Lauren MacGray

May 6, 2015
Professor Brown
Paper 3 - Final
Paper 3
Ballistics, which is the study of the motion of projectiles such as bullets or bombs,
is characterized into three main parts; interior, exterior, and terminal. Ballistics is the area
of forensic science that deals with firearms; how they are used, why they are used and why
they are used in the practice of murder (National Forensic Science Technology Center,
2015, P.1). A lot of forensic investigations involve shootings, where ballistics then come
into play. Ballistics plays a major role when studying the flight path of a bullet. This
specifically includes the movement of the bullet in the barrel of the firearm and its
movement through the air as well as the main target (MagTech, 2014). Examining the path
of a bullet is very crucial to reveal the direction the bullet was fired. This is very important
in cases where there is a large amount of missing, indefinite information. The main concept
of ballistics have been used in many cases involving forensic examinations. Ballistics was
crucial in convicting John Allen Muhammad and John Lee Malvo of the 10 sniper murders
and the wounding of three others in the Washington, D.C. area that occurred during three
weeks in October of 2002 (MagTech, 2014). Forensic science uses interior, exterior, and
terminal ballistics to effectively examine information and investigate crimes.
Interior ballistics is one of the most important concepts in which it determines the
projectile of the bullet when it is still inside the gun (Magtech, Interior Ballistics, 2014).
Interior ballistics is the study of a projectile's behavior from the time its propellant's igniter

is initiated until it exits the gun barrel (Magtech, Interior Ballistics, 2014). There are three
main durations when studying interior ballistics; the lock time, the ignition time, and the
barrel time. The lock time is the time from the trigger release until the primer is struck. The
ignition time is the time from when the primer is struck until the projectile begins to move.
The last duration is the barrel time. The barrel time is the time from when the bullet starts
to move and until it actually exits the barrel (MagTech, Interior Ballistics, 2014). All of
these times play a crucial role to the accuracy of the firearm. Another main concept in
interior ballistics is the burning of the powder, and the amount of pressure within the
firearm (MagTech, Interior Ballistics, 2014). It mainly focuses on the behavior of the bullet
within the gun as a result of the propellant, usually a smokeless powder. If the gas pressure
is too small, the projectile will not reach its target, but if the pressure is too much then the
gun could blow up (MagTech, Interior Ballistics, 2014). The three main duration times in
interior ballistics relates to forensic science because it can help determine the type of
firearm used in the crime.
Along with the different duration times, there are a numerous amount of steps and
processes that are significant in determining the type of firearm. The first step within the
firearm starts out with the source of energy, which is the burning propellant, which
generates the gases and the pressure. This then causes the projectile to accelerate because
the pressure pushes on the base of the bullet. As the propellant is gradually burning, there
is more volume in the bullet and as the projectile travels down the barrel, the volume of the
bullet increases (MagTech, Interior Ballistics, 2014). This is very important to users of all
different types of firearms and effectively describes the main process of internal ballistics

All different types of firearms will have different amounts of energy behind the
projectile. For example, bullets fired from a rifle will have a lot more energy than bullets
from a handgun, though the bullets may be similar (MagTech, Interior Ballistics, 2014, 7)
The friction, what holds the bullet in its case, is what determines how sudden the bullet
moves, the motion of the bullet increases but drops the pressure (MagTech, Interior
Ballistics, 2014, 6). It is a very significant concept that different types of firearms contain
and produce different elements that give off various results, which helps make conclusions
in forensic investigations.
Another major concept in ballistics that is very effective in forensic science is
exterior ballistics. Exterior ballistics deals with non-powered projectiles and deals with the
behavior of the bullet after it exits the barrel and before it hits the target (MagTech,
Exterior Ballistics, 2014, 1) Exterior ballistics deals mainly with gravity, drag and, if
present, the wind. Gravity comes into play where it causes a downward acceleration just
before it drops. It is also referred to as bullet drop (MagTech, Exterior Ballistics, 2014,
3). Drag/air resistance decelerates the projectile, and the wind makes it deviate from its
path (MagTech, Exterior Ballistics, 2014, 2). Wind actually has a range of effects. Not only
does it make the bullet deviate to the side, but the drag is what makes the bullet turn into
the wind, which keeps the center of air pressure on its nose (MagTech, Exterior Ballistics,
2014, 6). This is a very crucial concept in forensic science when determining gun shot
wounds and the direction the projectile came form. This is then what causes the nose of the
bullet to be tilted into the wind. So from a persons perspective, the drag is what is
ultimately pushing the bullet downward making the bullet follow the wind (MagTech,

Exterior Ballistics, 2014, 7). Overall, gravity, drag/air resistance, and wind all must be
considered when predicting how a projectile will travel.
The most common method to determine external ballistics is the use of ballistics
tables or software on the G1 drag model. Tables are made for firearms and tables or
computer control programs for heavy weapons (MagTech, Exterior Ballistics, 2014, 4).
They mostly play a role in mountainous areas where there is an enormous height difference
between the shooter and the target. They also make specific tables for these types of areas
and they are important for preparing cadets because they can be introduced to specific
military issues (Jonevicius & Pincevicius, 2011, P.112). But, if one shoots in a
mountainous area where the height difference is100 meters even, the calculation method
can vary (Jonevicius & Pincevicius, 2011, P.112). The use of tables in external ballistics is
crucial in predicting how much elevation correction must be applied to the sight line for
shots at various distances. The use of these tables can make it easier for forensic science
investigations in which they help determine the type of firearm through the type of ammo
used.
External ballistics can be determined by several different formulas, the most
popular and simplest; Kinetic Energy=1/2 MV^2 (WebPath, 1994, 4). Bullets do not
typically follow a straight line to the target, but they use rotational forces that keep the
bullet off a straight axis using the yaw, precession, and nutation (WebPath, 1994, 5). The
yaw refers to the rotation of the nose of the bullet away from the line of flight, precession
is the rotation of the bullet around the center, and nutation is the small circular movement
at the top of the bullet. These all make it so that the projectile does not flow in a directly

straight path, yaw and precession decrease as the distance of the bullet increases.
(WebPath,1994, 6).
All five formulas used in external ballistics play a role in designing cartridges and
bullets. Because the cartridge can be only so large to fit in a chamber, and the chamber can
handle only so much pressure from the gunpowder, the kinetic energy for any given
weapon is increased by increasing bullet mass (WebPath,1994, 7). Velocity, which is
dependent on the amount of burned gunpowder, is nearly impossible to increase. There is
only so much gunpowder that can be burned in a cartridge (WebPath,1994, 8). This can
also be very helpful at a crime scene all different firearms have different cartridges and
bullets.
External ballistics is also very efficient when it comes to reducing air resistance. In
order to reduce air resistance, the bullet would preferably have to be a long, heavy, needle,
this would go right through the target without dispersing much of its energy
(WebPath,1994, 7). Though light projectiles might release more energy, there is a chance
that it might not make it to the intended target. A good aerodynamic bullet shape is a
parabolic curve with low frontal area and wind-splitting shape and the best bullet
composition is lead because it has a high density (WebPath,1994, 7).
Another main thing associated with external ballistics is ballistic coefficients.
The ballistic coefficient is formally known as a measure of how well a bullet retains
velocity as it travels downward and how well it can resist the wind (McDonald, 2008, P.12). Even small changes in the size or shape of a bullet can cause a different airflow around
the projectile. This can very effectively change the drag on the bullet, which can cause
confusion when it comes to the crime investigation. It can also be crucial when comparing

two bullets, the one with the larger drag scale factor has a larger drag, whereas the one with
the larger ballistic coefficient has a smaller drag. Mainly, the ballistic coefficient of a bullet
is a number that divides the standard drag to predict the actual drag on the real bullet
(McDonald, 2008, P.1-2). In which, the standard drag is what you multiply the scale of the
bullet with to get the actual drag. External ballistics plays a very major role in forensic
science where it deals with the behavior of a non-powered projectile in flight.
Another main concept in ballistics is terminal ballistics. Terminal ballistics is the
study of the behavior of a projectile when it hits its target. It is often referred to as stopping
power when dealing with living targets (MagTech, Terminal Ballistics, 2014). There are
three basic classes of projectiles when dealing with terminal ballistics. The first one is the
one that is designed for the best accuracy at different ranges, which are usually bullets that
deal with long range precision target shooting. The second one is the one used to maximize
damage to a target by penetrating it as deep as possible targets (MagTech, Terminal
Ballistics, 2014). These are usually the type of bullets that are related to dangerous hunting
games. The third one is the one that is made to maximize damage to a target by deforming
to control the depth to which the bullet penetrates (MagTech, Terminal Ballistics, 2014).
These bullets are usually the ones that are related to controlled penetration and work well
in a wide variety of hunting. They work efficiently with small, medium or even large
animals.
Terminal ballistics deals largely with the effect of the projectile on its target, also
known as the damage done to the target by the force (MagTech, Terminal Ballistics, 2014).
Terminal ballistics also helps scientists to develop more effective weapons and other ways
of defense. Along with this, terminal ballistics deals with the three ways that bullets

produce tissue damage, which also take place during the forensic science investigations.
The first one is laceration and crushing. Both laceration and crushing occur along the path
through the body that the bullet produces (WebPath, 1994). The second one is cavitation.
The path of the bullet causes the tissue to crush, which leaves a permanent cavity. A
temporary cavity is formed by radial stretching around the track of the bullet from
acceleration of the air or tissue in the wake of the bullet. This causes the wound cavity to
be stretched out (WebPath, 1994). Permanent and temporary cavities are relatively the
same for projectiles that are traveling at low velocities. But, when the velocity increases,
the cavity becomes much larger. The third way that a bullet can produce tissue damage is
shock waves. Shock waves are what travel in front of the bullet and also to the sides, but
last only a few microseconds and do not cause a lot of destruction, especially at low
velocities. Although with a high velocity, the shock waves become extremely high and
cause bone fractures, but it is very rare (WebPath, 1994).
Along with the damage done to the target, many factors affect terminal ballistics
beyond its shot placement (Gubar, 2012, P.1). The other factors that affect terminal
ballistics are penetration, deflection, bullet construction, and permanent wound channel.
Penetration correlates with the bullets density of the front area (Gubar, 2012, P.1). The
bullets that have a higher sectional density tend to give a deeper penetration, even with a
bullet that is a non-expanding. A non-expanding bullet is a bullet that is much stronger and
cause less lethal damage (Gubar, 2012, P.1). These types of bullets generally keep their
shape as they pass through the target and do not cause as much damage as an expanding
bullet would. Along with penetration, deflection is also another major factor when
determining terminal ballistics. Deflection is similar to the bullets momentum, in which it

is determined by mass and velocity (Gubar, 2012, P.1). When a bullet has a higher
momentum, there is less deflection when it hits things such as; bone, cartilage, or tendons.
A higher momentum also indicates that the projectile will shatter bones as well as pass
through it (Gubar, 2012, P.1). Permanent wound channel is what is known as crush
cavity, the path of destruction left after the bullet has passed through the target (Gubar,
2012, P.1). Even with a non-expanding bullet, the permanent wound channel will be larger
than the actual projectile. This is because as the bullet passes through, it will twist flesh
and cause tears making it expand. Also, the pressure built up can cause the skin to rupture,
which leaves a much larger exit wound than entrance wound. Lastly, bullet construction,
which includes expanding, and non-expanding bullets. There will be less penetration when
a bullet is traveling faster, but the permanent wound will be much larger (Gubar, 2012,
P.1). Bullets that are prone to expanding at a quick rate with a high velocity are more likely
to shatter. Most guns have their own unique features and even if the gun has not been left
at the crime scene, a lot of information can be determined from bullet, the nature of the
wound and any residue that is left around it (Gubar, 2012, P.1).
Ballistics is a very important concept in forensic science in which it deals with
firearms; how they are used, why they are used and why they are used frequently in the
practice of murder (National Forensic Science Technology Center, 2015, P.1). Internal
ballistics is very effective in which it covers the time from inside the firearm and until it
exits the barrel. External ballistics plays a role in forensic science where it focuses on the
bullet after it exits the barrel but before it hits the target. Lastly, terminal ballistics focal
point is how a projectile reacts when it hits its target, which is the most crucial when it
comes to investigating a crime scene. All three parts of ballistics effectively play a role in

forensic science, which is the method of examining information that can be used in the
court of law (Gubar, 2012, P.1).

Bibliography
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http://www.chuckhawks.com/terminal_ballistics_bs.htm

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