THEEFFECTSOFLANDFUNCTIONTONUTRIENTRUNOFF

TheEffectsofLandFunctiontoNutrientRunoff
MaryNathalieA.Zacarias
OxonHillHighSchool

THEEFFECTSOFLANDFUNCTIONTONUTRIENTRUNOFF

TheEffectsofLandFunctiontoNutrientRunoff
ResearchBackgroundandMethodology
Theenvironmentisslowlyraisingagreaterandgreaterissue.Topicsofglobalwarmingand
climatechangeraisedebateallovertheworldsomebelieve,somedonot.However,most,ifnotall,
peopleagreethatpollutionisatangibleproblem.Themanyvarioustypesofpollutionallcontributeto
thedestructionofecosystemsandthedeclineoreveneliminationofsomespecies.Althoughthedifferent
kindsofpollutionareallintegratedintoonesystemthatkillslifeonourplanet,waterpollutionisoneof
themajortypes.AccordingtotheNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration,watercovers
morethan70percentoftheEarthssurfaceandholdsalmost50percentoftheEarthslife.Thewater
onEarthareallconnectedtooneanother,thereforepollutantsthatendupinonelittlestreamwill
eventuallydisseminateintotheoceans.Oneofthegreatestsourcesofwaterpollutantsisagriculture.
AgricultureandthePopulationQuestion
TheHistoryofAgriculture
DuringthePaleolithicera,thefirstfullyhumanspecieswerehuntersandgatherers.Sucha
lifestylerequiredlargeamountsofspaceandwasthereasonforrelativelysmallgroups.Eventhen,the
groupsmayseparateduetomigratinggame.TheOutofAfricathesisisinformallyusedforthetheory
thatHomosapiensemergedineastAfricaandthenmigratedoutward100,000to200,000yearsago
(McCannon,2014,p.58).Theseearlyhumansbegantodeveloptoolstohelpthemadapttovarious
environments.Theystartedmakingfireandusingbasicweaponstohunt,defend,orfight.Modesof
storageweremade,suchasmats,baskets,andpottery.Also,clothesweremadeoutofanimalhides
and,lateron,plantfibers.

THEEFFECTSOFLANDFUNCTIONTONUTRIENTRUNOFF

ThelastoftheiceagesbroughtouttheNeolithicera.Althoughmanycontinuedhuntingand
foraging,somebegandomesticatinganimalsandplants,calledpastoralismandagriculture,respectively.
Agriculturewasamoresecurefoodsupplybutinexchangeitrequiredamoresedentarylifestyle.This
allowedforlargercommunities,thusvillages,andeventuallycities.Thefirstrecorderhumancivilization
wasMesopotamiabetweentheTigrisandEuphratesRivers.Astimemovedforward,peoplebeganto
developbettertoolsandfurtheradvanceagriculture.
TheThreeAgriculturalRevolutions
TheexistingtheoryforearlyfarmingduringtheFirstAgriculturalRevolutionisvegetative
planting,inwhichapartofanexistingplantisusedtogrowanewone.Vegetativeplantingwasthen
replacedbyseedplanting,inwhichfertilizedseedswerecollectedtoplantnewcrops.The
domesticationofplantsoccurredovertimewhencultivatorschosetogrowbettertasting,betteryielding
plantsoverthosethatdidnothavethosequalities.Thisisthereasonwhyplantstodaythriveintheir
specificrespectiveconditions.(Moore,2014,p.218)
ThebeginningoftheIndustrialRevolutionmarkedthebeginningoftheSecondAgricultural
Revolutionbecauseadvancementsinmachineryallowedforlesshardhumanlaborandhigher
productivity.TheWhitneyscottonginandtheMcCormickreaperwereexamplesofsuchtechnology.
Evenbiggerchangescamewhenplanthybrids,syntheticfertilizers,pesticides,andmachineslikethe
tractor,wereintroduced.Theseadvancementscontinuetoexisttoday(p.219).
TheThirdAgriculturalRevolution,moreknownastheGreenRevolution,cametobewhenthe
useofhybrids,fertilizers,andpesticideswerediffusedtoThirdWorldcountries(p.220).Thisresulted
ingreatercropyieldoverthere.

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FoodCrisis
ThomasMalthus,anEnglisheconomist,publishedAnEssayonthePrincipleofPopulationin
1798.Hisworkwentintodetailabouthowhumanpopulationwilleventuallyoutnumberthenecessary
resourcesrequiredforlife.Malthus(1798)basedhistheoryontwoassumptions:First,thatfoodis
necessarytotheexistenceofman.Secondly,thatthepassionbetweenthesexesisnecessaryandwill
remainnearlyinitspresentstate.HebelievedthatPopulation,whenunchecked,increasesina
geometricalratio.Subsistenceincreasesonlyinanarithmeticalratio(Malthus,1798).
Malthusacknowledgedtwotypesofchecksthatcouldeasepressuresthatcomewith
populationthepreventivecheckandthepositivecheck.Thepreventivecheckwascharacterizedby
individualsmakingdecisionsbasedontheirexpectedabilitytoprovide.Thepositivecheckwasthe
consequenceoffailingtosubmittothepreventivecheck.Positivechecksincludeddisease,famines,and
wars.
NeoMalthusianssupportThomasMalthustheoryusingmoderndataasreference.E.A.
WrigleyuseddatafromresearchonBritain.Heshowedthatpricesandpopulationwererelatedwhen
populationincreased,pricesalsoroseandviceversa.Francewasahighpopulationpressuresystem
untilbirthcontrolmethodswereintroduced,thenitbecamearelativelowpressuresystem(Abramitzky
andBraggion).
WhileFirstWorldcountriesmaybeexperiencingissueswithpopulationpressures,ThirdWorld
countrieswereatamuchmoredisadvantagedposition.Theirpopulationswereincreasingmuchfaster,
Worldfoodpricesrosesharply,foodriotsshookgovernments,andgrainexportswerebanned.The
solutionwastheGreenRevolution.

THEEFFECTSOFLANDFUNCTIONTONUTRIENTRUNOFF

TheGreenRevolution
TheBeginningoftheChange
TheGreenRevolutionwaspropelledbytheneedtoprovidefortheincreasingpopulation
pressuresinThirdWorldcountries.Althoughfoodresourcesweresufficienttofeedtheentireglobal
population,fooddistributionisunequalthroughouttheareasoftheworld.Thiswasbecausethe
productivityofthevariousThirdWorldcountriesweremuchlowerthanthatofFirstWorldcountries.
Dr.NormanBorlaug,referredtoasthefatheroftheGreenRevolution,begantheGreen
Revolutionbybreedinghighyieldwheatplantsthatwerealsoabletoresistplantpests.Heandhis
team,fundedbytheRockefellerFoundation,didsoinordertoassistfarmersinMexico.Borlaugisa
proponentforbiotechnologyinordertohelpincreasetheproductivityoflessdevelopedcountries
(LDCs).
InadditiontowheatyieldsincountriessuchasMexico,riceproductioninAsianeededaboost.
Todoso,scientistshadtodevelopplantsthataremoresensitivetoplantnutrientsandresistanttopests
anddiseases,havestrongerstalksthatcouldsupportheavierheadsofgrain,canmaturequicklyand
growduringanyseason,andstillbedesirableasafooditem.TheInternationalRiceResearchInstitute
(IRRI)inthePhilippinesdevelopedhybridsthatwereabletomeetmostoftherequirements
(InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute,2002).
PracticesoftheRevolution
TheGreenRevolutionischaracterizedbytheuseofsyntheticfertilizers,pesticides,and
herbicidesandthegrowingofgeneticallymodifiedcrops.Highyieldingvarieties(HYV)oftenrequire
morefertilizerthantraditionalcrops.However,localsfarmersmoreoftenthannotusemorethanthe
necessaryamountoffertilizerneeded.HYVsrequirerelativelylargeamountsofwater.Therefore,unlike

THEEFFECTSOFLANDFUNCTIONTONUTRIENTRUNOFF

traditionalfarming,irrigationsystemsarenecessaryforthesuccessofHYVs.HYVsarealsovery
dependentonuniformmonocultures.Asaresult,theydependhighlyonherbicidesandpesticides
(FitzgeraldMooreandParai).
TheEffectsBothGoodandBad
TheGreenRevolutionhashadmanyvariousimpactsontheworldtodayand,likeeverything,
therearebothpositiveandnegativeconsequences.Thediffusionofbiotechnologyincreasedfoodyields
aroundtheworld.GrainproductioninAsiadoubledbetween1970and1995.Thisincreasedcalorie
availabilityforeachindividualanddecreasedwheatandriceprices.ProductionofcerealsinLatin
Americaalsoflourished.ProductioninAfricawerenotasgreatduetopoorinfrastructure,high
transportcosts,limitedinvestmentinirrigation,andpricingandmarketingpoliciesthatpenalized
farmers(InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute,2002).
Thesizableincreaseinyieldallowedforgreaterincomeforfarmers.Thisgreaterincomemadeit
possibleforfarmerstoincreasedemandsforgoodsandservices.Theincreaseindemandstimulatedthe
economyandfurtherleadtoincreasedincomeandmoreemploymentopportunitiesforeveryoneelse.
Forexample,povertyinIndiausedtobearound50and65percentinthe1960s,butitdeclinedto
aboutonethirdby1993(InternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute,2002).
AlthoughlargefarmsgreatlybenefittedfromtheGreenRevolution,smallfarmsweremostly
harmedintheprocessbecauseoflowerproductpricesbuthigherinputprices.Mechanizationoffarms
resultedinlesshumanlaborandthuslessjobopportunities.
Excessiveuseoffertilizersandbiocideshavedonemuchenvironmentaldamage.Themisuseof
fertilizersbyfarmershaveledtomuchofitendingupinrunoffwaterintorivers,lakes,andoceans.
Whenthesenutrientsendupinthewater,algaebloomsoccur.Algaerequiresoxygenthereforelarge

THEEFFECTSOFLANDFUNCTIONTONUTRIENTRUNOFF

amountsofalgaerequirelargeamountsofoxygen.Thisiswhyalgaebloomsareharmfultoaquaticlife.
Algaebloomsdepletethewaterofthenecessaryoxygenthatotherorganismsneed(American
GeologicalInstitute,2005).
Biocidesareveryharmfulforeveryoneespeciallytothefarmerswhoareindirectcontactwith
them.Often,thebiocidesexportedtoThirdWorldcountriesaretooharmfulforuseintheirorigin
countries.
AccordingtoFitzgeraldMooreandParai:
InareportentitledTropicalFarmersatRiskfromPesticides,theIRRI(InternationalRice
ResearchInstitute)showedthat55%offarmersinthePhilippineswhoworkedwithpesticides
sufferedabnormalitiesineyes,54%incardiovascularsystemsand41%inlungs.Ofthe
estimated400,000to2millionpesticidepoisoningsthatoccurintheworldeachyear,
resultinginbetween10,000and40,000deaths,mostareamongfarmersindeveloping
countries.33InBhopal,India,tensofthousandsofpeoplewerepoisonedbyanaccidentata
UnionCarbidepesticidemanufacturingplant.Thisleakoftoxicgascaused2,000deaths.
Notonlyfarmers,butconsumersaswellasnearbyresidentsendupwithhealthcomplicationsdueto
toxicbiocidesusedinfarms.
SustainableAgriculture
TheBeginningofASecondGreenRevolution
Peoplearebeginningtobecomemoreconsciousofthehealthandenvironmentalproblemsthat
comewiththeGreenRevolution.Manyarechoosingalternativemodesoffoodproduction.Onesuch
methodissustainableagriculture.

THEEFFECTSOFLANDFUNCTIONTONUTRIENTRUNOFF

SustainableagricultureisdefinedbytheCongress(1990)intheFood,Agriculture,
Conservation,andTradeActof1990as:
anintegratedsystemofplantandanimalproductionpracticeshavingasitespecificapplication
thatwill,overthelongterm:
1. satisfyhumanfoodandfiberneeds
2. enhanceenvironmentalqualityandthenaturalresourcebaseuponwhichtheagricultural
economydepends
3. enhanceenvironmentalqualityandthenaturalresourcebaseuponwhichtheagricultural
economydepends
4. makethemostefficientuseofnonrenewableresourcesandonfarmresourcesand
integrate,whereappropriate,naturalbiologicalcyclesandcontrols
5. sustaintheeconomicviabilityoffarmoperationsand
6. enhancethequalityoflifeforfarmersandsocietyasawhole.
Therearetwosustainableagriculturemodelstheindustrialmodelandthealternativemodel.
TheindustrialmodelisnottoomuchofachangefromthepracticesinvolvedwithGreenRevolution
however,itdoesemphasizebetter,moreefficientuseofthosepractices.Thealternativemodelinvolves
amuchlargershift.Itemphasizes
smallerfarms(usingsmallfarmtechnologies),reduceduseofnonrenewableenergy,more
onfarmlaborandmanagement,greaterbiologicaldiversityinfieldsandamongcropsand
livestock,lessprocessingoffood,moreresourceconservation,moredirectsellingto
consumers,andfarmandregionalselfsufficiency(Gajewskiet.al.,1992).

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ThePracticesandTechniquesInvolved
Sustainableagricultureisdefinedbygreatercropdiversity,resourceconservation,andpractices
suchascovercropping.Sustainableagriculturalfarmersgenerallydonotmonoculture.Theygrowone
cropinoneplotandanothercropinanotherplot.Theymayevenuseawholecropfamilyinoneplot
(eg.beanandpeafamily,cabbageandmustardfamily).Inadditiontofoodcrops,farmersmaychoose
togrownativeplants.Also,acroprotationsystemisimplementedinwhichdifferentcropsareplanted
indifferentplotsastheplantingseasonschange.Differentcropsrequiredifferentnutrientsforexample
potatoeslikenitrogenrichsoil,thustheyshouldbeplantedinaplotpreviouslyoccupiedbylegumes
whicharenitrogenfixers.Notonlydoescroprotationkeepsoilhealthy,italsoservesasintegratedpest
andweedmanagement.Pestsandplantsareoftenspecifictoaplantfamily,thusrotatingcropsisa
goodwaytoconfusethem.
Water,energy,andsoilconservationmethodsareahugepartofsustainableagriculture.
Excessiveuseofwateraredrainingwatertableswhichisareversibleconsequence,butittakesquitea
while.Becausesustainableagriculturalfarmsaimtolessentheircarbonfootprint,theyaimtouseless
nonrenewableenergysources,suchasfossilfuels.Thismeansthattheyuselessmachines,whichrequire
fuels,andusemorehumanpower.Thelargestpartofsustainableagricultureissoilconservation.
Practiceslikenotillandminimaltillageservetousetechniquesthatwilldisturbtopsoiltheleast.Thisis
becausecompletelyturningoversoilnotonlycausebiomatter(anaturalfertilizer)todecayfaster,italso
makessoilmoresusceptibletoerosion.
Contourstripsareimplementedwhenplantingataslope.Thisisbecausemorefarmwatercan
runintowaterreservoirswhenrunningdownaslant.Contourstrippingaddsstripsofgrassbetween

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farmplotsthatcanslowdownfarmwater,hinderingwaterfromgettingintonearbythestreamsystem
andthuswatershed.
TheDevelopment
Manypeoplecategorizesustainableagricultureandorganicfarmingasthesamethingbutthey
arenot.Organicisarealcertificationonfoods,butsustainableagriculturedonot.Whereassustainable
agriculturedependonecologicalwellbeingandlocalfoodcommunities,organicfarmingisnot
necessarilybetterfortheenvironment.Usuallyorganicfoodyieldsaretransportedmilesandmilesaway
fromwheretheywerecultivated,whichisnotaveryenergyefficientpractice.Sustainableagriculture
havemorecontroloverwaterusethuslesseningtheamountneeded,organicfarmsnecessarilydonot.
Also,sustainableagricultureusesmoreenvironmentallyfriendlypackagingthanorganicfarming(Chait).
CommunitySupportedAgriculture(CSA)existinordertosupportfarmerswhochooseto
implementsustainableagriculture.Sustainableagriculturealsostimulatesthelocaleconomy.Itproduces
13jobsper$1millionearned.Today,manypeopleareoptingforfoodsthatarenotonlyhealthierfor
them,butalsohealthierfortheworldtheylivein.Sustainableagricultureprovidesenvironmental,social,
andeconomicbenefits.

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