (where

antibodies are secreted for 2030 days) or long-term immunity (where the
memory cells remain in the lymph nodes). On re-exposure to the same antigen
there is a rapid division to produce plasma cells that secrete a large quantity of
antibodies very quickly and prevent the re-infection of the body.
7. Describe the difference between each of the following:
(a) vaccination and immunisation
(b) naturally induced and artificially induced active acquired immunity.
Answer:
(a) Vaccination is the process of introducing a vaccine into the body, whereas
immunisation is the process by which the vaccine causes the body to
undergo the immune response in order to produce memory cells for that

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

particular antigen. This confers immunity on the body so that the next time the
antigen enters the body, the secondary response will occur and the body will
not suffer the symptoms of the disease.
(b) Active acquired immunity is the process by which the immune response
occurs and memory cells are produced.
It is naturally induced when an antigen enters the body, causes symptoms
of the disease and produces memory cells for that antigen.
Artificially induced acquired immunity is produced when a vaccine is
introduced into the body, causing the production of memory cells without the
body experiencing the symptoms of the disease.
8. Figure 5.16 is a graph that shows the amount of antibodies produced as a result
of the immune systems first exposure to a particular antigen.This person was
again exposed to the same antigen at six weeks. Complete the graph by drawing
in the expected shape to show the number of antibodies produced as a result of
this secondary exposure. Explain this process.
Figure 5.16
The primary
response to
the exposure
to an antigen
Concentration
of antibodies
in blood

10

Time (in weeks)

first exposure
to antigen

Answer:
When the antigen first enters the body, the process involved in fighting the
disease is quite lengthy as it takes some time for the numbers of B and T cells to
increase. Time is also required for the plasma cells to produce enough antibodies
to successfully fight the infection. In the process of the immune response, memory
cells specific to the antigen are also produced and remain in the body. This is the
primary response.
When the same antigen enters the body two weeks later, the memory cells react
quickly to its presence. Appropriate B cells, which form many plasma cells that
secrete a large quantity of antibodies very quickly, are produced. This destroys
the antigen before any symptoms of the disease are produced in the body. This is
known as the secondary response. See Figure 5.16a.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

Figure 15.6a
The primary and
secondary response
to an initial exposure
to antigen and then
a second exposure
to the same antigen
six weeks later

Concentration
of antibodies
in blood

10

Time (in weeks)

first exposure
to antigen

second exposure
to antibodies

9. Outline the way in which vaccinations prevent infection.

Answer: Vaccination is a process that introduces vaccines into the body. A vaccine
can contain cultures of micro-organisms that may be living but attenuated, or
dead. Vaccines may also contain toxoids. The introduction of a vaccine causes the
body to undergo the immune response and produce memory cells for a particular
antigen without suffering any symptoms of the disease.
When the antigen enters the body at a later date, the memory cells produced
after vaccination will cause its destruction before any symptoms of the disease are
produced.
10. Evaluate the effectiveness of vaccination programs in preventing the spread and
occurrence of once-common diseases, including smallpox, diphtheria and polio.
Answer: Many diseases, including smallpox, diphtheria and polio, were once very
common and caused widespread suffering and many deaths. Vaccination programs
have been one of the most successful methods used in preventing the spread
and occurrence of these diseases. Since the introduction of vaccination programs
such as the Expanded Program on Immunisation launched by the WHO in 1974,
the percentage of the worlds infants immunised against six target diseases has
increased from 5% in 1974 to 80% in 1997. This has prevented approximately three
million deaths per year. Mass immunisation programs are not only effective in
reducing the occurrence of disease in the individual, but have also decreased the
spread of disease through the population.
Vaccination programs have been very effective in preventing the spread and
occurrence of the disease smallpox. The program has been so successful that it has
totally eradicated the disease from the world.
Smallpox has killed more people than any other infectious disease and was
responsible for one-tenth of all deaths in Europe in the nineteenth century and
more than 300 million deaths in the twentieth century. Each year until 1968, there
were 1015 million cases of smallpox, resulting in two million deaths.
A vaccine for smallpox was developed by Edward Jenner in 1796, but it was not
widely used. In 1967 there were still 33 countries in the world where smallpox was
a major health problem. The WHO carried out a worldwide immunisation program
that involved routine mass immunisations, with supplementary doses given on

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

special immunisation days. People who missed out on the routine immunisations
were then targeted and special surveillance teams were sent out to all possible
cases of smallpox infection.
In 1979, WHO declared that it had eliminated the virus from the world
population and eradicated the disease smallpox.
Diphtheria is a deadly disease, often killing its sufferers within a week. Mortality
rates were very high, with two-thirds of the deaths being children under 5 years
of age. In 1921, there were 206 000 cases with 15 500 deaths in the United States
of America. Immunisation programs introduced in Australia, Europe and other
developed countries in the 1930s and 1940s resulted in a rapid decrease in the
incidence of diphtheria.
When the WHO introduced the EPI program in 1974, only 5% of children in
the world were immunised against diphtheria. By 1990, the percentage of children
immunised had increased to 80% and this resulted in a greatly decreased mortality
rate worldwide.
Polio is an extremely serious disease with death occurring in 50% of the cases
and nerve damage and paralysis in 50% of sufferers. After a safe vaccine was
developed by Albert Sabin, and following widespread immunisation, there was
a 6070% reduction in the incidence of the disease. Polio had become very rare
in industrialised nations, and the incidence further decreased after the EPI was
introduced in 1974.
A global Polio Eradication Initiative was launched in 1988 by the World Health
Assembly. When this program began there were 350 000 cases in 125 countries
of the world, with more than 1000 children being paralysed each day. In 1997,
almost 450 million children under 5 years of age were immunised during National
Immunisation Days.
By 2000, there were only 719 cases of polio, a 99% reduction in cases. At the
end of 2006, only four countries that have experienced uninterrupted transmission
of polio remained and fewer than 700 cases were reported.
The WHO aims to completely eradicate polio by the year 2010.
It can be seen from the success of the vaccination programs introduced for
smallpox, diphtheria and polio that vaccinations programs are one of the most
effective methods of reducing the spread and occurrence of diseases.
11. Our understanding of how the immune system functions led to the
development of vaccination programs to prevent infectious disease. Assess the
impact of the use of vaccination programs on society (include the financial,
health and social justice impacts on society).
Answer: Historically, infectious disease has been a major cause of death in our
communities. There was no treatment for these diseases until the development of
antibiotics, used to treat diseases caused by bacteria. The monetary cost of treating
these diseases was quite high for both the individual and the public health system.
The effect of these diseases on the sufferers and their families was in many cases
devastating. The burden on the public health system was very high. Inhabitants
of developing countries and poorer areas were disadvantaged in terms of having
a greater chance of contracting the diseases and a lesser chance of being able to
access any available treatments or cures.
As our understanding of how the body develops immunity to a disease
increased, methods of producing artificial immunity were investigated. Vaccines

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

that conferred immunity to the body without the body suffering symptoms of the
disease were developed.
Due to the success of vaccines in preventing the occurrence of disease,
vaccination programs were implemented to ensure that all children were
immunised against many once-common diseases, such as measles, diphtheria,
whooping cough and polio. These programs have had a positive impact on society
in many ways. They have decreased the incidence of diseases in the community.
This has led to a much higher level of overall health in society and decreased the
death rates from these diseases. Individuals do not have to suffer the symptoms
of these diseases and have a much better quality of life, free of any possible side
effects.
Vaccination programs have prevented many diseases. This has dramatically
reduced the financial burden for the treatment of these diseases and for the
continued support of individuals who have suffered side effects from the disease.
Families have a reduced financial burden, as does the public health system. Money
does not have to be spent on costly treatments for these diseases as the disease
has been prevented in the first place.
The WHO has implemented vaccination programs in many developing
countries so that all individuals, regardless of their socioeconomic status, are
provided with immunity to many diseases. This reduces the incidence of disease
in areas that are more susceptible to the spread of infectious disease because of
their crowded, unhygienic conditions. This also decreases the costs associated with
treating disease in the communities that can least afford it.
There have been many positive impacts on society due to the introduction
of vaccination programs. These impacts include a lowering of the incidence and
death rate of a disease, a decrease in the financial burden on individuals and the
public health system and providing equality across all levels in society in terms of
immunity to disease.
12. Outline reasons why drugs are given to suppress the immune response in organ
transplant patients.
Answer: When a donated organ is transplanted into a recipient, the organ has, on
its surface, marker molecules that are different to the marker molecules on the
cells of the recipient. The immune system recognises that the donated organ is
not self and treats the organ as a foreign invader. It mounts an immune response
involving the T cells and, if drugs are not given to suppress the action of cytotoxic
T cells, the transplanted organ will be rejected.

Non-infectious disease
1. Define epidemiology.
Answer: Epidemiology is the study of the patterns of disease in the population
and the factors that affect these patterns. It not only describes the disease and its
patterns, but also statistically analyses these patterns and then suggests reasons as
to the cause of the disease.

CHAPTER

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

2. Define the following terms:

(a) incidence
(b) prevalence
(c) morbidity
(d) mortality.
Answer:
(a) Incidencethe number of new cases of a disease in a given time period
(b) Prevalencethe number of people in a population affected by the disease
at a specific time
(c) Morbiditythe number of cases of a disease
(d) Mortalitythe percentage of the population that dies from the disease
3. Identify and describe the three main types of epidemiological studies.
Answer: The three main types of epidemiological studies are:
(1) descriptive studies, which provide information about the frequency of the
disease, which section of the population is affected, whether the disease
occurs in a particular area and if there was a particular time period in which
the disease occurred
(2) analytical studies, which are used to collect data and analyse it to try to
work out the likely cause(s) of the disease. There are two types of analytical
studiescase control and cohort studies.
Case control studies compare people with the disease and people without
the disease to try and find differences in their lifestyle, including differences in
their exposure to the likely causes of the disease.
Cohort studies follow groups of similar people who initially do not have the
disease. The only difference between the groups is that one group is exposed
to the risk factor that may cause the disease and the other group is not
exposed. These two groups are followed for an extended period of time and
the resulting incidences of the disease in question are compared.
(3) intervention studies, which are used to carry out clinical trials of new drugs or
evaluate the success of public health campaigns.
4. Identify and describe the main features of epidemiology using lung cancer as an
example.
Answer: The main features of epidemiological studies are:
There are large study numbersmany studies have been completed on lung
cancer; one of these by Hill followed 40 000 doctors.
The study should be carried out over a long time periodHills study was over
10 years.
A large amount of information from sufferers of the disease and those who
are free of the disease is collected. This information should be from a broad
range of people. Doll collected information from a large range of lung cancer
patients and those free of lung cancer. He established that there could be a link
between smoking and lung cancer.
Two large groups of similar individuals who do not have the disease are studied
for a long period of time. The only difference between the groups is that one
group is exposed to the potential cause of the disease and the other is not. Hill
studied 40 000 doctors, half of which smoked while the others did not.
Data is collected and analysed at the end of the study. Hills data showed that
the doctors who smoked had a much higher incidence of lung cancer than

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

those who did not smoke. His study also showed that the higher the number
of cigarettes smoked per day, the greater the chance of dying from lung cancer.
The possible cause of the disease is identified. From Doll and Hills studies, as
well as many others, it has been found that smoking causes lung cancer.
5. The rates of a certain type of cancer are much higher in a particular area of a big
city. Identify the main features you would have to include in an epidemiological
study to try to determine why this is the case.
Answer:
A large study group from a broad range of people both in the area of concern
and outside the area should be used. Information concerning all aspects of their
lives should be collected.
From this a pattern of the disease could be formed.
Two large groups of similar people should be followed over a long period of
time (e.g. 10 years). One of these groups should be exposed to the possible
cause of the disease and the other group should not.
Large amounts of data should be collected and statistically analysed.
The possible cause of the disease is then suggested.
6. Refer to Figure 6.10 and identify the relationship between each of the following:
(a) smoking and the death rate from lung cancer
(b) the number of cigarettes smoked per day and the death rate from lung
cancer
(c) age and the death rate from lung cancer.
Answer:
(a) Smoking causes an increase in the death rate from lung cancer.
(b) The more cigarettes smoked per day, the higher the risk of dying from lung
cancer.
(c) As age increases, the death rate from lung cancer increases.
Figure 6.10 Annual
death rate from lung
cancer

Annual death rate from lung cancer (x 103)

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
3544

5564

4554

6574

7584

Age
Key

heavy smokers (> 1 pack per day)

never smoked

all smokers

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

7. Distinguish between infectious and non-infectious disease.

Answer: An infectious disease is caused by a pathogen, while a non-infectious
disease is not caused by a pathogen.
8. Copy the following table and complete to summarise information about the
different types of non-infectious disease.
Answer:
Type of noninfectious disease

Description

Examples of diseases

Inherited

These are diseases that are caused by

errors in genetic information and are
transmitted genetically.

Down syndrome, cystic fibrosis,

haemophilia

Nutritional

Diseases that are caused by diets

lacking in vital nutrients

Scurvy, beri-beri, anaemia

Environmental

These are diseases that can be caused

by:
lifestyles that increase the risk of
certain diseases, e.g. lack of exercise
exposure to factors in the
environment, e.g. too much sunlight
exposure to chemicals in the
environment.

Cardiovascular disease,
melanoma, lead poisoning

9. Identify the non-infectious disease that you have studied and provide information
about its:

occurrence

symptoms

cause

treatment/management.
Answer: Scurvy
Occurrence:
Previously in sailors
Now in developing nations where diet is lacking in vitamin C
Also found in elderly people and those (such as alcoholics) whose diet is
unusual.
Symptoms:
Pain and tenderness in the legs
Swelling of the long bones
Swollen, purplish and spongy gums
Gangrene (degeneration of tissue)
Reopening of old wounds
Spontaneous haemorrhaging
Purple/black spots on the skin, indicating haemorrhaging
Separation of once-healed broken bones
Bleeding of the membrane covering the front of the eyes or the eyelids
Cause:
Lack of a sufficient amount of vitamin C in the diet
Treatment:
Inclusion of sufficient amounts of vitamin C in the diet

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

Prevention and control of disease

1. Identify the role of quarantine in preventing the spread of disease and plants and
1
animals:
(a) into Australia
(b) across regions of Australia.
In your answer describe some of the procedures used in quarantine.
Answer:
(a) The role of quarantine in preventing the spread of disease and plants and
animals into Australia is to protect the native flora and fauna, agricultural
industries, the environment and our health. It does this by:
having a strict policy of inspection at all entry points to Australia
isolation of all plants and animals that are permitted entry into Australia
so that any diseases or pests that enter with them can be identified
isolation of any people entering Australia with notifiable symptoms
having a specially developed policy governing northern Australia, as this
is the area that is most vulnerable to incursions by pests and diseases from
close neighbours
large fines and prison terms issued to those caught flouting our strict
regulations.
(b) Quarantine prevents the spread of plants and animals and diseases across
regions of Australia in order to protect areas that are pest and disease free.
This protects our agricultural industry and helps make our products attractive
to those countries where these diseases and pests are prevalent. It also
protects the native flora and fauna, our environment and our health. The ways
in which this is achieved are:
legislation by governments and territories that prohibits the movement of
certain items across borders or into exclusion zones
checkpoints to inspect goods being taken across borders
warning signs and quarantine boxes for the dumping of items that are
prohibited
large fines and prison terms.

CHAPTER

2. Define the terms:

(a) prevention
(b) control.
Answer:
(a) Preventionstopping the development of a disease in an organism
(b) Controlinvolves regulating the incidence of disease.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

3. Describe the quarantine measures you would have to follow or be subjected to

and explain how these measures protect Australia, if you:
(a) were bringing a horse into Australia to compete in a show-jumping
competition
(b) were returning to Australia from a holiday to an overseas destination and had
wooden beads and dried pork products in your luggage
(c) were a ships captain entering a port in Australia and you had on board
passengers who were showing the symptoms of a notifiable disease
(d) were entering the fruit fly exclusion zone in Australia and had some bananas
in the boot of your car.
Answer:
(a) The horse would be placed in an animal quarantine station for a period of
time. It would be inspected on a regular basis to monitor whether any diseases
have developed. The horse would not be released until quarantine officers
were satisfied that it was not harbouring any pathogens or pests. This process
prevents the entry of unwanted diseases and pests into Australia.
(b) The items that were being carried in your luggage would have to be declared
and your bag would be inspected by a quarantine officer. The pork would be
confiscated and the wooden beads may be allowed entry after treatment. This
ensures that no unwanted pathogens or pests are brought into Australia.
(c) The ships captain must notify quarantine officers of the presence on their
ship of individuals with symptoms that could be due to diseases that are
not present in Australia. The boat would be required to anchor offshore and
quarantine officers would board and inspect the passengers and the ship. They
would then determine the best course of action to prevent the disease from
entering Australia. This prevents the entry of diseases into Australia.
(d) The bananas would have to be dumped in the quarantine bins that are
situated on all roads into the exclusion zones. This prevents the spread of fruit
flies into the exclusion zone.
4. Describe the early warning systems that are in place in northern Australia and
explain their function.
Answer: The early warning systems that are in place in northern Australia include:
the use of sentinel animals such as pigs and cattle, which are regularly
checked for the occurrence of any diseases that are not present in Australia. If
any diseases develop, responses are quickly put in place to control their spread
and eradicate the disease before it becomes established.
insect traps for the early detection of exotic pests, which are used in the same
way as the sentinel animals
public education programs, which encourage the reporting of any different
pests or any diseases that have not been seen in Australia before. This again
allows swift responses to be carried out to control and eradicate the pest or
disease.
5. Describe two different types of evidence exhibited by:
(a) plants infected by a pathogen
(b) plants infested by an insect pest.
Answer:
(a) Plants infected by a pathogen will show symptoms such as blight, spots and
mosaic patterning on the leaf.

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Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.

BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

(b) Plants that have been infested by pests may show holes where they have been
eaten, and webbing or trails left by burrowing insects.
6. Describe the quarantine measures that are in place to prevent the spread of footand-mouth disease into Australia and evaluate the effectiveness of these measures.
Answer: The normal quarantine measures that involve inspection of cargo,
passengers, containers and ships at all entry points to Australia are followed.
X-rays, detector dogs and quarantine officers are used to inspect all entries into
Australia. Animal quarantine is also carried out. In addition to these measures, all
cloven-hoofed animals and their products are banned from entry into Australia.
People entering Australia from infected areas are subject to thorough processing
and may even have their shoes washed to remove any traces of soil. Mail from
infected areas is checked and travellers to infected areas are asked to be especially
vigilant when travelling to rural areas in the infected countries.
These measures have proved to be very effective, as Australia has been free of
foot-and-mouth disease since 1872.
7. Explain how the different strategies used in public health programs can control
and/or prevent disease.
Answer:
Regulations that govern hygiene practices in the food and health industries
ensure that pathogens are not transferred from one person to another. This
prevents disease.
Regulations governing the maintenance of a disease-free community by
treatment of drinking water, removal of rubbish and removal and treatment of
sewage all prevent the movement of pathogens throughout the community and
therefore prevent disease.
The notification of the occurrence of certain diseases enables swift responses
to be put in place in order to control the spread of disease throughout the
population.
Public education programs that encourage regular monitoring for diseases
such as breast cancer and prostate cancer allow for the early detection of these
diseases so that the chance of recovery from the disease is increased.
Childhood immunisation programs prevent the development of these diseases
in the population.
Public awareness programs attempt to educate the public about the dangers
of some activities and encourage a change in lifestyle in order to prevent the
development of the disease associated with the risk activity.

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Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.