AP Biology Chapter 46: Animal Reproduction

A population outlives its members only by reproduction- the creation of a generation of new
individuals from existing ones.
*sexual reproduction: fusion of haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote (egg = F,
sperm = M)
*advantageous because beneficial gene combos arising through
recombination might speed up adaptation, and the shuffling of genes during
sexual reproduction might allow a population to rid itself of harmful genes.
*asexual reproduction: generation of new individuals without the fusion of egg
and sperm.
fission: separation of parent organism into two individuals of
approx. equal size
budding: new individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones
fragmentation & regeneration: breaking of body and then regrowth
of lost body parts to make the complete animal.
parthenogenesis: egg develops without being fertilized. Can be
haploid or diploid: haploid organisms produce gametes without meiosis.
hormones control reproductive cycles, and these hormones are often controlled
by environmental factors. A lot of times, seasonal temperature or day length, which are
signals for nutrition availability, dictates how fertile an animal may be. Also, water fleas
undergo sexual reproduction under environmental stress but asexual under good
conditions.
*hermaphroditism: because mates are hard to find for some organisms, each
individual organism has both male and female reproductive systems so any two
individuals can mate. Some can also undergo sex reversal if there is a lack in some
population or to maximize gamete production.
*external fertilization: female releases eggs into environment, male then fertilizes
requires good timing and moist environment- done by many
aquatic species
spawning = the release of M/F gametes at the same time
better zygote survival because zygote is sheltered by mother
either in the uterus or some other connection (like a kangaroo pouch)
*internal fertilization: sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive
tract. An adaptation that is more efficient but requires more sophisticated reproductive
systems
both forms of fertilization use pheromones, which are chemicals released into the
air that change physiology/behavior of mates (attract them).
all sexually-reproducing animals have gamete precursor cells that are amplified
in order to produce gametes when the organisms body plan has developed.
simple reproductive system: eggs and sperm develop from
undifferentiated cells lining the body cavity. Mature gametes are shed through the
excretory opening or eggs swell up and pop out of the body.
nonmammalian vertebrates: digestive, excretory,
and reproductive systems have one hole: the cloaca
more complex reproductive system: tubes and glands that carry,
nourish, and protect gametes/embryos. (i.e. fruit fly males have tubes that

produce and ejaculate sperm; females have ovaries and uterus and even
spermathecae that can store male sperm and fertilize the egg up to a year later,
signaled by environmental stimuli).
in most mammals, uterus is divided into two parts;
in organisms that only usually have one baby at a time (i.e. humans) have
only one uterine chamber
animals are not usually monogamous, though individuals in a
partnership can release chemicals that prevent the other from going to another
partner.
*Female Reproductive System:
ovaries: packed with follicles, which each consist of an oocyte, a
partially-developed egg, and support cells. During the menstrual cycle, one
follicle matures and expels its egg (ovulation), leaving a corpus luteum behind in
the follicular tissue that releases hormones that strengthen the uterine lining
oviducts (fallopian tubes): lead from ovary to uterus; wave-like
contractions by cilia move the egg down to the uterus, which has a lining
(endometrium) and a neck (cervix) that leads to the vagina.
vagina: birth canal
vulva: external female genitalia (labia majora/labia minora, clitoris,
etc)
mammary glands: produce milk in females; estradiol (hormone)
helps develop breasts
*Male Reproductive System:
testes: produce sperm in the tubes (*seminiferous tubules) and
hormones in Leydig cells
scrotum: maintains testis temperautre
ducts: epididymis (carries sperm from seminiferous tubules to be
ejaculated); vas deferens extends around and behind the urinary bladder and
carries sperm during ejaculation to the ejaculatory duct, which joins with the
urethra.
accessory glands: seminal vesicles produce 60% of semen
(sperm fluid); prostate gland produces enzymes and citrate that go directly to the
urethra; bilbourethral glands secrete mucus to neutralize acidic urine during
ejactulation
penis: fills with blood during arousal and ejaculates.
*gametogenesis: the production of gametes
spermatogenesis: formation/development of sperm; continuous in
adult males
all 4 daughter cells of meiosis develop into gametes
always making gametes
sperm have a lot of ATP and an acrosome, which
helps it merge with the egg
How it works:
primordial germ cells stem cells (mitosis) spermatogonia
spermatocytes 4 spermatids (n) sperm. Maturing sperm travel
inward in the lining of the seminiferous tubule toward the lumen.

 oogenesis: development of mature oocytes (eggs); prolonged in

females (takes years or decades)
only 1 daughter cell of meiosis develops into an
egg
mitosis finishes before birth, and mature gamete
production ends at 50
gamete production has a clear cycle
How it works:
primordial germ cells oogenia cells in prophase I of meiosis
(primary oocytes), which each are in a follicle and are released
periodically by FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone).
The stimulated egg starts dividing but is arrested at meiosis II (secondary oocyte)
and is *released at ovulation. Meiosis II resumes at fertilization.
Hormones regulate reproduction!
GnRH: released from the hypothalamus, directs the anterior pituitary to secrete gonadotropins,
FSH, and LH.
Hypothalamus is stimulated by high levels of estradiol and inhibited by estradiol+progesterone
(in release of GnRH)
Anterior pituitary is stimulated by GnRH and is inhibited by low levels of estradiol (in release of
FSH/LH)
Female Cycles: menstrual and ovarian
menstrual: changes in the uterus (endometrium thickens and
sheds)
1. menstrual flow phase - low ovarian hormones causes the uterine
lining to disintegrate, the endometrium blood vessels to constrict, and
menstruation to occur.
2. proliferative phase - rising levels of ovarian hormones cause the
uterus to prep for an embryo- estradiol causes the endometrium to thicken.
3. secretory phase - estradiol and progesterone from the corpus
luteum cause the endometrium to continue to develop, enlarge arteries, etc in
preparation for an embryo.
ovarian: changes in the follicle (maturation and release of the
oocyte)
*more estradiol = more GnRH = more LH/FSH!
1. GnRH released from hypothalamus
2. small amounts of LH/FSH secreted
3. follicle cells grow and make estradiol
4. estradiol secretions begin to rise steeply
5. FSH and LH levels increase drastically as a result
6. maturing follicle matures and ovulation occurs about 1 day after
the LH surge
7. luteal phase: LH stimulates corpus luteum formation from follicular
tissue left behind, which secretes progesterone and estradiol, which inhibit
LSH/FH secretion from hypothalamus when combined.
8. corpus luteum disintegrates and the cycle restarts
endometriosis: some cells of the uterine lining migrate to abnormal location (ectopic).

menopause: cessation of ovulation and menstruation, when eggs are out.

estrous cycles: in other animals (not humans), in which uterus reabsorbs endometrium,
no fluid loss, but cannot engage in sexual behavior during this period.
Male Hormones: GnRH triggers release of LH and FSH, which are important in
spermatogenesis.
FSH: promotes Sertoli cells, which nourish developing sperm;
also, they secrete inhibin
inhibin acts on anterior pituitary to stop secretion of
FSH.
LH: promotes Leydig cells, which secrete testosterone to promote
spermatogenesis in the tubules
testosterone inhibits the release of GnRH from the
hypothalamus and FSH/LH release from the anterior pituitary (negative
feedback regulation)
humans have sex to make babies.

conception: another word for fertilization.

cleavage: when the zygote begins to divide, about 24 hours after
conception. 2-3 days later, 16 cells (morula). 5 days, a sphere of cells called a
blasocyst. Then, embryo implants into the endometrium.
HCG: human chorionic gonadotropin: secreted by embryo (?);
maintains secretion of progesterone and estrogens by the corpus luteum through
the first few months of pregnancy. Is usually peed out in pregnant women, so is
used for pregnancy tests.
trimester 1: placenta forms (supplies nutrients, immune protection, respiratory
gases, metabolic waste disposal, etc). Also organogenesis: development of body organs
identical twins: splitting of the embryo during first month
fraternal twins: two follicles mature in a single cycle and are
independently fertilized.
trimester 2: uterus and fetus grow. hCG levels decline, hormone levels stabilize,
corpus luteum deteriorates. placenta completely takes over the production of
progesterone, which maintains the pregnancy.
trimester 3: ends with labor (contractions)- involves a complex interplay of local
regulators and hormones!
oxytocin from fetus and mothers posterior pituitary:
stimulates uterus to contract, which causes more
oxytocin
stimulates placenta to make prostaglandins, which
stimulate more uterus contractions
estradiol from ovaries:
activates oxytocin receptors in uterus to allow stuff
above ^^^ to happen.
three stages of labor: dilation, expulsion, and delivery of placenta.
prolactin is released by anterior pituitary in response to suckling
by the newborn and changes in estradiol levels -- causes mammary glands to
produce milk.

 birth control! prevent gamete development or release, prevent fertilization

physically, and prevent implantation.