Chemical for

Consumers

Prepared by
Woh Chee Leong
5 Epsilon
Guided by
Pn Nani Halina binti Abdul
Rahman
(Chemistry Teacher)

Chemical for Consumers

1 Introduction
2 Soap and detergent
2.1 What is soap?
2.2 Preparation of soap
2.3 What is detergent?
2.4 Preparation of detergent
2.5 The cleansing action of soap and detergent
2.6 Compare and contrast the effectiveness of
cleansing 211action of soap & detergent
2.7 Additives in detergent and their function
3 Food Additives
3.1 Types of food additives, example and
function
3.2 Effect of food additives
4 Medicines
4.1 Traditional medicines, source and uses
4.2 Modern medicines, example, function &
correct usage
4.3 Side effect of modern medicines
5 References

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Contents
Introduction
Chemistry is the science of matter. All objects that exist
around us are made of chemical substances. Without
chemistry, life itself would be impossible. All objects
contributed an endless of benefits to mankind. As time
continued to unravel, humans had done their best to
delve into this subject to ensure that all the chemical
substances are exploited and utilized to the fullest and
simultaneously, improve the quality of life of mankind.
The discovery of chemicals manufactured for
consumers such as cleaning agents, food additives and
medicines has helped us improve our health and
standard of living. Today, different types of chemicals
are produced to meet the needs and preferences of
consumers. Therefore, understanding the chemistry of
these chemicals will help a consumer select and use
them wisely

Soap and
Detergent

Cleaning agents are chemical substances used to remove

grease and dirt
There are two types of cleaning agents which are Soap and
Detergent

Did you know?

Soaps have been used for more than 3000 years. The earliest
recorded evidence of the production of soap dates back to
around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon.
In ancient times, soaps were made from ashes of plants which
contain sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate. The ashes
were boiled with lime (calcium oxide) to produce caustic potash
(potassium hydroxide). Caustic potash is then boiled with
animal fats to produce soap.

K2CO3 (Ash) + CaO

KOH

(Caustic potash)

(Lime)

KOH

(Caustic potash)

+ C55H98O6 (Animal fats)

Soap

2.1 What is Soap? (Part 1)

Soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain fatty acids
with 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule
The general formula of a soap:
RCOO-Na+ or RCOO-K+
where R is alkyl group.

Some common soaps and their parent fatty acids:

Palmitic acid

Oleic acid

2.2 Preparation of soap

Soap is produced by saponification, the reaction between
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide with animal fats or
vegetable oils.
When fats or oils are boiled with concentrated alkalis like
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, saponification
occurs and the ester molecules (fats and oils) are broken down
into soap.

Fats or oils + NaOH or KOH

Glycerol + Soap

To be more precise, Saponification is alkaline hydrolysis of ester

using alkali solutions. From a chemical aspect, soap is sodium

salts or potassium salts of long fatty acids (with 12 to 18

carbon atoms per molecule).
For instance, Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring ester
commonly found in animal fats and vegetables oils. When the
ester is boiled with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution,
saponification (alkaline hydrolysis) occurs and a mixture sodium
stearate (soap) and glycerol is obtained.

The soap produced can be precipitated by adding common salt

(sodium chloride) to the reaction mixture. Sodium chloride
reduces the solubility of the soap in aqueous solution and
causes the soap to be precipitated out.
The properties of soap depend on:
i)
ii)

The type of alkali used for saponification.

The type of animal fats or vegetables oils used

Hard soaps are produced from sodium hydroxide whereas soft

soaps are produced by potassium hydroxide. Animal fats
(tallow) from cow and vegetable oils (such as palm oils and
olive oils) are used to make soap.

2.1 The Structure of Soap Molecule (Part 2)

When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and produce
sodium ions and carboxylate ions (RCOO).
For example, sodium stearate dissolves in water to form sodium
ions and stearate ion.

The stearate ions take part in the removal of dirt but the
sodium ions do not. The stearate ion consists of two parts:
the head and the tail. The head is negatively charged and the
tail is a long hydrocarbon chain.
The head contains the (COO) ions which dissolves readily in
water (hydrophilic) but does not dissolve in oil. Conversely, the
tail contains a long hydrocarbon chain, R which is insoluble in
water (hydrophobic) but dissolves readily in oil. Soaps made
from stearic acid are known as sodium stearate.

Figure above shows the structure of the stearate ion in soaps

Hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tail
The diagrammatic representation of soap ion

2.3 What is Detergent?

Detergents are synthetic cleaning agents made from
hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum fractions. Thus,
detergents are petrochemicals. Detergents can be classified

into three main types, depending on the charge on the

detergent ion.
i) Anionic detergents where the head of the detergent
particle contains negatively charged ion.

ii) Cationic detergents where the head of the detergent

particle contains positively charged ion.

iii) Non-ionic detergents

The Structure of Detergent Molecule

When a detergent is dissolved in water, it dissociates to form
sodium ions and detergent ions. The detergent ions have the
same basic structure as the soap ions, that is, it consists of two
parts:
The head is the sulphate group (OSO3) which is negatively
charged and hydrophilic (dissolves readily in water but not in
oils and grease).
The tail is the long hydrocarbon chain, which is neutral and
hydrophobic (dissolves readily in oils and grease but not in
water).
Hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic
tail

2.4 Preparation of Detergent

The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from

alcohols with chain lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two
steps.
Step 1:
Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid

Step 2:
Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution

An example of a long chain alcohol is lauryl alcohol

(dodecan-1-ol), CH3(CH2)10CH2OH. The detergent prepared
from dodecan-1-ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate
(IUPAC name) or sodium lauryl sulphate (common
name), CH3(CH2)10CH2O-SO3Na+

2.5 The Cleansing Action of Soap and Detergent

The cleansing action of soap or detergent depends on their
chemical bonding and structures. The ionic head (negatively
charged) is soluble in water (hydrophilic) but insoluble in oily
layer. The long hydrocarbon tail (neutral) is insoluble in water
Stepbut
1 soluble in oily
(hydrophobic)
Step 3
Steplayer.
2
Step 4

Soap or Detergent ion

When the soap or detergent is mixed with water it

lowers the surface tension of water and wets the dirty
surface
The negatively charged 'head' of soap or detergent
ions dissolve in water (hydrophilic)

Step 1

The hydrocarbon 'tail' of soap or detergent ions

dissolve in the layer of grease (hydrophobic)
If the water is agitated slightly, the grease begins to
lift off the surface
Step 2
On further agitation during washing, the greasy dirt is
lifted from the surface since the density of grease is
Step 3
less than
When
the water
water is shaken, the grease will be
emulsified when it breaks into smaller droplets.
Step 4

These grease droplets repel one another because

they carry the same charge. So, the grease is
suspended in the solution
When the cloth is rinsed with water, the droplets will
be cleared

2.6 The Effectiveness of Soaps and Detergents as

Cleaning Agents
Advantages of Soaps
Soaps are effective cleansing agents that are effective
in soft water, that is, water does not contain
Soaps do not cause pollution problems to the
environment. This is because soaps are made from
chemicals found in animals and plants. This means that
soaps are biodegradable.
Disadvantages of Soaps
Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that
contains magnesium and calcium salts.
In hard water, soaps will react with to form a precipitate
called scum. Thus, soaps do not lather in hard water.
Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of
magnesium stearate and calcium stearate.

Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example

rainwater containing dissolves acids. H + ions from acids will
react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acids molecular
size that are insoluble in water

Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as

cleansing agents because they exist mainly as molecules

and do not anionic hydrophilic ends (heads) that dissolves

in water

Advantages of Detergents
Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft
water as well as hard water. This is because detergents do
not form scum with Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions found in hard water.
The detergents ions (R O SO3) and react with Mg2+ and
Ca2+ ions in hard water. However, the magnesium salts and
calcium salts which are formed are soluble in water.

Hence, the scum is not formed and the detergents are still
active in hard water and lathers easily.
Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents. This means that
the structure of the hydrocarbon chain can be modified to
produce detergents with
specific properties. Nowadays, different types of detergents
have been synthesized for specific uses such as shampoos
and dish cleaner.

 Furthermore, detergents are also effective in acidic water

because H+ ion is acidic water do not combine with
detergents ions

Disadvantages of Detergents
Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon chains and are
non-biodegradable, that is, they cannot decompose by
bacteria. So, non-biodegradable detergents can cause water
pollution.
Phosphates in detergents act as fertilizers and promote the
growth of water plants and algae. When the plants die and
decay, they will use up the oxygen dissolves in water. This
will decrease the oxygen content in water and kill fishes and
other aquatic lives.
Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The layer of foam
that covers the water surface will prevent oxygen from
dissolving in water. This condition will cause fish and other
aquatic life to die from oxygen starvation.
Additives such as sodium hypochlorite (bleaching agents)
releases chlorine gas in water that is acidic. Chlorine gas is
highly toxic and kills aquatic life.

Summary

It is difficult to wash away all soap

on clothes. So, the soap will remain
and leave odour which can spoil
the fabrics

2.7 Additives in Detergent

Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually contains a
few types of additives to increase their cleaning power and
make them attractive and saleable.
Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cleansing
agents (sodium alkyl sulphate or sodium alkyl benzene
sulphonate). The other substances are additives. The examples
of addictives and their functions are described as follows:
Builders: Sodium tripolyphosphate
i) Sodium tripolyphospathe is used to soften hard water and
compromises about 40% of the subtances in the detergent. In
the presence of sodium tripolyphosphate, Ca2+ ions and Mg2+
ions are removed.
ii)Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In
this way, muddy dirt can be removed.
Whitening / bleaching agents: sodium perborate
i) Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by
oxidation process. When coloured stains are oxidized, the
colour will disappear.
ii) The whitening (bleaching) agents commonly used in
detergent are sodium perborate (NaBo2. H2O2. 3H2O).

Sodium perborate decomposes in hot water to release oxygen

(an oxidising agent) which is responsible for the whitening
(bleaching) action.
Biological enzymes: Amylase, lipase and protease
i)Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be
removed by the ordinary detergents because these types of
stains are insoluble in water.
ii)Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat and
protein molecules in food stains. The fatty acids, glycerol and
amino acids produced are soluble in water and are removed
during washing.

Brighteners
i) Figure below shows the action of brighteners. The brighteners
absorb the invisible ultra-violet and re-radiate it as blue light.

ii) Brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and brighter because

the blue light can hide any yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light
added to the yellow light reflected on old fabrics make them
look white.
Drying agents; Sodium sulphate and sodium silicate
Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate are used as
drying agents to ensure that the detergent in powdered firm is
always in a dry condition.

Stabilisers
i) The functions of stabilizers is to prevent the formation of
foam.
ii) In an automatic washing machine, excessive foam can stop
the pump working. So, washing powders for automatic washing
machine are made using detergents that are good at removing
and emulsifying grease, but do not produced foam.
Fragrances
Perfumes are added to make clothes smell fresh and clean.

Food Additives

Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small

quantities for specific purpose such as protection against
bacterial attack or restoring the colour of the food destroyed
during food processing.

Did you know?

E-Numbers is used to represent specific food additives, it is
used by the food industry in the manufacture of various food
products. These E-Numbers have been formulated by the
European Economic Community (EEC) and are universally
adopted by the food industry worldwide.
The food additives are classified into the following categories
and sequences:
Category

E-numbers range

Colours
Preservatives
Antioxidants, acidity regulators
Thickeners, stabilizers,
emulsifiers
Acidity regulators, anti-caking
agents
Flavour enhancers
Antibiotics
Glazing agents and sweeteners)
Additional chemicals

E100E199
E200E299
E300E399
E400E499
E500E599
E600E699
E700E799
E900E999
E1000E1599

3.1 Types of food additives, example and function (Part

1)

Types of food additives

Preservatives

Antioxidants
Flavouring agents
Stabilisers and thickening
agents
Dyes

Example
Sodium nitrite; sodium nitrate;
benzoic acid; sodium benzoate;
Sulphur dioxide; sodium sulphite;
sorbic acid
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin c); BHA;
BHT; citric acid; sodium
glutamate
Monosodium glutamate (MSG);
aspartame
Gelatin; acacia gum (agar)
Azo compounds, triphenyl
compunds

3.1 Functions of Food Additives (Part 2)

Preservatives
1. Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard
or to prevent the growth of microorganisms, so that the food
can be stored for a long time.
2. In ancient times, food additives from natural sources such as
salt, sugar and vinegar were used to preserve food and to make
the food taste better.

3. Nowadays, synthetic preservatives are used. Many of the

preservatives are organic acids and salts of organic acids. Table
below shows the types of preservatives commonly used.

Antioxidants
1. Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to
prevent the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air.
2. Food containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid
when exposed to air. This makes the food unpalatable. The
rancid products are volatile organic compound with foul odour.
(Example: Butanoic acid, C3H7COOH)

3. Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits

and fried food to slow down the oxidation process.
Flavouring Agents
1. Flavouring agents are used to make food taste better.
2. There are two types of flavouring agents:

Flavour
Enhancers

Artificial Flavours

3. Flavour enhancers have little or no taste of their own. They

are chemicals that are added to food to bring out the flavours
or to enance the tastes of food. An example of a flavor
enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG).
4. Artificial flavours include sweeteners and other flavours such
as peppermint or vanilla. Aspartame and saccharin are
examples of artificial sweeteners.
5. Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as a substitute
for sugar to enhace the sweeteners in food and drinks. However
the use of saccharin is banned is most countries because it is
carcinogenic.
6. Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as
artificial flavours. Table below shows some examples of esters
that are used in making drinks.

Stabilizers and thickening agents

1. Stabilizers and thickening agents are used to improve the
texture and blending of foods.

2. Stabilizers are chemicals that are added to enable oil and

water in the food to mix together properly in order to form
emulsion of water and oil. Examples of stabilizers are gelatin
and acacia gum.
3. Stabilizers are added to improve the texture of food. For
example, stabilizers are added to ice cream and peanut butter
to keep them smooth and creamy.
4. Without stabilizers, ice crystals would form in ice creams,
particles of chocolate would settle out of chocolate milk, oil and
vinegar in salad dressing will separate as soon as the mixing is
stopped.
5. Thickening agents are chemicals that are added to food to
thicken the liquid and to prevent the food from becoming liquid.
Thickening agents (also called thickeners) absorb water and
thicken the liquid in food to produce jelly-like structure.
6. Thickeners like gelatin and pectin are added to help jams and
jellies settle.

Dyes
1. Dyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to food
to give them colour so as to improve their appearance.
2. Some food are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost
during food processing. The food industry uses synthetic food
colours to:
a) Restore the colour of food lost during food processing
b) Enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness
of food
c) Give colour to food that do not have colour
3. Some dyes are natural plant pigments while others are
synthetically prepared. The synthetic colours used in food are
azoand triphenyl compounds. Both these compounds are
organic compunds.
4. The synthetic dye, brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl
compounds. The synthetic dye tartrazine and sunset yellow are
examples of compounds.

5. Azo compounds are organic compounds containing

the diazo group, N=N, and are usually yellow, red,
brown or black in colour. Triphenyl compounds are
organic compunds containing three phenyl groups,
C6H5, and are usually green, blue or purple in colour.

3.2 Effects of Food Additives

Medicines

Medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or

to reduce pain and suffering due to illness.

Did you know?

Early records on medicine have been discovered from ancient
Egyptian medicine, Babylonian Medicine, Ayurvedic medicine
(in the Indian subcontinent), classical Chinese medicine
(predecessor to the modern traditional Chinese Medicine), and
ancient Greek medicine and Roman medicine.
In Egypt, Imhotep (3rd millennium BC) is the first physician in
history known by name. The oldest Egyptian medical text is the
Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus from around 2000 BCE, which
describes gynecological diseases. The Edwin Smith Papyrus
dating back to 1600 BCE is an early work on surgery, while the
Ebers Papyrus dating back to 1500 BCE is related to a textbook
on medicine.

4.1 Traditional medicines, source and uses

Traditional medicine is a medicine derived from natural
resources without being processed chemically.
*Medicine obtained from plants are known as herbal medicines
The sources and uses of some herbal medicine are shown in
table below:
Resources

4.2 Modern medicines, example, function & correct

usage (Part 1)
Modern medicine can be classified as follows based on
their effects on the human body:
a) Analgesics
b) Antibiotics
c) Psychotherapeutic drugs
Modern drugs have a trade name and generic name. For
example the analgesic aspirin (generic name) is sold under
different brand names such as Caprin and Disprin. Similiarly,
paracetamol (generic name) is sold under the trade name of
Panadol
Example of modern drug
Type of modern drug

Example

Analgesics

Aspirin, paracetamol, codeine

Antibiotics

Penicillin, streptomycin

Psychotherapeutic drugs

Stimulant, antidepressant and

antipsychotic medicine

Analgesic pills

Antipsychotic
medicine

Antibiotics

4.2 Function of each type of Modern Drugs (Part 2)

Analgesics

1. Analgesics are medicine that relieve pain. They are

sometimes called as painkillers.
2. Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas
codeine is a powerful painkiller.
3. Analgesics relieve the pain but does not cure the
disease.
Type of
analgesi
c
Aspirin

Chemical aspect
IUAPC name: Acetyl
salicylic acid
Functional group:
A carboxylic acid
group and an ester
group
Thus, aspirin is
acidic in nature

Paraceta
mol

Neutral in nature

Function
Reduce fever
Relieve headaches,
muscles aches and joint
aches
Treat arthritis
Acts as anticoagulant
-Prevent clotting of blood
and reduce risk of heart
attacks and strokes
To relieve mild to
moderate pain (Relieve
headaches, muscles
aches and joint aches,
back aches, period
pains)
Reduces or relieves flu
symptoms such as fever,
bone aches and runny
nose

Codeine

An organic
compunds that
contains the
elements of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen.

Used to relieve minor to

moderate pain. It is more
powerful than aspirin
and paracetamol but
less powerful than
morphine
Used in cough mixtures
for suppressing cough

Antibiotics: Antibacterial Medicine

1. Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy and prevent the
growth of infected microorganisms.
2. Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin.
3. Antibiotics will not cure the infection caused by viruses such
as cold and flu.

Function

o cough

Psychotherapeutic medicines
Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of drugs for treating
mental and emotional illness.

4.3 Correct ways of using medicines

4.4 Side effects of medicines

Traditional Medicines
It is generally believed that traditional medicine have little side
effects compared to modern medicines
However, taking high doses of quinine for a prolonged period
may cause hearing loss. German health officials reported 40
cases of liver damage which were linked to the herbal medicine
containing kava-kava.
While the use of traditional medicine is rising globally, health
experts have insufficient data about how it affects patients.
Hence, the World Health Organisation (WHO) hopes to set up a
global monitoring system to monitor the adverse side effects of
traditional medicine.

Modern Medicines

References
i) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soap
ii) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detergent
iii) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_additive
iv) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
v) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine
vi) https://www.scribd.com/doc/247910178/SPMChemistry-Chemicals-for-Consumers