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Just an American Guy in an English World

The air hung dry with a multitude of peculiar smells. The combination of whiskey breath
and freshly brewed coffee made an interesting cocktail that was both sickening and lulling. This
was my first time in St. Louis and I was there for a professionalism conference put on by my
fraternity. I was not only tired, but debilitated from the day before and I was in no mood to sit
through more seminars. The five hundred fraternity brothers that sat around me were not only
lethargic looking, but one could tell by their rushed appearance and noxious smell that just hours
prior they had been enjoying a few too many libations with friends. The room buzzed with the
sound of the Midwestern brothers filling each other in on their past night as the headquarters
staff rushed around, trying to get the day started. All of our chairs faced a banquet stage that
leaned slightly to the left, as one could only imagine what had bent the steel reinforcements of
such a large platform. Unexpectedly, the tallest five foot six man I had ever seen stepped up onto
the stage with such bravado and force, it mirrored that of a whip cracking. I had never seen a
human being so well polished in real life, as they had only existed on the covers of magazines.
Flashed immediately on the screen, read Dressing for Success 101: A Brooks Brothers Guide.
This seminar, as a few of us had been warned, was not only a lesson, but was a plug for Brooks
Brothers clothing as well. Before his words broke the stale air, a quote raced across the screen:

I can go all over the world with just three outfits: a blue
blazer and gray flannel pants, a gray flannel suit, and black
tie.
Pierre Cardin

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This quote will be later discussed in the paper, but the important part is that it this simple
statement prompted my attention for the rest of the seminar, which seemed like a blur to me. The
quote was utilized to explain that no matter where you went in the world, it would be a worthy
investment to own some, if not all of these items; once again for Brooks Brothers. As the frat
boys that surrounded me ate up whatever the speaker said, I stared blankly recycling this quote in
my mind. Being an international studies major, I sat there brooding this simple, yet complex
ideology. I had always been a proprietor and follower of fashion since a young age and the
simple universality of fashion had never crossed my mind. Something like fashion that was
supposed to represent culture, ideologies and most importantly in my own eyes, individuality
was universal. How could something as simple as a suit and tie transcend a multitude of borders,
including religious, linguistic and in a world so tumultuous, political borders?
As the year has passed I found myself in a role selling suits and buying from large
fashion conglomerates as a part time job. I had already begun research for this very project, but
had failed to discover the critical link I needed to mold this paper into one that defined
International relations. As I flipped through the stacks of product books, one thing became very
clear to me; the British have had an extremely large impact on the things I was buying and
ordering. Virtually every item that is appropriate in the business space of America, the Midwest
and on an even smaller scale, Dubuque, has some allusion to a universal heritage reaching into
the country known today as the United Kingdom. Whether it was the brands I was ordering or
just the names of the items, so many of themselves found themselves linked to British history or
culture. Whether it was the polo shirts from Tommy Bahama or the oxford shoes from Johnston
and Murphy, both American companies whom possessed undenounced to them, the roots of so
many items had links to British culture. It clicked to me then and there as my boss stood looking

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over my shoulder to ensure that I was not ordering too many Fair Isle sweaters; I had been
unknowingly integrated into a community of British fashion. This imagined community had me
speaking English, playing rugby and even going to classes on a block schedule. These two
revelations are what set the guidelines and formed the foundation of this very project.
The Essence of Britishness1
No nation in the world can display such an impressive record as the British have in world
history. The nation, in 1750 put into play the largest change in human history since the Neolithic
revolution; the Industrial Revolution.2 Their industrial nature along with extremely efficient
agricultural practices allowed Great Britain to morph into one of the worlds first true modern
metropolis. Cities like London grew at an exponential rate. These ideas would spread to the
world, but only at the rate the British could let it out. They were the first industrial nation, putting
them ahead of the curve of the rest of the world. Their ability to produce weapons, food and
manufactured goods outpaced all nations in the rest of the world. The minor British world
presence would soon explode from just a few colonies to that of the largest empire in world
history.
The colonial dominance of the British lasted for centuries, controlling much of the known
world. In its prime, the British Empire covered 13.01 million square miles of land - more than
22% of the earth's landmass. It was a common saying that The sun never sets in the British
1 This a term used in the fashion industry to explain heritage items that historic British companies
manufacture. These items are typically defined as being historic, yet refined. They pay homage to the
techniques and items of years past. The essence of Britishness most notably describes items created by
Barbour and Burberry, two of the most long standing and quintessentially British brands available in the
international market.
2 "81.02.06: The Industrial Revolution." 81.02.06: The Industrial Revolution. Accessed December 20,
2015. http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1981/2/81.02.06.x.html.

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Empire due to its overwhelming size. Translated, the British Empire was the largest empire in
human history. The empire had 458 million people in 1938 more than 20% of the world's
population.3 The British Empire began with overseas colonies and trading posts and in the end
comprised dominions, protectorates, and mandates, as well. The British colonial presence
resounds in virtually all aspects of human life and interaction. Although the vastness of the
empire has collapsed in the days since World War Two, the marks the British left run deep in the
cultures they interacted with throughout their various ventures.
Rudyard Kipling4s The White Mans Burden defines British colonial policy and ideologies
of others that their massive empire controlled throughout much of their colonial history, most
notably in Africa due to the vivid racial differences of their subjects. A straightforward analysis
of the poem may conclude that Kipling presents a "Euro-centric" view of the world, in which
people view a civilized society from the lens of that of a European. This presents a preposition
white people, most notably those from the modernized countries of the world during the time
period, consequently have an obligation to rule over, and encourage the cultural development of
people from other ethnic and cultural backgrounds until they can take their place in the world by
fully adopting Western ways. The term "the white man's burden" can be interpreted simply as
racist, or taken as a metaphor for a condescending view of non-Western national culture and
economic traditions, identified as a sense of European ascendancy which has been called

3"The British Empire." Accessed December 20, 2015.

http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/empire/intro/overview2.htm.
4 Rudyard Kipling was a British short story and poem writer born in Mumbai, India. India, a British
colony left a resounding mark on Kipling and his experiences that defined his writing style. At the age of
5, his parents sent him back to England, where he was wildly unhappy, as he longed to return to the
romanticized landscape of India. His experience in the former colony laid the groundwork for his
imperialist ideologies that fueled him to write the famous poem The White Mans Burden.

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"cultural imperialism". A parallel can also be drawn with the charitable view, common in
Kipling's formative years, that the rich have a moral duty and obligation to help the poor "better"
themselves whether the poor want the help or not until according to Europeans, "they can take
their place in the world socially and economically."5
On a theoretical level, it elucidates the concept of Federico Bertuzzis concept of
Anglonization.6 Anglonization, typically a concept utilized to to describe the proliferation of the
Anglican faith throughout the former British Empire, has a multiplicity of layers and facets to it.
Anglicanism, being uniquely British, carries with it many facets of spreading the culture of the
British as well. In fact, many aspects of British culture were endowed upon their subjects
throughout their vast empire. This includes a multitude of things from political institutions,
societal standards and normative cultural practices. Due to Great Britains prominence in the
world, they generated what can be considered a global standard that like many aspects of
colonialism, are still visible today. Today, the English language is the most predominant language
used in the international realm, as it is typically taught secondarily to the native language if that
language itself is not English. Various other aspects of British society imprinted on the societies
of the world include industrialization, industriousness and refined culture.
The British historically have emanated their refined culture and industriousness into one
thing; their fashion. Very few items in the world are as recognizable as the Edwardian suit,

5 Kipling, Rudyard. 1899. The White Man's Burden. Published simultaneously in The Times, London,
and McClure's Magazine (U.S.) 12 February 1899
6 Bertuzzi defines Anglonization is typically a term used to describe the proliferation of the Anglican
faith throughout the British Empire. His study focuses on the mass Anglonization of missions and
religious institutions in Latin America. These institutions go from catering to a specific group to soon
catering to a globalized (Anglonized) community as opposed to those in Latin America that the missions
were initially formed for.

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Barbour wax jacket or the Burberry trench coat. 7 Each item was developed directly in
correlation of the British dominance in the world as both an industrial and military power. These
items, developed with colonial economies, militaries and officials in mind have proliferated
throughout the world. Some of the first ads for companies like Barbour or Burberry were
targeted directly to colonial audiences. The British Empires fashion sense was carried with them
to their colonial holdings, which subsequently was diffused. The rest of the world took notice
and before the end of the 1800s, both colonized and western powers were adopting British
fashions for their groundbreaking nature, fashionable nature and connection to the most
dominant island the world had ever seen. (See Figure 1).
No matter where you go in the world, the impact the British Empire left is vivid. First and
foremost, the world of sport has been carved deeply by the British as soccer is not only
recognized as the worlds sport, but is by far the most widely played and watched athletic
competition in the world. Sports such as cricket, field hockey and tennis, the next three most
popular sports, are in fact British and spread with the Empires prowess throughout the world,
defining modern sport. The next major impact is language, as the universal language for business
and overall human interaction is English. Even English government has become the model for
that of the world, as the parliament set up by the Magna Carta have defined modern democracies.
Despite a multitude of other impacts the English have left on the history of the world, very
scholars recognize fashion as being one of them, separating my project from the overwhelming
amount of literature about the spread of English culture.
7 The Barbour wax jacket is an item initially invented at the turn of the 19 th century and gained massive
popularity amongst sailors and fishermen in the British colonies due to its waterproof design and the
wearers ability to put wax on it in order to maintain the waterproof seal. It also gained popularity
amongst British statesmen for hunting in the all too precipitous British Isles. The item now garners with it
a status amongst Ivy League men and Washington DC. It is said that you cannot be a Georgetown man
without a Barbour waxed jacket due to its prominence amongst the preppy elite.

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The Dressed Chest: A Walking Historiography

I can go all over the world with just three outfits: a blue
blazer and gray flannel8 pants, a gray flannel suit, and black
tie.
Pierre Cardin9

This quote has emanated a light that truly defines the fashion industry. Although it may be
nearly half a century old, not much has changed. Few quotes define the global fashion industry
quite like this one. It not only sets an industry standard, but a societal standard for how society
views fashion. All in all, the outfits described by Mr. Cardin are universal. These simple concept
defines how people perceive the appropriate methods of dress on a global scale. The fashion
industry explicates one of the most important concepts in the world today; cultural imperialism.
Despite colonialism ending as a whole in the 1980s, its effects resound clearly to this day.
Fashion, a form of art, is made up of cultural components defining a people and in many ways,
granting them visual autonomy. On a global scale, the scope of fashion needs to be analyzed as a
means of culture. Western fashion has geographic history, as it has become the overwhelming
standard of attire in the world. In Zelinskys article, he analyzes the globalization of fashion and
its proliferation throughout the world. This article analyzes the history of mens attire. This also
follows the spread of the fashion becoming the standard for businesses throughout the past
century. This will connect the spread of colonization and fashion throughout not only Africa, but
8 Flannel is a material that was invented by the British as a hardier alternative to most spun fabrics. This
material was extremely popular due to the British Isles being home to a slew of grazing land which is
required to breed sheep which are in turn needed to produce wool.
9 Pierre Cardin is an Italian-born French fashion designer, donning the world with some of the most
famous styles and fashions of the past century. During the 1950s and 60s, he popularized the space age
style. On October 16, 2009, Pierre Cardin was nominated Goodwill Ambassador of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, elevating his status from a global fashion icon to that of a
major player on a societal and political level.

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the world. This article stretches all the way back to the colonial era and how the idea of fashion,
most notably male fashion diffused throughout cultures that had an interest or were forced to
westernize.10
This is what prompts my first research question and draws in a formulated concept of mine.
Most sources only trace the remnants of British prominence in the world to language, sport and
policy. The fashion world is left rather untouched, despite the global prominence of brands like
Burberry. The literature I interacted with as a whole only marked the wearing of suits as
something that just popped up due to colonial rule. I argue that not only the suit is a vivid sign of
Anglonization, but is also a living historiography, defining the past British Empire. Every aspect
of its construction, down to the material resound the profound presence of the British Empire
throughout the past few centuries. The Edwardian Suit, the grandfather and parallel of the suit we
know and wear today, was formulated by the British during their time of colonial prowess. This
suit featured strictly English sensibility, separating itself from the stockings and lace necktie that
was quintessential of the suit that the French had popularized centuries prior. Instead, this piece
featured a necktie, removable collar and wool construction. It left the britches aside for full pants
to combat the colder temperatures in the industrial hubs of England. There was also a motion that
had the tails taken completely off of the suit that had been so quintessential to the French, due to
the fact there was a fear that one could get these tails caught in the large machinery of the
Industrial Revolution. (See Figure 2)
These were all things that were easily accessible to the British, most notably the wool, as
Britain had become synonymous with producing the hardy, but breathable natural fiber for
centuries. In the case of wool, it was the material that perpetuated the industrial revolution.
10 Zelinsky, Wilbur. "Globalization Reconsidered: The Historical Geography of Modern Western Male
Attire." Journal of Cultural Geography 22.1 (2004): 83-134. Web.

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Today, most suits are made from natural fibers, most notably wool or cotton, both materials
being synonymous with the British. The British spread wool production amongst their colonies
to lighten the load due to the popularity of the fiber in the isles. The material was easy to produce
as it was a byproduct of grazing sheep, something the British had ingrained in their economy due
to the islands flat, grasslands.11 The same could be said for the colonies it spread to, whether it
be Australia or even China. All 10 of the top 10 wool producing nations in the world are either
Great Britain themselves or a former British colony/ imperialized state.12 This statistic, when I
discovered it in my research blew my mind. This material that the British popularized during the
industrial revolution and set as the global standard for suit production still left a mark on former
colonies, even to this day. Articles that utilized wool, whether it be coats, suits or sweaters have
become defined as quintessentially British articles of clothing.
In regards to the shirt, the most basic of many garments, the British set the world standard of
all shirts being made of cotton, whether they be for dress or are just a simple t-shirt. Cotton, in
regards to the growing of the crop, needs a relatively warmer climate to harvest and grow. This
made the first ideal place of cotton growth in the British Empire in the American south. Upon the
separation of the former American colony, the British needed a new proprietor of cotton and their
prayers were answered in the form of India. India had a climate in which one could grow cotton
all year round. Cotton itself, due to its hardy makeup, but breathing abilities as a natural fiber,
became the material that colonized the world on the backs of British soldiers which will be
discussed in a later part of this analysis. Cotton was sent to Britain from halfway around the
11 "LABORSTA Internet (E)." LABORSTA Internet (E). Accessed December 20, 2015.
http://laborsta.ilo.org/
12 "Top Wool Producing Countries Of The World | Wool Production." Textile Fashion Study. Accessed
December 20, 2015. http://textilefashionstudy.com/top-wool-producing-countries-of-the-world-woolproduction/.

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world to be transformed into bolts of fabric. This inherently makes the dress shirt that we wear
today carry with it a darker history as cotton was produced with slave labor. The cotton industry
also helped fuel a series of the most deadly famines in history, the Bengal famines that killed an
estimated 20 million people as the British forced the production of cotton while the workers did
not have adequate food.13 It is said that the British occupation in India, which they primarily
utilized for silk production became the land of the worst human engineered genocide over nearly
two and a half centuries, resulting in what some scholars say exceeds one billion deaths in the
span of the British occupation.14 Cotton itself is one of the most blood soaked fabrics in history
due to the British. Cotton, as a material used in shirts, add a more insidious layer to the history
that the British suit carries with it.
The silk necktie, a variation on the historically used long ties, presented an opportunity for
men to depict the colonial prowess of the empire, as silk was an exotic fiber, typically traded to
great Britain from the East. The items that businessmen wear today, are not only defined as
quintessentially British, but are directly reflective of a long history of colonial British
dominance. It added the element to the wardrobe that allowed a man to look not only luxurious,
as silk is still an extremely expensive fabric. The use of a silk necktie allowed a man to
demonstrate that he was worldly, as the fabric explicate the power of the British Empire. Silk is
something that is produced in the orient and after the British acquisition of Hong Kong and a

13 Matey, Rebecca. 2011. "Clothing for Liberation: A Communication Analysis of Gandhi's Swadeshi
Revolution." International Journal Of Communication (19328036) 5, 78-79. Communication & Mass
Media Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed September 20, 2015).
14 Bengal Famine, BBC Radio 4 broadcast (with Dr Gideon Polya, Economics Nobel Laureate
Professor Amartya Sen and other scholars), 4 January
2008:http://www.open2.net/thingsweforgot/bengalfamine_programme.html ; Gideon Polya Jane Austen
and the Black Hole of British History. Colonial rapacity, holocaust denial and the crisis in biological
sustainability, G.M. Polya, Melbourne, 1998, 2008: http://janeaustenand.blogspot.com/ .

P a g e | 11

series of trading posts along the coast of China, the silk trade was run by the British.
Undenounced to most, the British wars in China for economic and political control were some of
the bloodiest wars in recorded history.15 The silk tie is representative of a long winded occupation
that lasted through 1997, as the British legally had control of this island until that time. 16 (See
figure 3).
The male suit has become synonymous with predatory business practices as well. It provides
insight to a collective conscience of colonized nations that has ingrained in their minds the
symbolism of the suit. The colonial governments, businessmen, military officers and minority
powers. This article defines the proliferation in the suits popularity as the international standard.
Design in Global Context explicates the fashion of the world on a global scale. The breakdown
of this article emphasizes how many nations, especially through fashion, are homogenizing. It
analyzes causes like colonialism as a major cause for these issues. South Africa is experiencing
these growing pains as a relatively new country. The westernization of fashion explicates the
resounding effects of colonialism in this nation as well as throughout the world. Most of the
worlds population now live in areas once ruled or controlled by the west, which allowed for
cultures and in this case fashion to diffuse upon the host culture. Fashion, is homogenized is also
analyzed as a means to diffuse certain hatreds, but with the risk of people losing their cultural
identities.

15 Sun, Zhen. "Challenging the dominant stories about the Boxer Rebellion: Chinese Minister Wu TingFang's narrative." Chinese Journal Of Communication 1, no. 2 (June 2008): 196-202. Communication &
Mass Media Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed December 20, 2015).
16 Ng, Michael. "Dirt of whitewashing: re-conceptualising debtors obligations in Chinese business by
transplanting bankruptcy law to early British Hong Kong (1860s1880s)." Business History 57, no. 8
(November 2015): 1219-1247. Business Source Elite, EBSCOhost (accessed December 20, 2015).

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In the end, many nations were forced to adopt British fashion. Correlating with The White
Mans Burden, it was up to the British to dress the native populations in ways that explicated
them being civil. Clothing was a primary separating factor between the British and those they
colonized, as it delineated civility and savagery. It was a British mission to separate their subjects
from their fashion practices at the time and endow upon them the British suit. There was no
choice for the native peoples, as they put down their culturally native garb for the Anglonized
alternative.17 The suit itself is a walking history of the once great British Empire, telling a story
that resounds today.
Anglonization: A Boer of a Story Until the English Come
The British, uniquely found a means to not only colonize the people of different race throughout
their empire, but of the same race. The most obvious instances took place in the neighboring
island of Ireland and the Boers of South Africa. I would say the Americans would meet this
criteria, but the whites of this colony were populated by the British
The Dutch arrived in South Africa first in 1647. This would forever change the landscape
in every manor. Despite being discovered by the Portuguese over a century prior, the Dutch were
the first to develop a settler colony in the area. The maps displayed are ones from the Dutch. One
displays South Africa itself while the other shows a trading map. In the Trading Map, South
Africa is not even displayed, as it was not a place that supplied resources (yet). The map shows
various coastal areas in Africa as well as the Americas, demonstrating the strategic importance of
certain areas at the time. While it would become a new frontier for foreign investors during the

17 Shand, Peter. "Scenes from the Colonial Catwalk: Cultural Appropriation, Intellectual Property
Rights, and Fashion." University of Auckland, New Zealand. Accessed December 20, 2015. http://istsocrates.berkeley.edu/~caforum/volume3/pdf/shand.pdf

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20th and 21st centuries, South Africa had very little importance to the colonizing power of the
Netherlands. 18
The Dutch, in groups by the 1800s started moving further inland, expanding their colony.
First, starting with groups that focused around the familial unit slowly turned into whole
communities moving inland. The native peoples worked with the Dutch in many cases, allowing
them to settle for short periods of time mainlining benevolent relations. In other cases, the Boers
had to go to war. The Khoikhoi people did not like the Dutch incurring on their land. The Boers
fought various skirmishes with the people of the Cape Colony for nearly two centuries, creating
various treaties and other agreements. Then, by the early 1800s, many Boers started moving
inland to avoid more war and farm peacefully.
These Dutch would become the first white generations in South Africa. Many bloodlines can
be traced back to these original settlers. The Dutch. These various generations of White, Dutch
settlers would soon be forced eastward, generating vast conflict. The Dutch settlers at this time,
would claim in the future that they had as much of a stake in South Africa as the native Zulus,
Xhosa and other groups. The Dutch settler population would also be the group to set up
apartheid, racially profiling and segregating the colony of South Africa.
The British soon came to realize the importance of the African colony. The British mogul and
catalyst, Cecil Rhodes looking for larger mineral incomes, the Anglo- Boer War was the
escalated result of British and Boer feelings. With the Boers being forced out of the Cape Colony
50 years earlier, the Boers had no good feelings towards the British. Cecil Rhodes had started
creating his fortune through the diamond reserves in the Cape, but only wanted to expand. The

18 The Colonization of Africa. Accessed January 9, 2015.

http://exhibitions.nypl.org/africanaage/essay-colonization-of-africa.html.

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British were also granted the entirety of the South African colony at the Berlin Conference,
granting them autonomy over the land.19
The War generated various conflicts within the South African Colony. Both Blacks and
Whites fought, primarily on the side of the Dutch. The Blacks were from groups that were not as
large as the Zulus, but still had a stake in the land. The British used propaganda as also depicted
above. The British people were lead to believe their mission in South Africa was just and had to
be achieved. The people believed it would help the empire, but unannounced to them, at a great
cost.20
These conditions put the Dutch on a level with those of the native Africans. A native Dutch
population was effectively subjugated to colonial rule, although it was white. The Dutch had
been in South Africa even before the time of the Zulu empire. In this case, the Dutch Boers were
one of the only imperialized white populations. This in the future would not only create hatred
for the British, but questions about the authenticity of a South African, white or black. The
Dutch, like their South African brethren, had been subjected to a similar rule.
Our Boys in Khaki: A Colonial History
Where might fashion play into a historic conflict that stretches back centuries? It is a conflict
that is defined by a series of oppressors gaining control and oppressing others. The British
subsequently came out on top and with them, they brought their fashion. This included the all too
classic Edwardian (soon after the Neo- Edwardian) suit and the material that would define the

19 Van Rensburg, Hendrik C. J. South Africas Protracted Struggle for Equal Distribution and Equitable
Access Still Not There. Human Resources for Health 12, no. 1 (May 2014): 127. doi:10.1186/14784491-12-26.
20 They Did to the Afrikaners in South Africa during the Anglo-Boer War ... Accessed January 19,
2015. https://images.search.yahoo.com/images/view;_.co.za%2Firish-volunteers-fighting-for-freedom-inanglo-boer-

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nations racial separation in regards to fashion; khaki21 (or more specifically, gabardine).
Throughout my studies, on an aesthetic level, one thing in regards to apparel (which turned into
fashion) was able to define was the overall prowess of the British colonial police and military.
Every picture of the period, I saw them wearing a light olive or khaki color which led me to
formulate the idea that khaki was the color that fueled the British military through much of the
century following the Boer War.
Despite a barrier in language and obvious separation based on skin color, the greatest
differentiator presented by the story are the mans clothes. Jane Tynans book delves into one of
the most important and controversial materials in the nation of South Africa; khaki. This book
elaborates on the history of the British military uniform. The uniform was the first piece of
fashion that was really brought to South Africa in droves. Burberry also planted its roots in South
Africa at this time. This article is to explicate the proliferation of the Burberry brand through
colonialism. They outfitted the British soldiers that defined colonial practice for the early 20th
century.22 These men globalized the Burberry brand. Throughout WWI, this brand also grew on a
massive scale. It was one of the first truly globalized brands, but in South Africa, had a meaning
that was defined by harsh colonial rule and punishment. British soldiers leveraged their power to
marginalize black Africans. (See Figure 4).
Burberry became a sign for the harsh colonial rule as opposed to its original mission of
creating high- end products. The company has had an extremely long, resounding history in
former British colonies due to its popularity at first with the military and then with colonizing
21 Khaki, the color of the material comes from the Hindi word dust, resounding the long history of
control in India as well. The material itself has a controversial history, as it depicts a long history of
colonialism and violence to non- whites, as it was featured in the oppressing military uniforms as well as
the safari suits of those colonizing the land, killing a wide variety of wildlife as trophies.
22Tynan, Jane. British Army Uniform and the First World War: Men in Khaki.

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officials. Burberry itself created many of the garments and jackets utilized by soldiers during the
Boer War on the British side and it was not uncommon for Boer soldiers to take them from the
bodies of dead British officers. Burberry keeps pictures and documents on its website, archiving
the monumental moments of the company and its heritage.23 This picture depicted here is from
1910 and the caption displays that these men are colonial police. These men were responsible for
putting down colonial insurrections and combatting those that did not align with the ideals of
their British colonizers.
Gabardine, the khaki colored fiber has a much darker history. Thomas Burberry, the founder
of the company made Major George Roller a gift of a horse that Thomas described as painfully
small and nondescript and looking like a brown bear. It seems that Burberrys groom had made
a mistake in offering this particular mare. However, time showed that this small beast, named
Gabardine. Gabardine carried Major Roller through the Boer War and he was convinced that the
mares qualities saved his life on more than one occasion during the campaign.24 His heroics on
the horse gifted to him by Thomas Burberry were legendary, instilling fear into not only the
Boers the British were fighting, but the black Africans that foolishly sided with those of Dutch
ancestry. Heritage brands followed Burberry, as Barbour soon starting advertising in South
Africa. (See Figure 5).
Fighting the Power, One Article at a Time
Currently in South Africa, there are a series of regulations and practices followed in order to
avoid friction in the workplace. This is difficult due to such a wide variety of people in the nation

23 Pike, Andy. "Economic Geographies of Brands and Branding." Economic Geography 89, no. 4
(October 2013): 317-339. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed December 20, 2015).
24 "Portrait of Major George Conrad Roller." Portrait of Major George Conrad Roller. Accessed
December 20, 2015. http://www.jssgallery.org/paintings/portrait_of_major_george_conrad_roller.htm.

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and a resurgence of Africanism. In South Africa, as explained prior, historical context, climate
both physical and culturaland globalization also play a crucial role in how people choose to
present themselves through fashion. This area is extremely tumultuous, as some groups fashion
choice can generate conflict in the South African workplace.
In Grants expose on business fashion in the South African workplace, various guidelines
as well as articles of clothing, are used to generate tensions between certain groups based on a
long history. Her piece focuses on how Africans gave into much of the pressure presented by
missionary and colonial forces led to the adoption of western dress. She explains that much of
the Africans surrendered to this pressure, many relinquishing their African identities in the
process. Clothing to many groups was a cultural identifier and was able to explicate much about
the person in the society they were a part of.
Her study describe how much resistance, especially in the post- apartheid workplace has
taken place. Even where Western dress was adopted, it was common for the Black Africans to
challenge the homogenous forms of dress in their own way
Thus, a formal button-down shirt may cover (or be covered by) an indigenous
article, or a leather neck or wristband may be exposed at shirt collar or cuff. Ties
as belts were also popular (Ramaite & Mdhluli, 2008). This cocking a snoot at
normative expectations and the powers that be has lived on in the popular
Mandela shirt, a loose-fitting, colorful, casual shirt worn over trousers (not
tucked in) and without a tie.25

These clothing choices challenged the accepted, Anglonized standard and in many ways,
Africanized them. It was a way of generating a sense of societal and cultural autonomy as a
people. In many ways, it was defined as a method of resistance, angering the typically white
25 Grant, Terri, and Gaontebale Nodoba. "DRESS CODES IN POST-APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICAN
WORKPLACES." Business Communication Quarterly 72, no. 3 (September 2009): 360-365. Business
Source Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed September 20, 2015).

P a g e | 18

managerial workers in companies as the black employees that conduct behaviors as such did not
fit the idealized standard of dress in their workplace.
This dress code made famous by Nelson Mandela, South Africas first post-apartheid
president, changed the face of parliament and became a fashion statement, emulated by others
both Black and White. Ironically, the Mandela shirt is not traditionally African. The first such
batik-inspired silk shirt was presented by Desr Buirski26, a White fashion designer, to President
Mandela as a lighthearted gift. However, by embracing it so wholeheartedly, ordering dozens
more and wearing them to an array of formal business and political gatherings, Mandela may
have been signaling friendly change not only of regime but also of formality and
ethnic/cultural exclusivity. Buirskis designs of the Mandela shirts expressed Madibas
(Mandelas Xhosa clan name) fresh approach to international official business dress. These
shirts have been enthusiastically embraced as far afield as the United States. Although he did so
far more diplomatically Mandela was not the first to rebel in this way. (See figure 6).
When the Afrikaner Nationalist Party ousted the pro-England United Party Government
in the 1940s, the traditional English workplace suit and tie were often replaced by an opennecked khaki or beige safari suit. This is almost comical, due to the fact that the beige safari suit
had been synonymous with the British military and their prowess. The beige safari suit was
famously adorned by none other than Cecil Rhodes, the catalyst to the Boer War that put so many
Afrikaners in internment camps, oppressing another white, western dominated people on a level
not seen until Hitlers purging of Jews. There is an irony in this switching to the khaki suit, as its
long British history explicated how the Dutch, being involve in the globalized world and its

26 Buirski is an Afrikaaner fashion designer. Her generation of the Mandela shirt and its adoption
though, was seen as being particularly of that of Black Africans, as they commonly featured famous and
predominant patterns popular with various Black groups in the nation.

P a g e | 19

economy had in this sense, Anglonized by a British standard of practice, whether unknowingly or
on purpose.
MNTANOM'GQUBA27
Due to a long history of colonial oppression, western fashion companies walk a fine line in
regards to generating their own hybridized designs. There has been an argument that the designs
that feature both African and Anglicized fashions should only be a one way street due to the
sensibility of black Africans being affected due to the misuse and disenfranchisement presented
as these western companies commoditize their culture. There is a conceptualized idea that
hybridity is the future of maintaining the culture of black Africans in post- apartheid South
Africa, but at the cost of them marketing their culture. Companies like Burberry have met
massive retaliation through the misuse of African pattern in western garments, as many African
designers felt that the English company had robbed them of part of their culture and used it to
turn a profit. Not to mention many African patterns are utilized as story pieces, being unique to
the people that crate them. Through their misuse, many black Africans feel that their culture is
being made a mockery of.
Still, to this day, many western brands reign supreme in the landscape of South Africa.
These include Burberry, Ralph Lauren and a whole slew of others. These brands, despite having
deep rooted colonial histories have rooted themselves in the collectivized global conscience as
being luxurious and a target for what all should strive for. The idea that these brands present an
elite class that one may not be able to reach, but one can dress themselves in the fashion of these
people. These brands have a large audience in South Africa due to the fact that 20% of the nation
27 This is a term utilized by Laduma to explain his brand Maxhosa. His brand explicates this quality, as
it is translated into English as a celebration of dark skin tones contrasted with bright hues to elevate the
appreciation of colour diversity. The goal of his brand is to celebrate both the races and cultures of South
Africa, no matter the colonial history.

P a g e | 20

has white descendants. This creates a qualm because many of the whites, most notably the white
Afrikaners have had a presence in South Africa as long, if not longer than many blacks, most
notably those of the Zulu and Xhosa polity. If these brands, are removed, many whites will be
stripped of their cultural fashions. South Africans have even found ways to imitate the fashion
brands of the west. A brand known as Polo South Africa features the same polo player logo as the
Ralph Lauren line, but facing a different. In the eyes of the owner, the brands are completely
different and unrelated, despite selling many of the same items.28
Through the marketing materials of both western and South African brands, there are not many
differences. The hybridization of both Anglo ideologies and that of black South Africans is vivid,
as through an attempt to commoditize an aspect of their culture, seeking not only to preserve it,
but to share it with the world. Below, the similarities between some of the most famous global
fashion companies and that of the small designer Laduma are elucidated, despite Laduma trying
to create something uniquely South African.
(See Figure 7). Featured here is one of the most famous Ralph Lauren ads run in recent
years. This ad was featured on the Ralph Lauren website as well as on billboards from Hong
Kong to London to South Africa. It features a multicultural group of men adorned in sweaters
that could be defined as being quintessential to an elite class. They wear knit wear, along with
suits, blazers and sport coats, depicting a classical British nature in the pieces, but also how they
are also fashion forward. The white color is rather avant garde, as these are not typical of
outerwear or knitwear to the colors impracticality. Other than white, the men wear khaki, a
quintessentially British color. The tweed blends of the sport coats featured have their roots on the
British Isles where they initially gained popularity amongst statesmen and most notably those
28 "Polo SA Not Polo Ralph Lauren." Times LIVE. Accessed December 20, 2015.
http://www.timeslive.co.za/lifestyle/2014/03/10/polo-sa-not-polo-ralph-lauren.

P a g e | 21

attending the most elite institutions in the world, either Oxford or the Ivy League schools dotting
the United States east coast. One man holds a cricket bat, a sport spread and popularized by the
British. This sport is mainly played in former colonies, as it is the national sport of India while it
holds wide national following in countries like South Africa, Australia and Sri Lanka. This ad,
although seeming harmless, depicts the globalized world of fashion along with the colonial
undertones, as Ralph Lauren is a United States based company, a country that was also colonized
by the British.
(See Figure 8). This ad is featured by an internationally awarded brand by Xhosa designer
Laduma.29 Laduma got the idea to create this brand called Maxhosa in order for Xhosa men to
have appropriately decorated knitwear for their coming of age ceremony in their culture. Each
sweater has a different series of shapes and artwork that originated with Xhosa beadwork, which
unlike western fashion pieces, took hundreds of hours to create. Each pattern tells a specific story
and ingrained in each sweater is the voice of the Xhosa people. These sweaters, although
featuring bright colors and native patterns, do not differ too far from the anglicized ad above.
Knitwear itself is predominantly a British creation to combat the weather of the islands they call
home. The various articles of clothing from the paddy cap to the oxfords have a British origin.
Even the shirts that the men wear are called oxford shirts, named after the English institution.
These sweaters, much like the shirts worn by Madiba generate a sense of hybridity between the
cultural fashions of the Black Africans as well as the global, anglicized standard.30 Here, it is
clear that there is a crossroads met by two cultural fashion practices. Although this ad does not

29 Laduma has received numerous achievements and captures the hearts of many fashion lovers and
media from South Africa, London, Paris, Amsterdam, Oslo, Berlin and New York. Ngxokolo recently won
the 2015 Vogue Italia Scouting for Africa prize to showcase his collections at the Palazzo Morando Show
in Milan, Italy. Furthermore, Ngxokolo was awarded the 2014 WeTransfer Scholarship to study masters in
Material Futures at the Central St. Martins until 2016.

P a g e | 22

feature those of European descent, Laduma tends to feature white models in his marketing work
as well as his fashion shows that have gained international attention.
Despite Maxhosa reaching out to those specifically in South Africa, its prominence will not be
overwhelming Ralph Lauren any time soon. Ralph Lauren is featured in Forbes Top 100
International companies, dwarfing Maxhosa.31 It is a brand that has become synonymous with the
American dream and success. This brand has gained international fame through its affordable,
but luxurious designs. From a Midwestern fraternity member to a weekending Chinese
businessman, the global magnitude of this brand remains obvious. The prices of each brand,
sadly, directly parallel each other. Even though Ralph Lauren has sweater that run up in the
thousands of dollars, their average pieces made from the same blends and featuring similar
models as Maxhosa share essentially the same prices, ranging from approximately 150- 250usd.
At this rate, the hybrid nature of Maxhosa does not reach out to this global, Anglonized
community as Ralph Lauren does.
The attempt at hybridity between the anglicized fashion of the former colonizers and the black
Africans have been met with mixed reviews by those of each group. The success of Mandelas
shirt explicates that hybridity itself is possible in the nation of South Africa, as described in the
previous section.32 Otherwise, the black Africans do not want to disenfranchise their own cultures
by following in the steps of the British. There is also hesitation in regards to letting white
30 Radder, Laetitia. 1996. "INTERNATIONAL NOTE: THE MARKETING PRACTICES OF
INDEPENDENT FASHION RETAILERS: EVIDENCE FROM SOUTH AFRICA." Journal Of Small
Business Management 34, no. 1: 78-84. Business Source Elite, EBSCOhost (accessed September 20,
2015).
31 2014. "Apparel Retail Industry Profile: South Africa." Apparel Retail Industry Profile: South Africa 133. Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed September 20, 2015).
32 Notes." Nation 73, no. 1879 (July 4, 1901): 10. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed
September 20, 2015).

P a g e | 23

designers using African patterns due to the historically based exploitation of the blacks of the
nation.33
Other nations have attempted to gain cultural autonomy as well by means of fashion and dress.
In regards to fighting the control of Anglonization, there have been two means that I recognized
through interacting with my literature. The first being that of Gandhis policy of Swadeshi.
Swadeshi translates to of ones country. His philosophy behind this practice was so the Indian
people could gain a sense of self-actualization through producing their own domestic goods. In
regards to fashion, he advocated for Indians to weave their own fabric and furthermore make
their own clothing. Gandhi began a movement that promulgated the first attempt to gain cultural
autonomy through clothing. Many peoples held onto their clothing practices, but none, like
Gandhi went from wearing an English suit, reverted back to their old ways and demanded that
such a change take place on such a large scale. Gandhis time practicing law, most notably in
South Africa feature him wearing the suit of his British oppressors. He gained fame while being
strangled by the silk tie that he would eventually throw to the wayside. Gandhis reversion
inspired many other peoples to throw away their suits and despite their being a cultural spin on
the British suit, its universal nature maintains its prominence. In the case of Zimbabwe, massive
levies are placed on incoming fabric and clothing items. Robert Mugabe believes that this is the
first step to gaining a sense of cultural identity through their own clothes.34 This has aided in
regards to Zimbabwe developing their own domestic fashion industry with some developmental

33 Farber, Leora. 2010. "Africanising hybridity? Toward an Afropolitan aesthetic in contemporary South
African fashion design." Critical Arts: A South-North Journal Of Cultural & Media Studies 24, no. 1:
128-167. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost(accessed September 20, 2015).
34 "Zimbabwe President Robert Mugabe: Dictator, Fashion Mogul, Or Both?" International Business
Times. March 15, 2013. Accessed December 20, 2015. http://www.ibtimes.com/zimbabwe-presidentrobert-mugabe-dictator-fashion-mogul-or-both-1128697.

P a g e | 24

holes in regards from essentially being shut off from much of the fashion world. If South Africa
were to utilize these models, there would have to be a major shift in the industries of the nation,
most notably in agriculture to support the production of wool and cotton.35
Conclusion: As a whole, the British left its mark on the world which is still visible in todays
world. Few scholars have recognized how the British utilized to suit on not only a colonizing
mission, but how it has a historiography of their empire. As far as fashion in South Africa goes,
none of the literature I interacted with defined a history of fashion or didnt accredit many roots
to the British military. Their response of hybridity is extremely unique and has been unseen in
most of the world as a response in an attempt to gain cultural autonomy through fashion. The
whites and blacks in South Africa have been there for centuries and it is obvious that neither will
leave any time soon. Fashion, by battling Anglonization has brought some groups together, but
when does a culture begin to commodity itself. As a young nation, South Africa still needs to
write its own future as the world looks on.
Appendix

Figure 1: Pictured here is a

gentleman wearing the
classic Edwardian Suit. This
suit is the predecessor to
that which we wear
nowadays. The major
differences include the
double breasted vest, paper
collar and looser fitting jacket
and trousers.

Figure 2: This gentleman

is wearing what fashion
experts would trace to
the era of French
dominance in the world.
His outfit features a large
lace caravat, britches
and long tails on a
petticoat. This suit was
unsuitable for industrial
England.
Figure 4:
Featured is an
ad from the
London Times
circa 1910,
Figure 6:
drawn by Major
Nelson
George Conrad
Figure 5:
Mandela, even
Roller. It
Barbour
in his later
features a
Began
stages of life,
colonial
35 Narunsky-Laden, Sonja. "Cultural economy
in post-transitional South
Africa." Critical Arts:
A Southadvertising
adorned
mounted
within
only
a
North Journal Of Cultural & Media Studies 24, no. 1 (March 2010):policeman
1-30. Academic Search Complete,
himself with
few year of
the shirt from
braving the
EBSCOhost (accessed September 20, 2015).
its founding.
the Boer
harsh elements
Figure 3: Pictured is the Neo- Edwardian This ad
designer. He is
in the Burberry
suit that we wear today. The jacket is a made its
the first true
gabardine
wool flannel textile while the shirt is a way all the
representation
jacket. (photo
broadcloth cotton. The tie remains a knitway to South
of hybrid
courtesy
silk fiber. (photo courtesy
Africa, Hong
nature in
thedressedchest.instagram)
Kong and
South African
Chile via the
History

P a g e | 25

Figure 1: Polo Ralph Lauren Ad used as a marketing piece in a multitude of countries.

(Photo courtesy of Polo.RalphLauren.com)

Figure 2: Laduma's Maxhosa is depicted here. This is one of the earlier

marketing campaigns for the company. (Photo courtesy of Maxhosa.sa.za)