Chapter 12: The Cell Cycle

reproduction is what sets living organisms apart from nonliving

cell cycle: the life of a cell from the time it is first formed from a dividing parent
cell until its own division into two daughter cells
cell division
dividing cell duplicates DNA, allocates two copies to opposite
ends of the cell, and the splits into daughter cells. Daughter cells are identical in
genetic material to the parent cell.
genome: a cells endowment of DNA/ its genetic information
prokaryotic genome = one molecule; eukaryotic genome = many
molecules
each chromosome consists of one long, linear DNA molecule (that carries many
genes) associated with many proteins.
chromatin = DNA and protein jumble that makes up chromosomes
when cell is not dividing, each chromosome is in the form of a
long, thin chromatin fiber. Then, after DNA replication, chromosomes condense
for cell division.
sister chromatids: two copies of the original chromosome joined at the
centromere by cohesin protein complexes. Sister chromatids then separate within the
cell cycle, becoming individual chromosomes.
somatic cells = 2n, gametes = n (refers to number of chromosomes)
mitosis: the division of genetic material in the nucleus; cytokineses: the division
of the cytoplasm
meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells that have only one set of
chromosomes (n). Occurs in humans only in reproductive stuff.
cell cycle: mitotic (M) phase includes mitosis and cytokinesis; Interphase includes
G1, S, and G2.
G1 = growth, S = DNA replication, G2 = preparation for division
stages of mitosis: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase (see drawings)
Kinetochore microtubules move by motor proteins
motor proteins on the kinetochores walk the chromosomes along
microtubules, which depolymerize at their kinetochore ends after the motor
proteins have passed
chromosomes are reeled in by motor proteins at the spindle poles
and the microtubules depolymerize after they pass by these motor proteins.
cytokinesis: occurs by cleavage in animal cells, formation of cell plate in plant
cells
binary fission: a type of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms
in eukaryotes: involves mitosis
in prokaryotes: does not involve mitosis; very large chromosome
is replicated, cell elongates, and then divides. Involves mitotic proteins such as
actin and tubulin.
It is most likely that mitosis evolved from simpler prokaryotic mechanisms of cell
reproduction.

 cell division timing varies from different cells in different plants/animals it is all
regulated on the molecular level (signals in the cytoplasm of the cell).
cell cycle control system: a cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that
both triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle!
the system goes on its own, but a series of checkpoints ensure
that the cell is ready for the next phase. (G1, G2 and M checkpoints)
G1 checkpoint: If the cell passes, will almost always
complete the entire cycle. If not, enter G0.
Cell cycle regulatory molecules: cyclins and kinases.
kinases hang out in the cytoplasm in inactive form and are
activated by cyclins attaching to them, thus they are called cyclin-dependent
kinases (Cdks).
MPF: (maturation-promoting factor, M phase promoting factor) the
cyclin-Cdk complex at the G2 checkpoint that initiates M phase
activated kinases phosphorylate proteins and initiate their
respective phases
cyclins are degraded after use to inactivate the Cdk
M-phase checkpoint: uses an internal signal! To pass it, all kinetochores must be
attached to spindles. If not, anaphase is prolonged. If so, a complex of proteins (not Cdk
stuff) will start a cascade to activate separase, which will cut the cohesins and allow the
cell to move along the cycle.
External factors: i.e. growth factors (induce fellow cells- not only bacteria- to
divide)
PDGF: induces fibroblasts to divide (to heal a wound) by binding
to receptor tyrosine kinases, transduction allows cell to pass G1 checkpoint.
density-dependent inhibition: crowded cells stop dividing!
anchorage dependence: cells must be attahed to a stratum in
order to divide.
Cancer cells: do not exhibit density-dependent inhibition or anchorage
dependence, so they just keep dividing. Likely that they have a faulty cell cycle control.
cancer cells stop dividing randomly if they ever stop, seem to
never stop dividing, and do not respond to apoptosis signals.
transformation: when a normal cell becomes cancerous
benign tumors: will not move to another site
because they have too few genetic and cellular changes
malignant tumor: cells whose genetic and cellular
changes enable them to spread to new tissues and impair the functions of
one or more organs.
malignant tumor cells have weird
numbers of chromosomes, weird metabolism, do not attach
properly to other cells, secrete signaling molecules to make blood
vessels near them grow, etc. Results in metastasis: the spread of
cancer cells from their original site.
radiation treats benign tumors at one site; chemotherapy for
malignant because its drugs interfere with specific steps in the cell cycle (in both
cancerous and normal cells)