Vedanta

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Vedanta (/vdnt/; Hindustani pronunciation: [eddandtd ], Vednta) or Uttara Mmms is one of

the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy. The term veda means "knowledge" and anta
means "end", and originally referred to the classical Upanishads, a collection of foundational
texts in Hinduism.[1][2][note 1] Vedanta also refers to various philosophical traditions based on the
three basic texts of Hindu philosophy, namely the Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and
the Bhagavad Gita.[1][3][4]
Vedanta adopted ideas from other schools of Hinduism such as Yoga and Nyaya,[5][6] over time
became the most prominent of the orthodox schools of Hinduism, influencing the diverse
traditions within it.[7][8] The term Vedanta may also be used to refer to Indian philosophy more
generally.[citation needed] There are at least ten schools of Vedanta,[9] of which Advaita Vedanta,
Vishishtadvaita, Achintya-Bheda-Abheda and Dvaita are the best known.[10]

Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology

2 Three basic texts

3 History
o 3.1 Earliest Vedanta
o 3.2 Bhedabheda and Bdaryana's Brahma Sutras
o 3.3 Between Brahma Sutras and Shankara
o 3.4 Gaudapada and Shankara
o 3.5 Bhakti
o 3.6 Integration of various schools

4 Vedanta philosophy
o 4.1 Basic questions
o 4.2 Common features

5 Schools of Vedanta
o 5.1 Bhedabheda

5.1.1 Dvaitdvaita

5.1.2 Shuddhdvaita

5.1.3 Achintya-Bheda-Abheda

o 5.2 Advaita Vednta

o 5.3 Vishishtadvaita
o 5.4 Dvaita
o 5.5 Neo-Vedanta

6 Influence

7 Comparison to Western philosophies

o 7.1 Spinoza

8 See also

9 Notes

10 References

11 Sources
o 11.1 Published sources
o 11.2 Web-sources

12 Further reading

Etymology[edit]
The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta = "Veda-end" = "the appendix to the
Vedic hymns". It is also said that "Vednta" means "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas".[note 2]
Vedanta can also be used as a noun to describe one who has mastered all four of the original
Vedas.
In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vednta' simply referred to the Upanishads, the most important and
philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vednta
came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads.
Vednta is also called Uttara Mmms, or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often
paired with Purva Mmms, the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. Prva Mimamsa, usually
simply called Mimamsa, deals with explanations of the Karma-kanda or rituals part of the Vedic
mantras (in the Samhita portion of the Vedas) and Brahmanas, while Vedanta explicates the
Jnana-kanda or knowledge part of the ran yakas (the "forest scriptures"), and the Upanishads,
composed after about 9th century BCE through the common era.[11]
The Vedanta school has been historically referred by various names, states Richard King, with
early names of the Vedanta school were Upanishadic ones (Aupanisada), the doctrine of the end
of the Vedas (Vedanta-vada), the doctrine of Brahman (Brahma-vada), and named after the
doctrine that Brahman is the cause (Brahma-karana-vada).[12]

Three basic texts[edit]

All sub-schools of the vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting the Prasthanatrayi,
literally, three sources, the three canonical texts of Hindu philosophy, especially of the Vedanta
schools. It consists of:[13]

1. The Upanishads, known as Upadesha prasthana (injunctive texts), and the ruti
prasthna (the starting point of revelation)
2. The Brahma Sutras, known as Nyaya prasthana or Yukti prasthana (logical text)
3. The Bhagavad Gita, known as Sadhana prasthana (practical text), and the Smriti
prasthna (the starting point of remembered tradition)
The Upanishads consist of twelve or thirteen major texts, with total 108 texts. The Bhagavad
Gt is part of the Mahabhrata. The Brahma Stras (also known as the Vednta Stras),
systematise the doctrines taught in the Upanishads and the Gt.
All major Vedantic teachers, like Shankara, Rmnuja, and Mdhvchrya, have composed often
extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the Gita.
While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, with its syncretism of Samkhya,
Yoga, and Upanishadic thought, the Bhagavad Gita has played a strong role in Vedantic thought.
[14]

History[edit]
Advaita Vedanta existed prior to Shankara, but found its most influential expounder in Shankara.
[15]
Of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the Brahma Sutras (400450 BC[16]) almost
nothing is known.[16] Very little also is known of the period between the Brahmansutras and
Shankara (first half of the 8th century BC).[16] Only two writings of this period have survived: the
Vkyapadya, written by Bhartr hari(second half 5th century[17]), and the Mndkya-krik
written by Gaudapada (7th century BC).[16]

Earliest Vedanta[edit]
See also: Vedas, Upanishads and Darsanas
According to Balasubramanian, the Vedantic philosophy is as old as the Vedas, since the basic
ideas of the Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas.[18] During the Vedic period (1500600
BC[18]) the Rishis formulated their religio-philosophical and poetical visions, which are further
explored in the Upanishads,[19] the jnna-knda of the Vedas.[20] The Upanishads don't contain "a
rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting
arguments".[21] This philosophical inquiry was performed by the darsanas, the various
philosophical schools.[22]
Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the Indian context texts "are only part of a tradition which is
preserved in its purest form in the oral transmission as it has been going on."[23] The Upanishads
form the basic texts, of which Vedanta gives an interpretation.[24]

Bhedabheda and Bdaryana's Brahma Sutras[edit]

Main article: Brahma Sutras

The Brahma Sutras of Bdaryana, also called the Vedanta Sutra,[20][note 3] are traditionally ascribed
to Bdaryana,[note 4] and 200 CE.[26] but "are best understood as a group of sutras composed by
multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years".[27] They were most likely compiled in its
present form around 400450 CE,[28][27] but "the great part of the Sutra must have been in
existence much earlier than that".[28]
The earliest stratum of sutras in the Brahmasutras is concerned with interpretation of the
Upanishads, especially the differences between the Chandogya Upanishad, the Brhadanyaka
Upanisgad, and the Taittiriya Upanishad.[27] Later additions were concerned with the refutation of
rival philosophical schools, especially Samkhya.[27] According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the
Brahmasutras reflect a Bhedabheda point of view,[27] the most influential school of Vedanta
before Shankara.[27][note 5]
Bdaryana was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.[29] He refers
to seven Vedantic teachers before him:[29]
From the way in which Bdaryana cites the views of others it is obvious that the teachings of
the Upanishads must have been analyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him and that his
systematization of them in 555 sutras arranged in four chapters must have been the last attempt,
most probably the best.[29]
The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in
the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and
producing its own sub-commentaries.[30]

Between Brahma Sutras and Shankara[edit]

According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out
in this period, but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and have not come down
to us today".[16] In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his
Sampradaya.[31] In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara
salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.[web 1] Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can
be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give insight into the development of early
Vedanta philosophy.[16]
The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the Siddhitraya by
Yamuncrya (c. 1050), the Vedrthasamgraha by Rmnuja (c. 10501157), and the
Yatndramatadpik by rnivsa-dsa.[16] Combined together,[16] at least fourteen thinkers are
known to have existed between the composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.
[16][note 6]

Gaudapada and Shankara[edit]

Main article: Advaita Vedanta

Gaudapada wrote or compiled[32] the Mn d ukya Krik, also known as the Gaud apda Krik
and as the gama stra.[note 7] Gaudapda took over the Buddhist doctrines that ultimate reality is
pure consciousness (vijapti-mtra)[9] Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the
Mandukaya Upanisad, which was further developed by Shankara".[33]
Adi Shankara (788820), elaborated on Gaudapada's work, and is considered to be the founder
of Advaita Vedanta.[9] It was Shankara who succeeded in reading Gaudapada's mayavada[34][note 8]
into Badarayana's Brahma Sutras, "and give it a locus classicus",[34] against the realistic strain of
the Brahma Sutras.[34][note 9][note 10] His interpretation, including works ascribed to him, has become the
normative interpretation of Advaita Vedanta.[36][34]
Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedanta school,
according to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of these early Vedantins and
Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated
by someone before ankara".[37] Shankara "was the person who synthesized the Advaita-vda
which had previously existed before him".[37] In this synthesis, he was the rejuvenator and
defender of ancient learning.[38] He was an unequalled commentator,[38] due to whose efforts and
contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant position within Indian philosophy.[38]

Bhakti[edit]
Main articles: Bhakti and Bhakti movement
Bhedabheda Vedanta schools played an important role in the rise of bhakti, such as
Suddhadvaita, founded by Vallabha[39] (14791531 CE), Achintya Bheda Abheda, founded by
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (14861534)[40] and Vishishtadvaita founded by Shri Ramanuja (1017
1137 CE).

Integration of various schools[edit]

According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century,
... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the
Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems"
(saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy.[41][note 11]
Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th
century were influenced by these philosophers[41] especially Vijnanabhiksu, a Bhedabheda
Vedantin.[46] Neo-Vedanta too was inspired by these thinkers.[46]

Vedanta philosophy[edit]
Basic questions[edit]

The schools of Vednta seek to answer questions about the relation between atman and Brahman,
and the relation between Brahman and the world.[1]
The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:[9]

According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.[9]

According to Dvaita the jvtman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is
similar to brahman, he is not identical.

According to Vishishtadvaita, the jvtman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but
not identical.

Sivananda gives the following explanation:

Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja
said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said:
"Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita
philosophy.[47]
All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of Satkryavda,[web 6] which means that the effect
is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is,
the world. Most schools of Vedanta,[35][web 6] as well as Samkhya,[web 6] support Parinamavada, the
idea that the world is a real transformation (parinama) of Brahman.[35] According to Nicholson,
"the Brahma Sutras also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been
the view most common among early Vedantins".[35] In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and
Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, Vivartavada, which says that the effect, the world, is
merely an unreal (vivarta) transformation of its cause, Brahman:
[A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The
myriad of beings are essentially unreal, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality
which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.[35]

Common features[edit]
Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some
common features, that can be called the vedantic core:[48]

Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as
found in the PrasthanatrayiThe Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad
Gita.

Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion. Actions are useful only for preparing
the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their
rewards must be renounced.

Bondage is subjection to Samsra, the cycle of death and rebirth.

Liberation is deliverance from this cycle.

Traditional Vednta considers scriptural evidence, or shabda pramna, as the most authentic
means of knowledge, while perception, or pratyaksa, and logical inference, or anumana, are
considered to be subordinate (but valid).[49][50]
Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes Vedanta irreconcileable with
Mimamsa.[51]

Schools of Vedanta[edit]
Subschools of Vedanta

A basic classification of the Vedanta theologies.[52][50][53][54]

[show]

Notes, references and sources for table

The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them
open to various interpretations. Over a period of time, various schools of Vedanta, with different
interpretations of the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras arose. There are three,[10] four,[55] five[39]
or six[56][note 12] which are prominent:

Bhedabheda, as early as the 7th century CE,[57] or even the 4th century[27]
o Svabhavikabhedabheda or Dvaitdvaita, founded by Nimbarka[39] in the 13th
century
o Suddhadvaita, founded by Vallabha[39] (14791531 CE)
o Achintya Bheda Abheda, founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (14861534)[40]

Advaita Vedanta, founded by Gaudapada and Shri Adi Shankara around 700 CE

Vishishtadvaita, also a subschool of bhedabheda, founded by Shri Ramanuja (10171137

CE)

Dvaita, founded by Shri Madhvacharya (11991278 CE)

Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although
their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in India.

Bhedabheda[edit]
Bhedabheda (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference",[57] existed as early as
the 7th century CE,[57] but Bdaryan as Brahma Stra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been
written from a Bhedbheda Vedntic viewpoint.[57] According to the Bhedbheda Vednta schools
the individual self (jvtman) is both different and not different from Brahman.[57] Bhakti found a
place in later proponents of this school.[57] Major names of this school are Bhskara (8th-9th
century),[57] Rmnujas teacher Ydavapraka,[57] Nimbrka (13th century) who founded the
Dvaitadvaita school,[57] Vallabha (14791531)[57] who founded Shuddhadvaita,[39] Caitanya (1486
1534) who founded the Achintya Bheda Abheda school,[57][58] and Vijnabhiks u (16th century).[57]
Dvaitdvaita[edit]
Dvaitdvaita was propounded by Nimbrka (13th century), based upon Bhedbheda, which was
taught by Bhskara. According to this school, the jvtman is at once the same and yet different
from Brahman. The jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita
from another. In this school, God is visualized as Krishna.[59]

Shuddhdvaita[edit]

Vallabhacharya
Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabha (14791531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti
as the only means of liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go',
'cow', also means 'star'). The world is said to be the sport (ll) of Krishna, who is Sat-ChitAnanda or, "eternal bliss mind".[59]
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda[edit]
Founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu[58] (14861534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the
philosophy of inconceivable one-ness and difference,[60] in relation to the power creation and
creator, (Krishna), svayam bhagavan.[61] and also between God and his energies[62] within the
Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition. In Sanskrit achintya means 'inconceivable',[60] bheda
translates as 'difference', and abheda translates as 'one-ness'. It can be best understood as
integration of strict dualist (Dvaita) view of Madhvacharya and qualified monism
Vishishtadvaita of Ramanujacharya while rejecting absolute monism Advaita of Adi Sankara.

Advaita Vednta[edit]

Shankaracharya
Advaita Vedanta (IAST Advaita Vednta; Sanskrit: [ddaitd eddntd ]) was
propounded by Adi Shankara (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru Gaudapada, who
described Ajativada. It is a[63][64][65] sub-school of the Vednta (literally, end or the goal of the
Vedas, Sanskrit) school of Hindu philosophy.[66] In the school of Vednta, Brahman is the only
reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole reality, it cannot be said to
possess any attributes whatsoever. An illusory power of Brahman called My causes the world
to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the cause of all suffering in the world and only upon true
knowledge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a person tries to know Brahman through
his mind, due to the influence of My, Brahman appears as God (Ishvara), separate from the
world and from the individual. In reality, there is no difference between the individual soul
jvtman (see Atman) and Brahman. Liberation lies in knowing the reality of this non-difference
(i.e. a-dvaita, "non-duality"). Thus, the path to liberation is finally only through knowledge
(jna).[59]

Vishishtadvaita[edit]
Vishishtadvaita was propounded by Rmnuja (10171137 CE) and says that the jvtman is a
part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that
in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman is asserted to have attributes (Saguna brahman), including the
individual conscious souls and matter. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but
mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds Bhakti or devotion to God visualized as
Vishnu to be the path to liberation. My is seen as the creative power of God.[59][note 13]

Dvaita[edit]
Dvaita was propounded by Madhwchrya (11991278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavd The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with Brahman completely, and in turn with Vishnu
or his various incarnations like Krishna, Narasimha, Srinivsa etc. In that sense it is also known
as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by srivaishnavism. It regards Brahman, all individual souls (jvtmans) and matter as eternal and
mutually separate entities. This school also advocates Bhakti as the route to sattvic liberation
whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to

eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively. Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or
sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sdhana), based on the souls'
inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the
immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the
primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is
performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but
Himself not affected in the least by the results.[59]

Neo-Vedanta[edit]
Main articles: Neo-Vedanta, Hindu nationalism and Hindu reform movements
Neo-Vedanta is a modern interpretation of Vedanta, with a liberal attitude toward the Vedas.[68] It
reconciles dualism and non-dualism,[69] and rejects the "universal illusionism"[70] of Shankara,
despite its reference for classical Advaita Vedanta:
Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aurobindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) have been labeled
"neo-Vedantists," a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins' claim that the world is illusory.
Aurobindo, in his The Life Divine, declares that he has moved from Sankara's "universal
illusionism" to his own "universal realism" (2005: 432), defined as metaphysical realism in the
European philosophical sense of the term.[70]
Mohandas Gandhi endorsed the Jain concept of Anekantavada,[71] the notion that truth and reality
are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the
complete truth.[72][73] This concept embraces the perspectives of both Vednta which, according to
Jainism, "recognizes substances but not process", and Buddhism, which "recognizes process but
not substance". Jainism, on the other hand, pays equal attention to both substance (dravya) and
process (paryaya).[74]
Neo-Vedanta developed in the 19th century, in interaction with and response to colonialism.[68]
With the onset of the British Raj, the colonialisation of India by the British, there also started a
Hindu renaissance in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism
in both India and the west.[75] Western orientalist searched for the "essence" of the Indian
religions, discerning this in the Vedas,[76] and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism" as a
unified body of religious praxis[77] and the popular picture of 'mystical India'.[77][75]
This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by the Hindu reformers, together with the ideas of
Universalism and Perennialism, the idea that all religions share a common mystic ground.[78] The
Brahmo Samaj, who was supported for a while by the Unitarian Church,[79] played an essential
role in the introduction and spread of this new understanding of Hinduism.[80] Vedanta came to be
regarded as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta came to be regarded as "then
paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion".[81]
A major proponent in the popularisation of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of
Advaita Vedanta was Vivekananda,[82] who played a major role in the revival of Hinduism,[83] and
the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the Ramakrishna Mission. His interpretation of

Advaita Vedanta has been called "Neo-Vedanta".[84] The popular understanding of Hinduism has
been dominated by this neo-Vedanta,[77][note 14] in which mysticism,[77] Aryan origins and the unity of
Hinduism[85] have been emphasised.[86][87][88][77]
These notions also served well for the Hindu nationalists, who further popularised this notion of
Advaita Vedanta as the pinnacle of Indian religions.[89] It "provided an opportunity for the
construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial
oppression".[90]

Influence[edit]
The Vedanta school has had a historic and central influence on Hinduism, states Nakamura:[7]
The prevalence of Vedanta thought is found not only in philosophical writings but also in various
forms of (Hindu) literature, such as the epics, lyric poetry, drama and so forth. What is especially
worthy of attention is that the Hindu religious sects, the common faith of the Indian populace,
looked to Vedanta philosophy for the theoretical foundations for their theology. The influence of
Vedanta is prominent in the sacred literatures of Hinduism, such as the various Puranas,
Samhitas, Agamas and Tantras. Many commentaries on the fundamental scripture of Vedanta, the
Brahmasutra, were written by the founders or leading scholars of the various sects of Hinduism,
and they are transmitted to this day as documents indispensable in the respective sectarian
traditions. The majority of the traditional and conservative scholars in India today, called Pandits,
are students of Vedanta, and an overwhelming number belong to the lineage of Shankara fivesixths of all Pandits, according to some authorities.
Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vednta Philosophy, Volume 2[7]
Frithjof Schuon summarizes the influence of Vedanta on Hinduism as, "The Vedanta contained in
the Upanishads, then formulated in the Brahma Sutra, and finally commented and explained by
Shankara, is an invaluable key for discovering the deepest meaning of all the religious doctrines
and for realizing that the Sanatana Dharma secretly penetrates all the forms of traditional
spirituality.[91][92] Gavin Flood states, "the most influential school of theology in India has been
Vedanta, exerting enormous influence on all religious traditions and becoming the central
ideology of the Hindu renaissance in the nineteenth century. It has become the philosophical
paradigm of Hinduism par excellence."[8]

Comparison to Western philosophies[edit]

Similarities between Vedanta and Western philosophical traditions have been discussed by many
authorities. Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world, since the late 18th century an
exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also
influenced western religiosity.[93] In 1785 appeared the first western translation of a Sanskrit-text.
[94]
It marked the growing interest in the Indian culture and languages.[95] The first translation of
Upanishads appeared in two parts in 1801 and 1802,[95] which influenced Arthur Schopenhauer,
who called them "the consolation of my life".[96][note 15] Schopenhauer drew explicit parallels

between his philosophy, as set out in 'The World as Will and Representation',[97] and that of the
Vedanta philosophy ascribed to Vasya in the work of Sir William Jones.[98] Early translations also
appeared in other European languages.[99]
In 20th century, comparisons between Advaita, western philosophy, and science took a high
flight. Brian David Josephson, Welsh physicist, and Nobel Prize laureate says:[100]
The Vedanta and the Sankhya hold the key to the laws of the mind and thought process which are
co-related to the Quantum Field, i.e. the operation and distribution of particles at atomic and
molecular levels.

Spinoza[edit]
Max Mller, in his lectures, noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of
Spinoza, saying
[T]he Brahman, as conceived in the Upanishads and defined by Sankara, is clearly the same as
Spinoza's 'Substantia'."[101]
Helena Blavatsky, a founder of the Theosophical Society, also compared Spinoza's religious
thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay
As to Spinozas Deitynatura naturansconceived in his attributes simply and alone; and the
same Deityas natura naturata or as conceived in the endless series of modifications or
correlations, the direct outflowing results from the properties of these attributes, it is the Vedantic
Deity pure and simple.[102]
The 19th-century German Sanskritist Theodore Goldstcker was one of the early figures to
notice the similarities between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta and those of the Dutch
Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza, writing that Spinoza's thought was
... so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder
to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, did his biography
not satisfy us that he was wholly unacquainted with their doctrines [...] comparing the
fundamental ideas of both we should have no difficulty in proving that, had Spinoza been a
Hindu, his system would in all probability mark a last phase of the Vedanta philosophy.[103][104]

See also[edit]

Monistic idealism

List of teachers of Vedanta

Self-consciousness (Vedanta)

Notes[edit]
1.

Jump up ^ Considered to be the final layer of the Vedic canon

2.

Jump up ^ Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History of Religions at the Union Theological
Seminary, wrote in Random House's The American College Dictionary (1966): "It [Vednta] is concerned
with the end of the Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically."

3.

Jump up ^ The Vednta-stra are known by a variety of names, including (1) Brahma-stra, (2)
rraka, (3) Vysa-stra, (4) Bdaryan a-stra, (5) Uttara-mms and (6) Vednta-darana.[25]

4.

Jump up ^ Estimates of the date of Bdaryana's lifetime differ between 200 BCE

5.

Jump up ^ Nicholson: "Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker,

Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the most influential school of
Vedanta before Sankara."[27]

6.

Jump up ^ Bharthari (c. 450500), Upavarsa (c. 450500), Bodhyana (c. 500), Tanka
(Brahmnandin) (c. 500550), Dravida (c. 550), Bhartprapaca (c. 550), abarasvmin (c. 550),
Bhartmitra (c. 550600), rivatsnka (c. 600), Sundarapndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600700),
Gaudapada (c. 640690), Govinda (c. 670720), Mandanamira (c. 670750).[16]

7.
8.

Jump up ^ Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine between the four chapters. [32]
Jump up ^ The term "mayavada" is still being used, in a critical way, by the Hare Krshnas. See [web
2] [web 3] [web 4] [web 5]

9.

Jump up ^ Nicholson: "The Brahmasutras themselves espouse the realist Parinamavada position,
which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins."[35]

10.

Jump up ^ B.N.K. Sharma: "[H]ow difficult he himself found the task of making the Sutras yield
a Monism of his conception, is proved by the artificiality and parenthetical irrelevance of his comments in
many places, where he seeks to go against the spirit and letter of the Sutras and their natural drift of
arguments and dialectic [...] he was fighting with all his might and ingenuity against a long line of realistic
commentaries."[34]

11.

Jump up ^ The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by
Burley.[42] Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and
Hindus,[43] and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other", [44] which started well
before 1800.[45]

12.

Jump up ^ Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the Shaiva Siddhanta philosophy.[10]

13.

Jump up ^ Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita was propounded by Sri Srinivasa Deekshitulu (950 A.D.).
It is primarily related to Vaikhanasa School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana
Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine
even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala
aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana'
(Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this
school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be
worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the
implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'. [67]

14.

Jump up ^ Also called neo-Hinduism[77]

15.

Jump up ^ And called his poodle "Atman".[96]

References[edit]
1.

^ Jump up to: a b c Raju 1992, p. 176-177.

2.

Jump up ^ Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin
Books, ISBN 978-0143099864, page 159, Quote: The Vedic or Classical Upanishads are sometimes called
Vedanta or "end (anta) of the Veda". The term occurs first after the end of the Vedic period, in the Mundaka
Upanishad (4th to 3rd centuries BCE?); (...)".

3.

Jump up ^ NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York
Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 35 with footnote 30

4.

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5.

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Ideas Project, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791447758, pages 96-107

7.

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Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120819634, page 3

8.

^ Jump up to: a b Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN 978-0521438780, page 238

9.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Raju 1992, p. 177.

10.

^ Jump up to: a b c Sivananda 1993, p. 217.

11.

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12.

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14.

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p.7. Motilal Banarsidass 1990

16.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Nakamura 2004, p. 3.

17.

Jump up ^ Nakamura 2004, p. 426.

18.

^ Jump up to: a b Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxix.

19.

Jump up ^ Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxixxxx.

20.

^ Jump up to: a b Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxxii.

21.

Jump up ^ Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxx.

22.

Jump up ^ Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxxxxxi.

23.

Jump up ^ deutsch 2004, p. 95.

24.

Jump up ^ Deutsch 2004, p. 95-96.

25.

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[1], pp. 240 pages, ISBN 0-912776-88-9 External link in |publisher= (help)

26.

Jump up ^ Pandey 2000, p. 4.

27.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Nicholson 2010, p. 26.

28.

^ Jump up to: a b Nakamura 1990, p. 436.

29.

^ Jump up to: a b c Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxxiii.

30.

Jump up ^ Nicholson 2010, p. 26-27.

31.

Jump up ^ Roodurmum 2002.

32.

^ Jump up to: a b Nakamura 2004, p. 308.

33.

Jump up ^ Raju 1992, p. 177-178.

34.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Sharma 2000, p. 64.

35.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Nicholson 2010, p. 27.

36.

Jump up ^ Nakamura 2004.

37.

^ Jump up to: a b Nakamura 2004, p. 678.

38.

^ Jump up to: a b c Nakamura 2004, p. 679.

39.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington,
Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools

40.

^ Jump up to: a b Sivananda 1993, p. 248.

41.

^ Jump up to: a b Nicholson 2010, p. 2.

42.

Jump up ^ Burley 2007, p. 34.

43.

Jump up ^ Lorenzen 2006, p. 24-33.

44.

Jump up ^ Lorenzen 2006, p. 27.

45.

Jump up ^ Lorenzen 2006, p. 26-27.

46.

^ Jump up to: a b Nicholson 2010.

47.

Jump up ^ Sivananda, p. 217.

48.

Jump up ^ Sheridan 1985, p. 136.

49.

Jump up ^ Puligandla 1997.

50.

^ Jump up to: a b Raju 1992.

51.

Jump up ^ Raju 1992, p. 175-176.

52.

Jump up ^ Sheridan, Daniel (1986). The Advaitic Theism of the Bhgavata Purn a. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass. p. 139. Retrieved 2012-12-12.

53.

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54.

Jump up ^ Gerald Surya, Review of "A Critique of A. C. Bhaktivedanta" by K. P. Sinha

55.

Jump up ^ Raju 1992, p. 175-200.

56.

Jump up ^ Sivananda 1993, p. 216.

57.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, Bhedbheda Vednta

58.

^ Jump up to: a b Sivananda 1993, p. 247.

59.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Vedanta on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia

60.

^ Jump up to: a b Gupta 2007, p. 47-52.

61.

Jump up ^ Kaviraja year unknown.

62.

Jump up ^ Prabhupada 1972.

63.

Jump up ^ "Consciousness in Advaita Vednta" By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass

Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.

64.

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Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.

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Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3

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Jump up ^ Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa

Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala
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69.

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70.

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71.

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72.

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73.

Jump up ^ Koller 2004, p. 400407.

74.

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75.

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76.

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77.

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78.

Jump up ^ King 2002, p. =119-120.

79.

Jump up ^ Jones 2006, p. 114.

80.

Jump up ^ King 2002, p. 123.

81.

Jump up ^ King 2002, p. 128.

82.

Jump up ^ King 2002, p. 135-142.

83.

Jump up ^ Dense 1999, p. 191.

84.

Jump up ^ Mukerji 1983.

85.

Jump up ^ King 1999, p. 171.

86.

Jump up ^ Muesse 2011, p. 3-4.

87.

Jump up ^ Doniger 2010, p. 18.

88.

Jump up ^ Jouhki 2006, p. 10-11.

89.

Jump up ^ King 2002, p. 129-130.

90.

Jump up ^ King 2002, p. 133.

91.

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Essays in Mysticism and Metaphysics (Editor: TMP Mahadevan), Arnold Heineman, ISBN , page 91

92.

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Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120815735, page 11

93.

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94.

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95.

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96.

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German by EFJ Payne. Dover Publications, vol. 1, chap. 1

98.

Jump up ^ Jones, Sir William. On the Philosophy of the Asiatics. Sir William Jones. Asiatic
Researches, vol. 4, p. 164

99.

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100.

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101.

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102.

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103.

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104.

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the Same?

3.

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Further reading[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Vedanta

Vedanta Treatise: The Eternities by Swami Parthasarathy

The System of Vedanta by Paul Deussen. 1912. Reprint 2007.

Forgotten Truth: The Primordial Tradition by Huston Smith

Theology After Vedanta by Francis X. Clooney

A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy by Hajime Nakamura

Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies and "Vedanta Sutras of Nryana Guru" by Karl

Potter and Sibajiban Bhattachrya

The Upanishads by Sri Aurobindo, Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry, 1972.

Choice Upanishads by Swami Parthasarathy

Vedanta: A Simple Introduction by Pravrajika Vrajaprana

Swami Bhoomnanda Tirtha Narayanashrama Tapovanam

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