Birthorderandsiblingsexratioinhomosexualversusheterosexualmalesandfemales.

By:
Blanchard,Ray.AnnualReviewofSexResearch.1997,Vol.8Issue1,p27.41p.5Charts,5
Graphs.Abstract:Presentsinformationonastudyconductedtoevaluatethemeanbirthordersor
siblingsexratiosofhomosexualmenandwomen,whilecomparingresultstothoseattained
amongheterosexuals.Examinationofdatacollected;Methodologyusedinstudies;Whatfindings
indicate.(AN:418445)
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Genetichypotheses.Aproband'sbirthordernaturallycorrelateswiththeageofhisparentsatthetimeof
hisbirth.Thisraisesthepossibilitythattheseemingassociationofbirthorderandsexualorientationis
merelyastatisticalartifactarisingfromthecorrelationofbothwithparentalage,andthattheimportant
connectionisbetweenparentalageandsexualorientation.Ageneticexplanationalongtheselineswas
suggestedbyRaschka(1995),whoarguedthatahigherpaternalagemightreflectanincreasedmutation
rateinthespermatogenesisofolderfathers.Thisviewimpliesthatmalehomosexualityis,atleastinsome
instances,theresultofageneticmutation.
WhateverthemeritsofRaschka's(1995)hypothesis,itcannotbeusedtoexplainthebirthorder
phenomenon.Multivariateanalysishasshownthatthecorrelationbetweenbirthorderandsexual
orientationremainsafteronecontrolsforpaternalage(Blanchard&Bogaert,1996b).Wehavenotruled
outthepossibilitythatpaternalagemakessomeseparate(andsmaller)contributiontosexualorientation,
butwehaveruledoutthepossibilitythatthebirthorderphenomenonismerelyastatisticalartifactof
paternalage.
AnotherhypothesisinvolvingpaternalageandgeneticfactorswassuggestedbyAbeandMoran(1969),
whonotedthepossibilitythatinbothfathersandsonsthereisageneticpredispositionto"sexual
deviance,"manifestinginthefathersasatendencytomarriageatalateragethanthenorm.Itmightseem,
atacasualreading,thatthishypothesiscouldalsobeusedtoexplainthebirthorderphenomenon,but
furtherconsiderationshowsthatthatisnotthecase.Inthe(mostunlikely)eventthatthishypothesiswere
true,homosexualmenwouldhaveolderfathersthanheterosexualmenbutthesamemeanbirthorder.
Endocrinologichypotheses.MartinandGugelchuk(1997),arguingfromthepremisethatmaternalage
ratherthanbirthorderisthetruecorrelateofsexualorientation,proposedthatmaternalagerelatedchanges
inandrogenic,estrogenic,andprogestinbalancemightresultinhigherratesofhomosexualityinboysborn
towardtheendoftheirsibships.Themainproblemwiththisexplanationofthebirthorderphenomenonis
thatitsinitialpremiseisincorrect.Thecorrelationbetweenbirthorderandsexualorientationremainsafter
onecontrolsformaternalage(Blanchard&Bogaert,1996b;seealsoBlanchard&Bogaert,1997c),
whereasthereisnoevidenceofadifferenceinmeanmaternalagebetweenhomosexualandheterosexual
men,withorwithoutcontrollingforbirthorder(Abe&Moran,1969;Blanchard&Bogaert,1996a;
Blanchard&Zucker,1994;Hare&Moran,1979).
AverydifferenttypeofhormonalhypothesiswassuggestedbyBlanchardetal.(1995).Theirsistheonly
explanationofthebirthorderphenomenonbiologicalorpsychosocialthathaseverbeensubjectedtoa
formalempiricaltest.Blanchardetal.(1995)suggestedthatonepossibleexplanationforthecorrelation
betweenbirthorderandsexualorientationrelatestofindingsbyMaccoby,Doering,Jacklin,andKraemer

(1979).Maccobyetal.assayedsexhormonesinsamplesofumbilicalcordbloodfromhumannewborns.
Theyfoundthatlaterbornmaleshavelowerlevelsoftestosterone,estradiol,andprogesteronethan
firstbornmales.Thefindingthattestosteronelevelsincordblooddecreaseinlaterbornmales,in
combinationwiththefindingthatratesofhomosexualityincreaseinlaterbornmales,seemstosupportthe
theorythatmalehomosexualityresultsfromaninsufficiencyoffetalandrogen(Dorner,1972;Dorner,
Rohde,Stahl,Krell,&Masius,1975).
Inafinergrainedanalysisoftheirdata,Maccobyetal.(1979)showedthattheapparenteffectofbirthorder
onhormonelevelswasreallyaneffectofbirthinterval.Theyfoundthatlaterbornmaleswhoareclosely
spacedinrelationtotheirnextoldersiblingshavelowerconcentrationsofhormones;whereasinfantsborn
4ormoreyearsaftertheirnextoldersiblingshavehormonelevelsequalto,orhigherthan,thoseof
firstborns.
ThefindingsofMaccobyetal.(1979)suggestthattheapparenteffectofbirthorderonmalesexual
orientationmayalsoreallybeaneffectofbirthinterval,andthattheincreasedprevalenceofhomosexuality
inlaterbornmalesiscompletelyattributabletothoseindividualswithshortbirthintervalsandattendant
lowfetalhormonelevels.Ifthishypothesisiscorrect,thenoneshouldfindthathomosexualmenare,on
average,bornashortertimeaftertheirnextoldersiblingsthanareheterosexualmen.Blanchardand
Bogaert(1997d)testedthisprediction.Theyfocusedtheirinvestigationonclosedbirthintervals,thatis,
birthintervalsbeginningwiththebirthofonechildandendingwiththebirthofanotherinthiscase,a
maleprobandofknownsexualorientation.
Theresultswerethatthemeanbirthintervalsprecedingheterosexualandhomosexualmalesarevirtually
identical.Therewas,therefore,nosupportforBlanchardetal.'s(1995)hypothesisthatthecorrelationof
cordbloodhormonelevelsandbirthintervalreportedbyMaccobyetal.(1979)isrelatedtothe
developmentofsexualorientation.Insummary,theeffectofbirthorderonmalesexualorientationisnot
merelyadisguisedeffectofbirthinterval.
Immunologichypotheses.Twoimmunologichypotheseshavebeenofferedtoexplainthelatefraternal
birthorderofhomosexualmen.Thesearetheonlybiologicalexplanationsofthebirthorderphenomenon
thatattempttoexplainitdirectly,ratherthanintermsofparentalageorbirthinterval.
Becauseofthefindingthatoldersistershavenoinfluenceonthesexualorientationoflaterbornmales,
BlanchardandBogaert(1996b)conjecturedthatmalehomosexualitymayresultfromamaternalimmune
reaction,whichisprovokedonlybymalefetuses,andwhichbecomesstrongeraftereachpregnancywitha
malefetus.Theirhypothesiswasbasedpartlyontheargumentthatawoman'simmunesystemwould
appearthebiologicalsystemmostcapableof"remembering"thenumberofmale(butnotfemale)fetuses
thatshehaspreviouslycarriedandofprogressivelyalteringitsresponsetothenextfetusaccordingtothe
currenttallyofprecedingmales.ItshouldbestressedthatBlanchardandBogaert(1996b)didnot
hypothesizethatmaternalimmunereactionsaretheonly,orthemostimportant,causeofhomosexualityin
men.
MacCullochandWaddington(1981),thefirstauthorstoproposeamaternalimmunehypothesisof
homosexuality,suggestedthattherelevantfetalantigenistestosterone.Theyspeculatedthatantibodiesto
testosterone,producedbyawomanpregnantwithamalefetusandpassedthroughtheplacentafromthe
mothertothefetus,couldreducethehormone'sbiologicalactivityandthuscompromisethesexual
differentiationofthefetalbrain.
MacCullochandWaddington's(1981)candidatefortheimmunizingagentseemsunlikelybecausesteroid
hormonesarenotordinarilyantigenic.Therefore,BlanchardandBogaert(1996b)theorizedthatthe
relevantfetalantigenmightbeoneofthemalespecific,Ylinked,minorhistocompatibilityantigens,often
referredtocollectivelyasHYantigen(forareview,seeMuller,1996).HYantigenalmostcertainlyhas
someroleorrolesinthesexualdifferentiationofvertebrates(Wachtel,1983)becauseitisusuallypresent
intheheterogameticandabsentinthehomogameticsexinmammals,presentinmalesandabsentin

femalesandbecauseithasbeenhighlyconservedthroughoutvertebrateevolution(Nakamura,Wachtel,
Lance,&Becak,1987;Wachtel,Koo,&Boyse,1975).Variouslinesofindirectevidencesupportingthe
hypothesisthatmaternalantibodiestoHYmightinfluencesexualorientationhavebeensummarizedby
BlanchardandKlassen(1997).Suchevidenceincludes,forexample,thefindingthatmalemicewhose
motherswereimmunizedtoHYpriortopregnancyaremuchlesslikelytomatesuccessfullywith
receptivefemales(Singh&Verma,1987).
Thematernalimmunehypothesisdoesnotpredictahighmeanbirthorderforhomosexualfemales,because
femalefetusesdonotproduceHYantigen,andtheywouldnotbetargetsofHYantibodies.Thus,the
epidemiologyoffemalehomosexualityiscriticalforthematernalimmunehypothesisofmale
homosexuality:Afindingthathomosexualfemalesalsohaveahighmeanbirthorderwouldeffectively
refutethishypothesis,suggestinginsteadsomepsychosocialmechanismthatoperatesinthesamewayfor
malesandfemales.Asshownearlier,thematernalimmunehypothesisappearstohaveclearedthis
particularhurdle.Thatdoesnot,ofcourse,meanthatithasnowbeenproven.Manyalternative
explanationsmaybepossible.Psychosocialhypotheses,forexample,mightsomehowexplainthefinding
thathomosexualityrelatestosibshipcompositioninmen,butnotinwomen,intermsofthedifferent
socializationofboysandgirls.
Unliketheprenatalhormonetheoryofsexualorientation,whichisbasedpartlyontheexampleofintersex
conditions,suchascongenitaladrenalhyperplasia(e.g.,Zuckeretal.,1996),thematernalimmune
hypothesislacksawellknownhumanmodel.Itisthereforeworthnotingthatneitherthenotionthatmale
andfemalefetusesmayhavedifferenteffectsonsexdimorphictraitsinsubsequentfetusesnorthenotion
thatmaternalantibodiesmayaffectsexualdifferentiationinuteroiscompletelyunprecedented.The
possibilitythatmaleandfemalefetusesmayhavedifferenteffectsontheoutcomeofsubsequent
pregnanciesisdemonstratedbythefindingthatnewbornswitholderbrotherstendtoweighlessthan
newbornswitholdersisters(Magnus,Berg,&Bjerkedal,1985;Trotnow,Bregulla,&Flugel,1976).Birth
weightissexdimorphic,withmalenewborns,onaverage,weighingsubstantiallymorethanfemale
newborns.Thepossibilitythatamaternalimmunereactionmayaffectfetalsexualdevelopmentis
demonstratedbyevidencethatmaternalantibodiestogonadotropinareonecauseofcryptorchidism,thatis,
undescendedtestes(Jobetal.,1988).