First Edition - 2009 | Electrical Machines - Il -j ie Technical Publications Pune”Chapter-1 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines (1-4) to(1- 64) Chapter-2 Three Phase Induction Motors [Characteristics and Analysis] (2 - 1) to (2-112) Chapter-3 Circle Diagram (3-1) to (3 - 30) Chapter-4 Starting and Speed Control of Induction Motor (4-1) to (4-44) Chpater-5 Single Phase Induction Motors (5 - 1) to (5 - 30) Chapter-6 Synchronous Generator (Alternator) (6 - 1) to (6 - 82) Chapter-7 Synchronization and Parallel Operation of Alternators (7-1) to (7 - 92) Chapter-8 Synchronous Motors (8 - 1) to (8 - 78) Chapterwise University Questions with Answer (P- 1) to(P - 18) (3)Use of clear, plain and lucid language making the understanding very easy. {# Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. ' \# Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. { Important concepts are highlighted using Key Points throughout the book. : Large number of solved examples. ‘ i ! i ! Approach of the book resembles class room teaching. Book provides detailed insight into the subject. Stepwise explanation to mathematical derivations for easier understanding. Best of Technical Publications As per Revised Syllabus of RTU Semester - IV [EE] _ Power Electronics - II Godse, Bakshi Digital Electronics Godse Electrical Machines - I Bakshi | Circuit Analysis - I oe Bakshi Oo]Electrical Machines - II aa ae Uday A. Bakshi M. E(Electrical) Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg. Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune Mayuresh V. Bakshi M. E.(Electrical) ‘Assistant Professor in Department of Electrical Engg. BR.AC.T's V1LI.T. Kondhwa, Pune Visit us at: www.ytubooks.com ==] ‘ Foi e Technical Publications Pune eed Sis i= Electrical Machines - Il ISBN 9788184316070 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. No port of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mecharical, Photocopy or ary information storage and retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by ; ‘Technical Publications Pune” #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, India. Printer : Ae DTPriters Sino. 10/3 Sinhiged Rod, Pine - 411 041 SR: a aPrelaceic © The importance of Electrical Machines is well known in various engineering fields. Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this book. The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Electrical Machines - Il. The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, practical examples and solved problems. All chapters in this book are arranged in a proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All core has been taken to make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject. The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject. This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the subject teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more. We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous eccesions by our whole families. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality printing. Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged ond well appreciated. Authors U. A. Bakshi M. V. Bakshi Dedicated to Mrs. Nisha Bakshi and Sushama BakshiCopyrighted materialTable of Contents 1.1 Introduction .. 1.2 General Construction of Rotating Machines 1.3 Synchronous Machines. 4.3.4 Working Principle . 1.4 Three Phase Winding in A.C. Machines 4.4.1 Winding Terminologies . . 1.4.2 Types of Three Phase Windings “ 1.4.2.4 Single Layer and Double Layer Winding . . 14.2.2 Ful Pitch and Short Pitch Winding... . 1.4.2.3 Concentrated and Distributed Winding... . . 1.5 E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator. 4.5. Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (Ke) . 1.5.2 Distribution Factor (Ke) 1.5.2.1 Derivation of Distribution Facior . . 4.8.3 Generalized Expression for EMF. Equation of an Alternator 1.5.4 Line Value of Induced E.M. 1.6 Harmonics... 1.6.1 Slot Harmonics: 1.6.2 Harmonics Minimization 1.7 Effect of Harmonic Components on an Induced e.m.f. 1.7.1 Effect of Harmonic Components on Pitch Factor . . 1.7.2 Effect of Harmonic Components on Distribution Factor 1.7.3 Total ¢.m{. Generated due to Harmonic Components. . . 1.8 M.M.F. of Distributed A.C. Windings 1.8.1 MME. Space Wave of a Single Coil . 1.8.2 M.M.F. Space Wave of One Phase of Distributed Winding 1.9 Rotating Magnetic Field atethomatiel Approach) 1.9.1 Speed of Rotating Magnetic Field . 1.9.2 Direction of Rotating Magnetic Field. . 1.9.3 Peak Value of Rotating Magnetic Field .1.10 Flux and M.M.F. Phasors in Synchronous Machines... 1.11 Rotating Magnetic Field (Vector Approach) Examples with Solutions Review Questions... "Three Phase Induction Motors {Characteristics and Analysis] _ 2.4 Introduction ... 2.2 Concept of Slip Rings and Brush Assembly... 2.3.2 Rotor. 2.3.2.4 Squirel Cage Rotor 2.3.2.2 Slip Ring Rotor or Wound Rotor 2.3.2.3 Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor . . 2.4 Working Principle 2.4.1 CanN=Ns?.. 2.5 Slip of Induction Motor. 2.6 Types of Induction Motor .. 2.7 Effect of Slip on Rotor Parameters .. 2.7.1 Effect on Rotor Frequency ....... - 2.7.2 Effect on Magnitude of Rotor Induced E.M-F. 2.7.3 Effect on Rotor Resistance and Reactance . 2.7.4 Effect on Rotor Power Factor 2.7.5 Effect on Rotor Current... . . 2.8 Induction Motor as a Transformer. 2.10 Condition for Maximum Torqué 2.10.1 Magnitude of Maximum Torque 2.11 Torque-slip Characteristics . 2.11.1 Full Load Torque ........ 2.11.2 Generating and Braking Region 2.12 Torque Ratios 2.12.4 Full Load and Maximum Torque Ri 2.12.2 Starting Torque and Maximum Torque Ratio . 2.13 Speed-torque Characteristics .....2.14 Effect of Change in Rotor Resistance on Torque . 2.15 Losses in Induction Motor... 2.16 Power Flow Diagram for an Induction Motor 2.17 Relationship between P,, P,, ANd P,, sssssessssesssseessesesn 2.17.1 Derivation of k in Torque Equation . 2.18 Efficiency of an Induction Motor.. 2.19 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor 2.19.1 Approximate Equivalent Circuit... .. 2.19.2 Power Equations from Equivalent Circuit 2.19.3 Maximum Power Output . 2.19.4 Maximum Torque. . 2.19.5 Synchronous Watt. 2.20 Phasor Diagram of Induction Moto! 2.21 Effect of Harmonics on Performance of 3 Phase Induction Motor....2 - 62 2.21.1 Crawling 2.21.2 Cogging . 2.22 Special Rotor Constructions 2.22.1 Deep Bar Rotor Construction . 2.22.2 Double Cage Rotor Constructior 2.22.3 Comparison of Single Cage and Double Cage Motors. 2.23 Applications... 2.24 Induction Generator 2.24.1 Circle Diagram of Induction Generator. 2.24.2 Comparison of Induction Generator and Synchronous Generator . 2.24.3 Advantages. . . . 2.24.4 Disadvantages 2.24.5 Applications . .. 2.28 Induction Regulator Examples with Solutions. Review Questions 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Circle Diagram for a Series R- L Circuit. 3.3 Circle Diagram of a 3 Phase Induction Motor....3.4 Obtaining Data to Plot Circle Diagram. 3.5 No Load Test .. 3.5.1 Separating No Load Losses 3.6 Blocked Rotor Test.. 3.7 Construction of the Circle Diagram... 3.7.1 Predicting Performance from Circle Diagram 3.7.2 Maximum Quantities... 3.7.3 Full Load Condition . . . . 3.8 Load Test on Three Phase Induction Motor. Examples with Solutions..... Review Questions 4.1 Introduction ..... 4.2 Necessity of Starter 4.2.1 Types of Starters. . 4.3 Stator Resistance Starter 4.3.1 Relation between Ts: and Tr . 4.4 Autotransformer Starter 4.4.1 Relation between Ts and Tri. 4.5 Star - Delta Starter 4.5.1 Ratio of Ta to Tru. . 4.6 Rotor Resistance Starter. 4.8.4 Calculation of Steps of Rotor Resistance Starter 4.7 Direct On Line Starter (D.O.L.) .. 4.8 Speed Control of Three Phase Induction Motor.. 4.9 Supply Frequency Control or V/f Control 4.10 Supply Voltage Control 4.11 Controlling Number of Poles 4.11.1 Consequent Poles Method . . 4.14.2 Multiple Stator Winding Method 4.11.3 Pole Amplitude Modulation Method. 4.12 Adding Rheostats in Stator Circuit 4.13 Adding External Resistance in Rotor Circui 4.14 Cascade Control... 4.15 Injecting Slip-Frequency E.M.F. into Rotor Circuit 4.15.1 Kramer System ee SRAM4.15.2 Scherbius System 4.16 Electric Braking of an Induction Motor . 4.16.1 Dynamic or Rheosiatic Braking............ 4.16.2 Plugging 4.16.3 D.C, Dynamic Braking 4.16.4 Regenerative Braking Examples with Solutions . Review Questions Chpater- 5. Si Single Phase duction Motors : 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Construction of Single Phase Induction Motors 5.3 Working Principle .... 5.4 Double Revolving Field Theory. 5.4.1 Torque-Speed Characteristics. 5.5 Cross Field Theory.., 5.6 Types of Single Phase Induction Motors 5.7 Split Phase Induction Motor.. 5.7.1 Appiications...........65 5.8 Capacitor Start Induction Motors 5.8.1 Applications... .. 5.9 Shaded Pole Induction Motors 5.9.1 Appications.. . 5.10 Equivalent Circuit of ‘Single Phase Induction Motor... 5.10.1 Without Core Loss. 5.10.2 With Core Loss 5.11 Conducting Tests on Single Phase Induction Motor. 5.11.1 No Load Test. 5.11.2 Blocked Rotor Test Examples with Solution: Review Questions. Chapter 6.1 Introduction . 6.2 Difference between D.C. Generator and Alternator 6.2.1 Concept of Stip Rings and Brush Assembly... . 6.3 Advantages of Rotating Field Over Rotating ‘Armature...6.4 Construction... 6.5 Stator 6.6 Rotor 6.6.1 Salient Pole Type. . 6.6.2 Smooth Cylindrical Type. 6.6.3 Difference between Salient and Cylindrical Type of Rotor. 6.7 Excitation System ..... 6.7.1 Brushless Excitation System . 6.8 Methods of Ventilation 6.9 Working Principle .. 6.9.1 Mechanical and Electrical Angle. 6.9.2 Frequency of Induced EMF. 6.9.3 Synchronous Speed (N,). . 6.10 Equation of Induced E.M. 6.11 Introduction to Armature Flux.. 6.12 Parameters of Armature Winding. 6.13 Armature Resistance .... 6.14 Armature Leakage Reactance 6.15 Armature Reaction. 6.15.1 Unity Power Factor Load. 6.15.2 Zero Lagging Power Factor Load ... ‘ 6.15.3 Zero Leading Power Factor Load ...... 0... sesseeeeeereeeee 6.15.4 Armature Reaction Reactance (Xs). . i 6.16 Concept of Synchronous Reactance and Impedance. 6.17 Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator ..... 6.18 Voltage Equation of an Alternator... 6.13 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator 6.19.1 Lagging Power Factor Load 6.19.2 Leading Power Factor Load 6.19.3 Unity Power Factor Load... 6.20 Voltage Regulation of an Alternator 6.21 KVA Rating of an Altemator.... 6.22 Methods of Determining the Regulation... 6.23 Voltage Regulation by Direct Loading 6.24 Synchronous Impedance Method or E.M.F. Method6.24.1 Open Circuit Test. . . ee ee ee ce) 6.24.2 Short Circuit Test. 6.24. 3Determinaion of from OC.C. and S. 3c. 6.24.4 Regulation Calculations. 6.24.5 Advantages and Limitations of Synchronous Impedance Method. 6.25 M.M.F. Method of Determining Regulation ... 6.26 Potier's Triangle Method or Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Method .. 6.26.1 Open Circuit Test .. 6.26.2 Zero Power Factor Test, 6.26.3 Use of Potier Reaciance to Determine Regulation 6.26.4 Assumptions used in Potier Method . . 6.27 ASA Modification of M.M.F. Method Examples with Solutions. Review Questions 7.1 Introduction . 7.1.1 Necessary Conditions for Synchronization 7.2 Synchronization of Single Phase Alternators . 7.2.1 Lamps Dark Method. 7.2.2 Lamps Bright Method 7.3 Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators 7.4 Synchronization by Synchroscope..... 7.5 Synchronizing Current 7.6 Theory of Cylindrical Rotor Machines 7.7 Operating Characteristics 7.8 Power Angle Characteristics. 7.9 Operation at Constant Load with Variable Excitation. 7.10 Operation at Constant Excitation with Variable Loa 7.11 Synchronizing Power .. 7.11.1 Expression for Synchroni 7.11.2 Synchronizing Torque (Tsv) 7.11.3 Effect of Load on Synchronizing Power 7-20 7.12 Blondel's Two Reaction Theory (Theory of Salient Pole Machine). 7-21 7.42.1 Direct and Quadrature Axis Synchronous Reaclances . 7-23 7.12.2 Detail Analysis of Phasor Diagram... 22.2... .cccceeee 1 TB7.13 Determination of X, and X, using Slip Test. 7.14 Expression of Synchronizing Power for Salient Pole Machine . 7.15 Parallel Operation of Two Alternators 7.16 Effect of Change in Excitatior 7.16.1 Altemator on No Load . 7.16.2 Altemator on Load .. 7.46.3 Phasor Diagram... 2.2... .e.- 7.18. Division of Load between Two Atnator, 7.47 Effect of Change in Input os or Mechanical al Ties 7.47.4 Altemator on No Load . 7.47.2 Altemator on Load 7.47.3 Phasor Diagram . . 7.18 Alternators Connected to Infinite Bus Bar. 7.48.1 Effect of Excitation . . 7.18.1.1 Altemator on No Lead 7.48.1.2 Alternatoron Load... . 7.18.2 Effect of Driving Torque . . 7.19 Capability Curves Examples with Solutions .. Review Questions. 8.1 Introduction 8.1.4 Types 8.2 Consiruction of Three Phase Synchronous Motor... 8.3 Principle of Working... 8.4 Why Synchronous Motor is Not Self Starting ? 8.5 Procedure to Start a Synchronous Motor... 8.6 Methods of Starting Synchronous Motor.. 8.6.1 Using Pony Motors . 8.6.2 Using Damper Winding. 8.6.3 As a Slip Ring Induction Motor 8.64 Using Small D.C, Machine . 8.7 Behaviour of Synchronous Motor on meen 8.7.1 Ideal Condition on No Load . cone 8.7.2 Synchronous Motor on No Load nh Losses)8.7.3 Synchronous Motoron Load .......... 60.00.66 8.7.4 Constant Excitation Cirle ................ 8.7.5 Torques in Synchronous Motor . ... 8.8 Analysis of Phasor Diagram.. 8.9 Operation of Synchronous Motor at Constant Load Variable Excitation ..... 8.9.1 Under Excitation 8.9.2 Over Excitation .. 8.9.3 Critical Excitation 8.10 V-Curves and Inverted V-Curves.. 8.10.1 Experimental Setup to Obtain V-Curves. 8.11 Expression for Back E.M.F. or Induced E.M.F. per Phase in Synchronous Motor (Eps)... 8.12 Power Flow in Synchronous Motor ... 8.13 Alternative Expression for Power Developed by a Synchronous Motor..... 8.14 Condition for Maximum Power Developed. 8.14.1 The Value of Maximum Power Developed... .. 8.14.2 Condition for Excitation When Motor Develops (P.,.) ns. + 8.15 Two Reaction Theory for Synchronous Motor ... 8.16 Blondel Diagram [Constant Power Circle] 8.17 Hunting in Synchronous Motor... 8-20 8-26 8-28 8-30 8-32 8-39 8.17.4 Use of Damper Winding to Prevent Huntin, 8-40 8.18 Synchronization with infinite Bus Bar 8-40 8.19 Synchronous Condensers... 8-42 8.19.1 Disadvantages of Low Power Factor 8-42 8.19.2 Use of Synchronous Condenser in Power Factor Improvement ~ 8-43 8.20 Applications of Three Phase Synchronous Motor.. 8.21 Comparison of Synchronous and Induction Motor 8.22 Synchronous Induction Motor .... 8.22.1 Performance Characteristics of Synchronous Induction Motors. 8.22.2 Advantages of Synchronous Induction Motor. . . 8.22.3 Disadvantages of Synchronous Induction Motor . 8.22.4 Applications of Synchronous Induction Motor 8.23 Reluctance Motor.. 8.23.1 Working Principle . - 8-498.23.2 Mativernatical Analysis ...... 2... cseecseeeserreceeeeeeeeeteceeeeeenenees 8.23.3 Torque-Speed Characteristics 8.234 Advantages..........0+ 8.23.5 Limitations .... 8.23.6 Applications .. . 8.24 Hysteresis Motor... 8.24.1 Mathematical Analysis 8.24.2 Torque-Speed Characteristics 8.24.3 Advantages. 8.24.4 Applications Examples with Solution: Review Question:Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines 1.1 Introduction In the rotating electrical machines an electromechanical energy conversion takes place. In all the rotating electrical machines, a change in flux is closely associated with the mechanical motion to cause electromechanical energy conversion. When mechanical input energy is converted to an electrical energy the machine is called a generator. The electrical energy is produced in the form of a generated voltage or em. If this emf. is constant, the machine is called d.c. generator while if it is alternating, the machine is called a.c. generator or an alternator. When electrical input energy is converted to a mechanical energy then the machine is called a motor. If input electrical energy is in the form of d.c. voltage it is called d.c. motor and if it is in the form of ac. voltage it is called as ac. motor. Thus various electrical rotating machines are classified as a.c. machines and d.c. machines. Many features of all these rotating machines are same. The various general expressions such as torque, generated voltage etc. are applicable to all these rotating machines. Thus all these machines work on the same basic principle. 1.2 General Construction of Rotating Machines It is known that whenever there is relative motion between a conductor and the flux, the e.m.f, is induced in the conductor. This is the principle of a generator. While whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field then it experiences a mechanical force, which is the principle of a motor. Hence every rotating machine must posses following parts, 1. Stationary member called stator. 2. Rotating member called rotor. 3. Shaft 4. Slip ring, brush assembly 5. Bearings Now these are the mechanical parts which machine must possess. In addition to these a machine has, 1. An arrangement of winding which is used as a primary source of flux when current is passed through it. This is called field winding or exciting winding. (1-1)Electrical Machines - fl 41-2 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines 2. An arrangement of conductors to form a winding in which emf. is induced. This is called an armature winding. The current flowing through the field winding, used to produce main flux is called magnetizing current, exciting current or field current. The current flowing through the armature winding varies as the load on the machine varies. So it is called a load current or an armature current. The current in the field winding is always dc. There is an appropriate air gap between a stator and a rotor of the machine, In most of machines armature winding is placed on the stator while the field winding is placed on the rotor from practical convenience point of view. Both stator and rotor are made up of high grade magnetic material such as silicon steel. It provides low reluctance path to the flux. The construction used for stator and rotor is laminated so as to keep eddy current losses as low as possible. In practice, it is required to feed in or take out power from the rotor which is a rotating member of the machine. Thus a communication between a rotation member and the stationary outside device is necessary. This is achieved using slip ring and brush assembly. The slip rings are connected to the rotor winding and rotate along with the rotor. Thus slip rings behave as rotating winding terminals. The brushes are used which are stationary and xesting against slip rings. Thus brushes behave as stationary terminals of rotating winding. The power can be fed in or taken out from the brushes. The radial and axial ventilating air ducts are also provided in the machines for cooling purpose. For large machines instead of air, hydrogen is used as a ventilating medium. A closed circuit ventilating system is preferred for large capacity machines. The hydrogen is circulated over the machine parts and is cooled with the help of water cooled heat exchanger. Though this is a common construction of the rotating electrical machines, depending on whether machine is a.c. or d.c. the construction changes. 1.3 Synchronous Machines The synchronous machines are the a.c. machines. The a.c. producing synchronous machines are called alternating generators or altemators. As these machines produce ac. voltage, commutator is absent. Another important difference between a.c. and dc. machines is that in a.c. machines the field winding is on the rotor while the armature is on stator. As field winding is rotating, the d.c. voltage is supplied to it with the help of slip ring and brush assembly. Note : The detail construction of synchronous generator is discussed in the chapter 6.Electrical Machines - I 1-3 Basic Concepts of A.C, Machines 1.3.1 Working Principle These synchronous machines have fixed relationship between speed, number of poles and frequency of generated a.c. voltage. It is given by, Where N, = Synchronous speed in r.p.m. f£ = Frequency in Hz P = Number of poles Consider an elementary synchronous generator using salient 2 pole rotor as shown in the Fig. 1.1. Salient pole rotor Magnetic axis of field Feld winding Magnetic axis of poles ‘Armature winding + Ace.m—be @) Salient pole elementary b) Equivalent circuit ‘synchronous generator Fig. 1.1 Working principle of alternator Consider an equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig. 1.1 (b). Assume that relatively the armature conductors are rotating in the stationary field. At position 1, entire velocity component of conductor is parallel to the flux hence no flux gets cut and there is zero emf. induced in the conductor. At position 2, entire velocity component cuts the flux hence induced emf. is maximum. At position 3 it is again zero and at position 4 it is maximum in reverse direction becoming zero at position 1. Thus the em-f. waveform in a conductor is as shown in the Fig. 1.2.Electrical Machines - II 1-4 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Fig. 1.2 Generated voltage Thus the induced emf. is alternating in nature, This is taken outside to supply the load. In ac. machines, to obtain purely sinusoidal em£, air gap flux density wave must be sinusoidal. In salient pole it is achieved by giving specific e shape to the pole shoe. In nonsalient poles, the air gap is uniform and by _ suitably distributing field winding along the rotor periphery _the sinusoidal air gap flux density Fig. 1.3 Air gap fines eveky specs wave for a.c. cies oblatned. NOW eho the Fig. 13. It can be noticed that in a 2 pole a.c. machine whenever conductor completes one mechanical revolution i.e. 360° mechanical then induced emf. completes one cycle electrically i.e. 360° electrical. Let 8m = Mechanical angle . = Electrical angle Key Point: 0,, = 0, for @ 2 pole a.c. machine Bin airgap SinusoidalElectrical Machines - I 1-5 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Now consider 4 pole a.c. machine and its equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig. 1.4(a). — Ban ie Geral . 4e™ wall — (o\4pot stanantey (oeeuialent portale placa oo Fig. 1.4 As shown in the Fig. 1.4 (b) at position 1, velocity component of conductor is parallel to the flux lines hence induced e.m-f. is zero. In position 2, velocity component cuts maximum flux lines and induced emf is maximum. In position 3 it is again zero as velocity component is parallel to the flux. In position 4 it is maximum but reversed direction as under opposite pole. This continues as conductor completes one rotation. But now during one mechanical rotation of conductor, induced e.m4f. achieves two positive maxima and two negative maxima i.e. two electrical cycles. This is shown in the Fig. 1.5. 2 cycles 720° electrical Fig. 1.5 Generated voltage Key Point: Thus for 360° mechanical, 720° electrical are obtained for 4 pole a.c. machine.Electrical Machines - II 1-6 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Thus it can be written that, P & = zom So in a P pole machine, if speed of rotor is N rp.m. then it takes one second to complete z revolution. If electrically the frequency is f Hz ie. em-f. completes f cycles in one second electrically, And such two cycles in one second are related through 5. f(electrical) = (5 aa (mechanical 120f NP. N= or f=ie In angular mechanical speed @m and angular frequency @ in rad/sec, the expression can be expressed as, o= (Ep © = Inf rad/sec ~ Electrical relation It is known that, Key Point: The speed at which a.c. machine generates a voltage at the rated frequency which is 50 Hz in our nation, is called the synchronous speed denoted as Ns. ; Ne = 298 pam 1.4 Three Phase Winding in A.C. Machines In a three phase alternators, three different sets of windings are arranged in the armature (stator) slots in such a way that there exists a phase difference of 120° between the induced e.m.fs in them. Each set of windings is for each phase of three phase induced e.m.f. Thus the three phase induced em. has three different emfs given by, ex = Em sin(ot) -» R phase ey = Em sin(ot-120°) -» Y phase eg = Em sin(ot—240°) .+ B phaseElectrical Machines - Ii 1-7 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Induced emf. in each set of winding is called phase emf, denoted as E,y. All the coils used for one phase are connected in such a way that their em.fs help each other. And overall arrangement of three phase windings is such that the waveform of three phase induced emf. is sinusoidal in nature. 1.4.1 Winding Terminologies 1) Conductor : The part of the wire, which is under the influence of the magnetic field and responsible for the induced em-f. is called active length of the conductor. The conductors are placed in the armature slots. 2) Turn : A conductor in one slot, when connected to a conductor in another slot forms a turn. So two conductors constitute a turn. This is shown in Fig. 1.6 (a) (a)Turn {b)Multiturn coil Fig. 1.6 3) Coil : As there are number of turns, for simplicity the number of turns are grouped together to form a coil. Such a coil is called multitum coil. A coil may consist of single turn called single turn coil. The rig. 1.6 (b) shows a multiturn coil. 4) Coil Side : Coil consists of many turns. Part of the coil in each slot is called coil side of a coil as shown in the Fig. 1.6 (b). 5) Pole Pitch ; It is center to center distance between the two adjacent poles. We have seen that for one rotation of the conductors, 2 poles are responsible for 360° electrical of e.m.f., 4 poles are responsible for 720° electrical of emf. and so on. So 1 pole is responsible for 180° electrical of induced e.m.f. So 180° electrical is also called one pole pitch. Practically how many slots are under one pole which are responsible for 180° electrical, are measured to specify the pole pitch. eg. Consider 2 pole, 18 slots armature of an alternator. Then under 1 pole there are 2 Le. 9 slots, So pole pitch is 9 slots or 180° electrical. This means 9 slots are responsible to produce a phase difference of 180° between the emf induced in different conductors. This number of slots/pole is denoted as 'n’.Electrical Machines - It 1-8 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Pole pitch = 180° electrical = Slots per pole (no. of slots/P) = n 6) Slot angle (B) : The phase difference contributed by one slot in degrees electrical is called slot angle p . As slots per pole contributes 180° electrical which is denoted as 'n’, we can write, 1 slot angle = 180° n 180° B 5 n In the above example, n= 8 =9, while p= = 20° Note : This means that if we consider an induced emf in the conductors which are placed in the slots which are adjacent to each other, there will exist 2 phase difference of f? in between them. While if em.f. induced in the conductors which are placed in slots which are ‘n’ slots distance away, there will exist a phase difference of 180° in between them. Conductor 1 Conductor 2 g g eye ems.in = © conductor 4 Oo Oo en= emf. in Slot 1 Slot 2 Se coaaube 2 (a) Adjacent slots {b) Indication of phase difference Fig. 1.7 1.4.2 Types of Three Phase Windings In general, the types of three phase windings used in a.c. machines are, 1. Single layer and double layer 2. Full pitch and short pitch 3. Concentrated and distributed. 1.4.2.1 Single Layer and Double Layer Winding If a slot consists of only one coil side, winding is said to be single layer. This is shown in the Fig. 1.8 (a). While there are two coil sides per slot, one at the bottom and one at the top the winding is called double layer as shown in the Fig. 18 (b).Electrical Machines - Il 1-9 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines A lot of space gets wasted in single layer hence in practice generally double layer winding is preferred. = ace canta cal toa = Conductors {a) Single tayer {b) Double layer Fig. 1.8 142.2 Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding ‘As seen earlier, one pole pitch is 180° electrical. The value of ‘n’, slots per pole indicates how many slots are contributing 180° electrical phase difference. So if coil side in one slot is connected to a coil side in another slot which is one pole pitch distance away from first slot, the winding is said to be full pitch winding and coil is called full pitch coil. For example in 2 pole, 18 slots alternator, the pole pitch is n = 8 = 9 slots. So if coil side in slot No. 1 is connected to coil side in slot No. 10 such that two slots No. 1 and No. 10 are one pole pitch or n slots or 180° electrical apart, the coil is called full pitch coil. Here we can define one more term related to a coil cal.d coil span. Coil Span It is the distance on the periphery of the armature between two coil sides of a coil. It is usually expressed in terms of number of slots or degrees clectrical. So if coil span is 'n’ slots or 180° electrical the coil is called full pitch coil. This is shown in the Fig. 19. 2} L}-—— Slot No. 4 ' kd Slot No(n#1) 11 electrical ——+| Fig. 1.9 Full pitch coilElectrical Machines - It 4-10 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines As against this if coils are used in such a way that coil span is slightly less than a pole pitch ie. less than 180° electrical, the coils are called, short pitched coils or fractional pitched coils. Generally coils are shorted by one or two slots. So in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator instead of connecting a coil side in slot No. 1 to slot No.10, it is connected to a coil side in slot No. 9 or slot No. 8, coil is said to be short pitched coil and winding is called short pitch winding. This is shown in Fig. 1.10. For full pitch _ less than 180 3 Slot ‘Slot Slot of Efe slot Fig. 1.10 Short pitch coil Advantages of Short Pitch Coils (Chording) In actual practice, short pitch coils are used as it has following advantages : a) The length required for the end connections of coils is less ie. inactive length of winding is less. So less copper is required. Hence economical. b) Short pitching climinates high frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal nature of ean.f. Hence waveform of an induced emf. is more sinusoidal due to short pitching. ©) As high frequency harmonics get eliminated, eddy current and hysteresis losses which depend on frequency also get minimized. This increases the efficiency. 1.4.23 Concentrated and Distributed Winding In three phase alternators, we have seen that there are three different sets of windings, each for a phase. So depending upon the total number of slots and number of poles, we have certain slots per phase available under each pole. This is denoted as 'm' m = Slots per pole per phase = n/Number of phases = n/3 (generally no. of phases is 3)Electrical Machines -Il 1-11 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines For example in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator we have n= 529 Lo and m= 2=3 3 So we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. Now let 'x’ number of conductors per phase are to be placed under one pole. And we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. But if all ‘x’ conductors per phase are placed in one slot keeping remaining 2 slots per pole per phase empty then the winding is called concentrated winding. So in concentrated winding all conductors or coils belonging to a phase are placed in one slot under every pole. But in practice, an attempt is always made to use all the 'm' slots per pole per . phase available for distribution of the winding. So if ‘x’ conductors per phase are distributed amongst the 3 slots per phase available under every pole, the winding is called distributed winding. So in distributed type of winding all the coils belonging to a phase are well distributed over the ‘m’ slots per phase, under every pole. Distributed winding makes the waveform of the induced e.m.f. more sinusoidal in nature. Also in concentrated winding due to large number of conductors per slot, heat dissipation is poor. Key Point: So in practice, double layer, short pitched and distributed type of armature winding is preferred for the alternators. im Example 1.1: Draw the developed diagram for full pitch armature winding of a three phase, 4 pole, 24 slots alternator. Assume single layer winding and of distributed type. Note : This example will explain all the winding terminologies discussed earlier. Solution: P= 4, 24 slots , 3 phase n = Slots per pole =i 6 m= B = Slot angle = 80 = 187 - 9° n Full pitch coils are to be used so if phase 1 say’R is started in slot 1, it is to be connected to a coil in slot 7 so that coil span will be 6 slots ie. 'n’ slots ie. 1 pole pitch. As distributed winding is to be used, both the slots per pole per phase (m = 2) available are to be used to place the coils. And all coils for one phase are to be connected in series. So from slot No.7 we have to connect it to coil slot No.2 and slot No.2 second end to slot No.8 and so on. After finishing all slots per phase availableElectrical Machines - II 1-12 ‘ic Concepts of A.C. Machines under first pair of pole, we will connect coil to slot No.13 under next pole and winding will be repeated in similar fashion. The starting end R, and final end Rr winding for R-phase are taken out finally. Connections for R-phase only are shown in the Fig. 1.11. Low JLos Jl» JL s ° seeeee Mm eeceee ee ih aa} . 1 Ye 5, All coils per phase in series h2| 17| i sghzoj21 Fig. 1.11 Developed winding diagram for 'R' phase Now we want to have a phase difference of 120° between 'R’ and 'Y’. Each slot contributes 30° as 8 = 30°. So start of 'Y' phase should be 120° apart from start of 'R’ ie. 4 slots away from start of R. So start of 'Y’ will be in slot 5 and will get connected to slot No.11 to have full pitch coil. Similarly start of 'B' will be further 120° apart from 'Y' i.e. 4 slots apart start of 'Y’ ie. will be in slot No and will continue similar to 'R’. Finally all six terminals of three sets will be brought out which are connected either in star or delta to get three ends R,Y and B outside to get three phase supply. The entire winding diagram with star connected windings is shown in the Fig. 1.12. Fig. 1.12 Winding diagram for all three phasesElectrical Machines - Il 1-13 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines 1.5 E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator Let 9 = Flux per pole, in Wb P = Number of poles Synchronous speed in r.p.m. Frequency of induced e.m.f. in Hz Z = Total number of conductors Zjn = Conductors per phase connected in series Zin = © as number of phases = 3. Consider a single conductor placed in a slot. The average value of e.m.f. induced in a conductoi For one revolution of a conductor, Flux cut in one revolution eyg Per conductor = =~“ mone Tevommen avg Pi Time taken for one revolution Total flux cut in one revolution is ¢ x P. seconds. Time taken for one revolution is £? envg per conductor = l) _ PNs But f= D0 PN, _ “eo = 2f Substituting in equation (1), avg per conductor = 2f ¢ volts Assume full pitch winding for simplicity ie. this conductor is connected to a conductor which is 180° electrical apart. So these two ems will try to set up a current in the same direction ie. the two em.f. are helping each other and hence resultant e.m.f. per turn will be twice the emf. induced in a conductor. emf, per turn = 2x (em. per conductor) = 2x (269) = 4 £9 volts.Electrical Machines 1-14 Basic Concepts of Machines Let Tpn be the total number of tums per phase connected in series. Assuming concentrated winding, we can say that all are placed in single slot per pole per phase. So induced ems in all turns will be in phase as ers placed in single slot. Hence net emf. per phase will be algebraic sum of the em-fs per tum. Average E,., = Tpn x (Average e.m. per turn) Average Ey, = Tp x4 fo But in a.c, circuits RMS. value of an alternating quantity is used for the analysis. The form factor is 1.11 of sinusoidal emf. RMS. ‘Average *.RMS. value of Ey = K, x Average value 111 x46 Ty AS £4 Try olts Key Point: This is the basic em.f. equation for an induced emf. per phase for full pitch, concentrated type of winding. 135 e * conductor 1 Conductor 2 Fig. 1.13 Turn of full pitch coil Ke= = 111 for sinusoidal Where Tpn_= Number of turns per phase Zon , Ton =" «+» as 2 conductors constitute 1 turn But as mentioned earlier, the winding used for the alternators is distributed and short pitch hence em. induced slightly gets affected. Let us see now the effect of distributed and short pitch type of winding on the emf. equation. 1.5.1 Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (K,) In practice short pitch coils are preferred. So coil is form by connecting one coil side to another which is less than one pole pitch away. So actual coil span is less than 180°. The coil is generally shorted by one or two slots. Key Point: The angle by which coils are short pitched is called angle of short pitch denoted as ‘c.'.(1809-0) slo be Fig. 1.14 Angle of short pitch 4-15 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines: o = Angle by which coils are short pitched. As coils are shorted in terms of number of slots ie. either by one slot, two slots and so on and slot angle is B then angle of short pitch is always a multiple of the slot angle B 2. @ = x Number of slots by which coils are short pitched. or & = 180°- Actual coil span of the coils. 1 Pole pitch 180° Fig. 1.15 Full pitch coil This is shown in the Fig. 1.14. Now let E be the induced emf. in each coil side. If coil is full pitch coil, the induced emf. in each coil side help each other. Coil connections are such that both will try to set up a current in the same direction in the external circuit. Hence the resultant emf. across a coil will be algebraic sum of the two. Ep = E+E=2E ~~ (for full pitch) — Fig. 1.16 Phasor sum of two e.m.f.s Obviously Ex in such a case will Now the coil is short pitched by angle ‘a’, the two emf. in two coil sides no longer remains in phase from external circuit point of view. Hence the resultant emf. is also no longer remains algebraic sum of the two but becomes a phasor sum of the two as shown in the Fig. 1.16. ‘be less than what it is in case of full pitch coil. From the geometry of the Fig, 1.16, we can write, AC is perpendicular drawn on OB bisecting OB. KOC) = xcB) = ER R and ZBOA = a/2 = CLF cos (4/2) = OA * TE Eg = 2E cos (4/2) «+. For short pitch This is the resultant em. in case of a short pitch coil which depends on the angle of short pitch ‘a’.Electrical Machines - It 1-16 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Key Point: Now the factor by which, induced emg. gets reduced due to short pitching is called pitch factor or coil span factor denoted by K. It is defined as the ratio of resultant e.m.f. when coil is short pitch to the resultant emf. when coil is full pitched. It is always less than one. a __ Eg when coil is short pitched _ 28.0s{ 5) “Ep when coil is full pitched ~~ 2E a x= a0(3) Where & = Angle of short pitch 1.5.2 Distribution Factor (K,) Similar to full pitch coils, concentrated winding is also rare in practice. Attempt is made to use all the slots available under a pole for the winding which makes the nature of the induced emf. more sinusoidal. Such a winding is called distributed winding. Consider 18 slots , 2 pole alternator. So slots per pole ie. n = 9. m = Slots per pole per phase = 3 180° Bea ap ae Let E = induced emf. per coil and there are 3 coils per phase. In concentrated type all the coil sides will be placed in one slot under a pole. So induced emf, in all the coils will achieve maxima and minima at the same time i.e. all of them will be in phase. Hence resultant emf. after connecting coils in series will be algebraic sum of all the e.m.f.s as all are in phase. As against this, in distributed type, coil sides will be distributed, one each in the 3 slots per phase available under a pole as shown in the Fig. 1.17 (a). E in coil 4 Ein coil2 Eincoi3 hie (2) Distributed winding (b) Phase difference between induced e.m.f. Fig. 1.17Electrical Machines - It 1-17 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Though the magnitude of emf. in each coil will be same as ‘E’, as each slot contributes phase difference of f° i.e, 20° in this case, there will exist a phase difference of B° with respect to each other as Fig. 1.18 Phasor sum of e.m£.s shown in the Fig. 1.17 (b). Hence resultant e.m-t. will be phasor sum of all of them as shown in the Fig. 1.18. So due to distributed winding resultant emf. decreases, Key Point: The factor by which there is a reduction in the emf. due to distribution of coils is called distribution factor denoted as Ki. 1.5.2.4 Derivation of Distribution Factor In general let there be ‘n’ slots per pole and ‘m’ slots per pole per phase. So there will be ‘m’ coils distributed under a pole per phase, connected in series. Let E be the induced emf. per coil. Then all the ‘m’ em.fs induced in the coils will have successive phase angle difference of 6 = Be While finding out the phasor sum of all of them, phasor diagram will approach a shape of a ‘m’ equal sided polygon circumscribed by a semicircle of radius ‘R’. This is shown in the Fig. 119 AB, BC, CD etc., represent em. per coil, All the ends are joined at ‘O’ which is centre of the circumscribing semicircle of radius ‘R’. Fig. 1.19 Phasor sum of ‘m’ e.m.f.s Angle subtended by each phasor at the origin “ below. Alll the triangles OAB, OBC ... are similar and isosceles, as AB = BC = CD =... = E. Let the base angles be ‘x’. is B% This can be proved asElectrical Machines - II 1-18 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines 4OAB = ZOBA = 4 OBC =... and ZAOB = ZBOC=...=y say Now in AOAB, 2x+y = 180° while ZOBA + Z OBC +B = 180° we (I) ie. 2x+ B = 180° Q) Comparing equations (1) and (2), y = B So ZAOB = £BOC=4COD=...=8 ° If ‘M’ is the last point of the last LX . phasor, ZAOM =mxB=mB and AM = Eg= Resultant of all the emf. g R Consider a AOAB separately as shown in the Fig. 1.20. Let OF be the perpendicular drawn on AB bisecting q angle at apex ‘O’ as f/2. K —e FE B E 3 Z (AB) = E si MAF) = 5 Fig. 1.20 and KOA) =R. 4, (B)_ AF_ £/2 sin(5) = OAR E= aR sin( 5 @) Now consider AOAM as shown in the Fig. 1.19 and OG is the perpendicular drawn from ‘O’ on its base bisecting Z OAM. ZAOG = ZcoM =P WAM) = Ey waG) = Fe a(t This is the resultant emf. when coils are distributed. If all ‘m’ coils are concentrated, all would have been in phase giving Ex as algebraic sum of all the emfs. Ex =mxE ... for concentratedElectrical Machines - Il 1-19 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines From equation (3), E =2R sin (5) 2 This is resultant e.m.f. when coils are concentrated. ‘The distribution factor is defined as the ratio of the resultant e.m.f. when coils are distributed to the resultant e.m.f. when coils are concentrated. It is always less than one. ER =2mRsin(5) mB Eg when coils are distributed 2 Eg when coils are concentrated. (5 ) 2mRsin| = 2R Ki = Ka mssin(5 Where m = Slots per pole per phase B = Slot angle = “8° n = Slots per pole 1.5.3 Generalized Expression for E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator Considering full pitch, concentrated winding, Epy = 444 £9 Tp volts. But due to short pitch, distributed winding used in practice, this Em will reduce by factors Ke and Ke. So generalized expression for e.m.f. equation can be written as Epn = 444K, Ky £0 Ty | volts. For full pitch coil, Ke = 1. For concentrated winding Ka = 1. Key Point: For short pitch and distributed winding Ke and Ki are always less than unity. wm Example 1.2: An armature of a three phase alternators has 120 slots. The alternators has 8 poles. Calculate its distribution factor. Solution :Electrical Machines - I) 1-20 Basic Concepts of A.C, Machines m = Slots/pole/phase = fix 180" _ 180° © ype Bt mB sin( 2X22 in(B)sxse( 2) = 0.957 mm Example 1.3 : In a 4 pole, 3 phase alternator, armature has 36 slots. It is using an armature winding which is short pitched by one slot. Calculate its coil span factor. Solution : _ Now coil is shorted by 1 slot ic. by 20° to full pitch distance, a. = Angle of short pitch = 20° K, = cos ($) cos (10) = 0.9848 1.5.4 Line Value of Induced E.M.F. If the armature winding of three phase altemator is star connected, then the value of induced e.m.f. across the terminals is [3 Ep, where Epn is induced emf. per phase. While if it is delta connected line value of e. This is shown in the Fig. 1.21 (a) and (b). eR Eine Eph +t. {a) Star connection (b) Delta connection Fig 4.21Electrical Machines - I! 1-21 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Advantages of star connection : Practically most of the alternators are star connected due to following reasons : 1. Neutral point can be earthed from safety point of view. 2. For the same phase voltage, voltage available across the terminal is more than delta connection. 3, For the same terminal voltage, the phase voltage in star is ed times line value. This reduces strain on the insulation of the armature winding. > Example 1.4: An alternator runs at 250 r.p.m. and generates an emf. at 50 Hz. There are 216 slots each containing 5 conductors. The winding is distributed and full pitch. All the conductors of each phase are in series and flux per pole is 30 mWb which is sinusoidally distributed. If the winding is star connected, determine the value of induced e.m,f. available across the terminals. Solution : Ns = 250 rpm, f = 50 Hz 120f . 120x 50 Ns Rupe ie. 250 > 24 n = Slots 216 _y * Pole ~ 24 m= B= = 20° #) (2 22) sin{ = Ka = = 0.9597 . 3 xsi 20 msin{ 5 xsin| > Ke = 1 as full pitch coils. Total number of conductors Z = 216 x 5 = 1080 Z_1 Zon = Z = 1000 =a = 360 T= . 2 conductors constitute 1 turn = 180 8 ole lB old i si Ep = 444 Ke Ka £ 6T phElectrical Machi 1-22 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machi 44 x 1 x 0.9597 x 30 x 10-3 x 50 x 180 = 1150.48 V Eine = 3 Eph ... Star connection = J3 x 115048 = 1992.70 V. imp Example 1.5: A 3 phase, 16 pole, star connected alternator has 144 slots on the armature periphery. Each slot contains 10 conductors. It is driven at 375 r.p.m. The line value of emf. available across the terminals is observed to be 2.657 kV. Find the frequency of the induced em. and flux per pole. Solution : P =16 Ns = 375 rpm. Slots = 144 Conductor/slots = 10 Eline = 2.657 KV _ 120£ pe 20xf 375 =e os f = 50 Hz Assuming full pitch winding, Ke = 1 Sls os, pole 16 sin (2) sin( 272) Ks = 34/21 2 } < 99597 msin(§) 3 xsin( 2) Total conductors = Slots x Conductors/slot ie. Z = 14410 = 1440Electrical Machines - iI 1-23 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines = Eime = SEP = 1.534 kV Eph V3 3 Now Eph = 444 Ke Ka f Tph : 1534 x 103 = 4.44 x 1x 0.9597 x x 50 x 240 e 1.6 Harmonics In case of alternators, the voltage and currents induced are having sinusoidal waveforms. But practically we can not get sinusoidal waveform when such alternators are loaded. Due to the loading condition, the generated waveform deviates from ideal waveform. Such a non sinusoidal waveform is called complex wave. By Fourier transform this complex waveform can be shown to be built of a series of sinusoidal waves whose frequencies are integral multiples of the frequency of fundamental wave. These sinusoidal components or harmonic functions are called harmonics of the complex wave. The fundamental wave is defined as that component which is having same frequency as that of complex wave. The component which is having double the frequency of that of fundamental wave called second harmonic. While the component which is having the frequency three times that of fundamental is called third harmonic and so on. The complex waveform contains both the even as well as odd harmonics, Consider a complex wave which is represented by, e = Ejq Sin (ot + 4,) + Exm sin (2 wt +6.) + Eon Sin (3 Ot +5) +... + Eqm Sin (n Ot +O) where Eim sin (wt +41) is fundamental component of maximum value Eim having an angle 61 from instant of zero of the complex wave. Similarly Emm sin (not + 6s) represents n’* harmonic of maximum value Em and having phase angle , with respect to complex wave. Out of the even and odd harmonics a complex wave containing fundamental component and even harmonics only is always unsymmetrical about x-axis whereas a complex wave containing fundamental component and odd harmonics only is always symmetrical about x-axis. In case of alternators the voltage generated is mostly symmetrical as the field system and coils are all symmetrical. So the generated voltage or current will not have any even harmonics in most of the cases. The complex waveform of voltage can be analysed experimentally by using the phenomenon of resonance. If voltage waveform containing harmonic content is appliedElectrical Machines - It 1-24 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines to the circuit containing resistance, inductance and capacitance, then the circuit will resonate at one of the harmonic frequencies. The voltage drop across the resistance can be analysed by using an oscillograph. The values of inductance and capacitance can be changed so that resonance can be obtained at fundamental, third harmonic, fifth harmonic etc. The voltage on the oscillograph indicates the presence of particular harmonics. 1.6.1 Slot Harmonics The voltage generated in armature windings is derived assuming that the surface of armature to be smooth. However in practice armature is not smooth but is made slotted. Due to this slotting certain harmonic em.fs of undesirable order are produced. ‘The reluctance at any point in the air gap Field depends on whether there is a slot or teeth in the magnetic path. Since in case of alternators armature is moving, the teeth and slots alternately occupy i T (ravetom positions at this point. This will vary the reluctance. ; duetoripple The ripples will be formed due to variation of ' reluctance from point to point, in the air gap which Fig. 1.22 is shown in the Fig. 1.22. These ripples will not move with respect to conductors but glide on the distribution of flux. The ripples due to slotting of armature are always opposite to slots and teeth which are causing them. Thus the harmonics which are generated in the emf. due to slotting is called slot harmonics. It can be seen that the main source of harmonics is the non-sinusoidal field form which can be made sinusoidal and the harmonics can be eliminated. The air gap offers maximum reluctance to the flux path. This air gap if made to vary sinusoidally around the machine, the field form would also be sinusoidal. Even the air gap is made to vary sinusoidally, the field form can not be sinusoidal due to saturation in iron parts which is unavoidable. But there should not be high degree of saturation so that approximately sinuscidal waveform will be obtained. Thus in general it can be seen that ideal sinusoidal field form is very difficult to obtain whether the machine is salient pole type or cylindrical rotor construction. 1.6.2 Harmonics Minimization To eliminate or minimize the harmonics from the voltage waveform, the windings must be properly designed. The different ways to eliminate the harmonics from generated voltage are,Electrical Machines - Il 1-25 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machi i) Distribution of anmature windings : Instead of having concentrated type of windings, they should be distributed in different slots. The distribution factor for harmonics is comparatively less than that of the fundamental and hence magnitude of harmonic em-f. is small. ii) Chording : The emf. generated in the winding is proportional to cos (x 0/2) where o. is angle of chording and x is order of harmonic. If proper value of angle of chording is selected then harmonic em.fs can be reduced significantly. iii) Fractional slot windings : The output voltage waveform will be free of harmonics by facilitating the use of fractional slot windings as the distribution factor will be smaller compared to that with the fundamental. iv) Skewing : Skewing the pole face will help in eliminating the slot harmonics. v) Large length of air gap : The reluctance will be increased by increasing the air gap and slot harmonics can be reduced. 1.7 Effect of Harmonic Components on an Induced e.m.f. The flux density distribution around the air gap in all well designed alternators is symmetrical with respect to abscissa and also to polar axes. Thus it can be expressed with the help of a Fourier series which do not contain any even harmonics. So flux density at any angle @ from the interpolar axis is given by, B = Buy SINO+ Bag SiN 30+... + Ray sin XO +. Where x = Order of harmonic component which is odd = Amplitude of fundamental component of flux density Bus = Amplitude of 3 harmonic component of flux density Amplitude of x!" (odd) harmonic component of flux density The e.m.f. generated in a conductor on the armature of a rotating machine is given by, e = Blv Substituting value of B, = [By sin @ + Bay sin 30+... +Byy sinxO+...J Iv Adiive length of conductor in metre Diameter of the armature at the air gap = Linear velocity = xd n, Peni f 0 Where Synchronous speed in r.p.s.Electrical Machines - 1 1-26 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines 1206 Now = ie _ W20f _ 2F * Cp F 2t vend Substituting in the expression for e, = [By sin 0+ Byg Sin 30 + + Byy sin x0 J. 2RAE & = [Pa Ab atsind+ Bas we. 2 fsin 30 +....+Bax @ 2fsin »| ral Area of each fundamental pole, A= ee = [ByyAy 26 sin 0 + Bas Aq2 f sin 30+ ... + Bay Ay 2f sin x 6] . _mdl_ Ay Area of x harmonic pole, A, = “2 = At This is because, there are xP poles for the x" order harmonic. @ = 2f [BayA; sin ® + Bas. 3A; sin 30+... + By A, sin x 6] Now BarAt = 1m = Maximum value of fundamental flux per pole 61 = 26m = Average value of fundamental flux per pole Similarly average value of x** harmonic flux per pole can be obtained as, 2 Ox = ZA Bre Substituting the values of flux in e- we get the expression for em-f. induced per conductor as, e, = TFG sin@ +34, sin 30 +... +x 9, sin x 8) Instantaneous value of fundamental frequency em.f, generated in a conductor is : ey = nfo, sin@ V Hence the RMS. value of fundamental frequency e.m.f. generated in a conductor is, for V2 Hence R.M.S. value of x‘ harmonic frequency em-f. generated in a conductor is, Eu = 2.226, .xf Ey = = 222)Electrical Machine: 1-27 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines 2 2A But =2 a2 At rr Ge = Aa Baw = 52 Bax 2A Ey = 22.5 41 x¢B, x nx x mx = 14132 A, f Ba. Now Eg = 222 £9, = 222 2 Byy Ay = 1.4132 f Bay Ay Ey _ L4B2ALBox Bax Ea 1.4132 A)fBy, Bm Bax Ba = Ba gue It can be observed that the magnitude of harmonic e.m.fs are directly proportional to their corresponding flux densities. The R.M.S. value of resultant e.m.f. of a conductor is, EB, = J (Ea)? +s? +s)? +E)? 1.7.1 Effect of Harmonic Components on Pitch Factor We know that, & = Angle of short pitch for fundamental flux wave then it changes for various harmonic component of flux as, 3a = For 3” harmonic component 5c = For 5" harmonic component xo. = For x" harmonic component Hence the pitch factor is expressed as, x Ko = cos (F) Where x = Order of harmonic component 1.7.2 Effect of Harmonic Components on Distribution Factor Similar to the pitch factor, the distribution factor is also different for various harmonic components. The general expression to obtain distribution factor is,Electrical Machines - II 1-28 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines a on Where x = Order of harmonic component __ mp sin@e For x = Ka = 2 ... fundamental msinB 2 sin 38 For x = 3, Kas = —a .. 3 harmonic msin = 2 1.7.3 Total e.m.f. Generated due to Harmonic Components Considering the windings to short pitch and distributed, the emf. of a fundamental frequency is given by, Ein = 44¢Ka Kaif Tn V Where Tp = Turns per phase in series $1 = Fundamental flux component While the phase e.m-f. of x'* order harmonic component of frequency is given by, Bh = 444 Ka KacX@xfTpn V The total phase e.m4f. is given by, En = J Ein)? + Esa)? +. +E)? Vv Line emf. : For star connected, the line or terminal induced emf. is 3 times the total phase emf. But it should be noted that with star connection, the 3% harmonic voltages do not appear across line terminals though present in phase voltage Eine = ({Ein) +E) V3 V In delta connection also, 3", 9%, 15 .., harmonic voltages do not appear at the Taking ratio of fundamental frequency emf. and x* order harmonic frequency emu. we can write, Enn _ _4.44KaiKa oi fTpe__ Kai Kar Bus En 4.44 Ker Kar XO Tp Kex Kax Bmx 3 Kes Kc Bo poh = Bayh Fo Ka B, Eyn = 444 61 f Ty Ker KarElectrical Machines - {I 1-29 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines mm Example 1.6: A 3 phase, 4 pole, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has an armature with a diameter of 0.25 m and length 0.3 m. The equation for flux density distribution is, B = 0.15 sin@ + 0.03 sin 30 + 0.02 sin 50 Wh/r? The armature has 60 coils with 10 turns per coil arranged in double layer. The phase spread is 60°, a) Determine voltage generated per coil b) Determine voltage generated per phase ©) Determine terminal voltage available Assume coil span 13/15 of a pole pitch. Solution : The given values are , d = 0.25 m,1=03 m,P=4 A, = Area of each fundamental pole = x _ anb.38 8 = 010589 m2 From the given equation of B we can write, Bat = 0-15, Bag = 0.03, Bus = 0.02 ‘nt 4 = Average value of fundamental flux per pole = 2 Bey Ay = 2 x 0.15 x 0.589 = 5.62 x 103 Wb a) To find voltage generated per coil The RMS. value of the fundamental frequency emf. generated in a single conductor is, Ea = 111 x2 f = 0.6238 V Now winding coil span is 13 of pote pitch So Coil span = 72x 180" = 156° ce = 180° — 156° = 24 Ka = cos = 09781 2 Ka = cos 3 = 0.809 5a, Kes = cos > = 05 The RMS. value of the fundamental frequency e.m.f, generated in one tum is, Ey = Kyx(2Eq) as two conductors constitute 1 turn = 0.9781 x 2x 0.6238 =122 VElectrical Machines - I 1-30 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Note: Remember that for a single turn, Ka is unity for all harmonic components. Now E, = Ea BE a Bo = Bu. we = 0.6238 x oe = 0.1247 V Bas 0.02 and Bag = Ba. gt’ = 0.638 x O75 = 0.0831 V ‘ Ex = Ke X2 Egg = 0.809 x 2 x 0.1247 = 0.2018 V and He ~ Ker? ha \5 x2 x 0.0831 = 0.0831 V Total emf. per tum = E, = /(Ey)?+(Ea)’ +s)? = 124V There are 10 turns in each coil. Voltage generated per coil = Number of turns per coil x Total e.m.f. per turn = 10x 124 = 14v b) To find voltage generated per phase Eiph = 444 Ka Kai $1 £ Th _ There are 60 coils with 10 turns per coil - Total turns = 60x 10 = 600 600 3 = 200 The winding is double layer ie. each slot has 2 coil sides. In each coil there are 10 turns i, in each coil side there are 10 turns i.e. in each coil side 10 there are 10 conductors. Hence total conductors per slot = 20 as shown in the Fig. 1.23. Now total turns = 600 2 conductors constitute 1 turn ~.Total conductors = 2x 600 = 1200 Tpn = 10 conductors Coil side Total conductors Conductors per slot Fig. 1.23 = 1200 _ ig. aD 60 No. of slots =Electrical Machines - II 1-34 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Remember that for double layer winding, number of slots is equal to number of coils of armature. 8 0 2 0 Ein = 0 Eh Esch and Esph = Slots/pole = 2 = Slots/pole/phase = 29 = 5 Slot angle = “8% = 12° = 0.647 5mB sin 2 5B =02 msin 7 4.44 x 0.9781 x 0.9567 x 5.62 x 10% x 50x 200 233.48 V E Ke Kix Bax th Ke Ka Bm 0.809 x 0.647 x0.03 23348 XT o7atx0 9561x015 ~ 26414V 0.5x 0.2x0.02 233.48 * To7gixo.s561K0.15 ~ 932 V «Total voltage generated per phase En = VEY? + Ean)? +E so)? of 233.48) + (26.14)? +(3.32)? 234.9 V c) To determine terminal voltage The 34 harmonic e.m.f. does not appear at the terminals = (3x {Eig}? + Espn)? (233.48)? + (3.32)? 404.4 Vaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - II 1-33 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines The assumptions to obtain M.MF. space wave are, 1. It is cylindrical rotor machine. 2. The armature and rotor are made up of high grade magnetic material hence permeability of these parts is much higher than air. Hence reluctance is low so entire reluctance can be assumed to be due to two air gaps. 3. Thus if total mmJ. is Ni then half the m/f. is required to create flux from rotor to stator in the air gap while half is required to create flux from stator to rotor in the air gap. The flux lines radially crosses the air gap between rotor and stator twice, normal to the stator and rotor iron surfaces. Consider a developed diagram of the coil shown in the Fig. 1.25 such that rotor surface is over the stator which is laid down flat. The m.m.f. and flux radially outwards from rotor to stator is assumed positive while that from stator to rotor is assumed negative: Thus mmf. distribution is stepwise giving a rectangular waveform. The mmf. 4 is used in setting flux from rotor to stator in the air gap. No m.m4. required for iron path. Similarly the mmf. —Nlis used in setting flux from stator to rotor in the air gap. z ‘Thus mmf. changes suddenly from = to 4 at one slot while from wy to Ni ~"F at other slot which is a pole pitch away. Total change in mmf, is abrupt and zit to Ni in crossing from one side to other of a coil. MMF. Fundamental component(Fa,} Rotor surface Stator surface Fig. 1.25 M.MLF. space wave of a single coilElectrical Ma -lt 1-34 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines MME. change at any slot = Ni The direction depends on the current direction. The rectangular m.m.f. space wave can be resolved into its Fourier series which includes its fundamental component and a series of odd harmonics. The fundamental component of m.m.f wave is given by, g 4Ni Sy = Fy cs = Fp cos8 (1) Where 0 = Flectrical angle measured from stator magnetic axis. Key Point : This stator magnetic axis coincides with the positive peak of the m.mf wave. 4Ni Sagaw) = By = 55 wo (2) ‘The odd harmonics are to be neglected. Key Point : Equation (1) shows that the m.m.f. space wave is sinusoidal and when mmf. waves of individual distributed phase group coils add, the odd harmonics get cancelled. 1.8.2 M.M.F. Space Wave of One Phase of Distributed Winding Consider a 2 pole, cylindrical rotor with, m = Slots/pole/phase = 5 n = Slots/pole = mx3 = 15 The distributed winding for phase a, occupying all 5 slots per pole per phase is shown in the Fig. 1.26. Phase a distributed double layer winding Magnetic ‘nis of phase a Fig. 1.26 One phase of distributed double layer windingElectrical Machines - i 1-35 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Let Turns in a coil = Conductors/layer ‘Conductor current 2x (mm-f/layer) .. As double layer = 2Nedc As the number of slots are odd, half of ampere conductors of middle slot of a and af constitute S-pole and remaining half contribute N-pole. The m.m.f wave shows a step jump at the slot equal to 2Ncic. The developed diagram of the stator and mmf. wave are shown in the Fig. 1.27. ic Total slot mmf. Total ampere-conductors produced by conductors of group a are corresponding to 5 slots, each slot producing 2N«ic. Hence total ampere-conductors are 10 N.ic. Half of it are used to set the flux from rotor to stator and half for setting flux from stator to rotor. So +5N,ic used to set flux from rotor to stator while —5N.i¢ used to set the flux from stator to rotor. But these 5Ncie ampere-conductors are also available in step form as shown in the Fig. 1.27 at the respective slots. MMF, axis of phase @ Fundamental component Say of mmf. wave pole S South pole Fig. 1.27 M.M.F space wave of one phase of distributed windingElectrical Machines - il 1-36 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines To obtain peak of the fundamental component of mmf. wave, assume that the winding is concentrated. Let T,n = Series tums per parallel path of a phase A = Number of parallel paths AT/parallel path = T,a(series) x i, AT/phase = A [Ty,(series)xic] But Axic = iq = Total phase current ‘AT/phase = Tpx (series) xi, Ta peieaxl Parallel Xia At/pole/phase = Leh(series) xis paths A P Fig. 1.28 Where P = Number of poles 4 Tyn(series) z ae P Xiq But this is peak if winding is concentrated. When winding is distributed, the peak will be reduced by the distribution factor Ky. Rip = Peak of fundamental = "Tyn(series)] Fip(distributed) = $x,{ i i Thus the equation of the m.m.f. wave in space is given by, (ae Sax = Fp cos = $A, eno Where 0 is electrical angle measured from stator field axis. If the winding is short pitched, it further reduces by the coil span factor K.. Roan Kak, te eries) iia ... for short pitch, ne e distributed winding Key Point : This is peak value of mmf. wave of single phase distributed ac. winding. The three phase winding produced rotating m.m.f which is discussed in next section. When phase a carries sinusoidal current as i, =Im cosmt where Im is the peak value of the current then the m.m-f. wave is expressed by the equation.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - 1 1-39 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Fa = Fmeos at cos 0 (2a) Sp = Fmeos (at -120°)cos (0 ~120°) «(2b) Fe = Freos (wt ~240°)cos (0 - 240°) se(20) Where Fm = gras] Ts % P From trignometric result, cosacosB = peosta ~p)+ Foose +8) 5, = FFncos @ ~ 0) +, cos(0 +at) »0=@ and B= wt Fy = LFmcos @ - 00) +4F,cos(@ + ot ~2407) 1 5 The resultant mmf. wave is the sum of the three individual pulsating m.mf. waves. F008 @ - at) +5 Fr.cos(0 + ot - 48°) Fr =F, +H + Ke - 3m cos(® ~ tot) + 5 Fn {cos(@ ~ cot) + cos(0 + at - 240°) cos(6 + wt —480°)} = hi+h .) But cos(@-+at-480°) = cos(0 + at — 360-120") = cos’ + wt -120°) R= 3m {cos(@ + at) + cos(@ +t ~ 240°) + cos(@ + at -120°)} Now cos( +f) = cosa.cosB + sinasinB = $F {cos® cos wt —sin@ sin at +.cos6 cos(wt - 240°) —sin0 sin(wt - 240°) + cos® cos(at - 120°) - sin@ sin(wt -120°)} Now sina +B) = sina cosB + cosa cosp R= 4m {cos@ coswt-sin@ sin wt +cos® [cos wt cos(-240°) + sin wt sin (-240°)] —sin@[sinat cos(-240°) —coswat sin(-240°)] + cos 8 [coset cos(-120°) + sin wt sin (~120°)] —sin O[sin wt cos(-120°) - cos wt sin(-120)} Now cos (-240°) = ~ 05, cos (~120°) = ~ 0.5, sin (-240°) = + 0.866, sin (-120°) = - 0.866 2 Re fm {cos® cosat—sin® sin wt - 0.5c030 cos wt + 0.866sin ast cosdElectrical Machines - I! 1-40 Basic Concepts of A.C, Machines 40.5 sin O sin at + 0.866 sin 9 cos wt - 0.5c0s0 cos wt —0.866 sin ot cos@ + 0.5sin 6 sin wt — 0.866sin @ cosat} : BR =0 4) Using in equation (3), Fa = 3 Fp cos ot) 6 This equation shows that the resultant mmf. wave is a travelling wave. Its magnitude is constant equal to 3F,, while its phase angle changes linearily with time as «ot So its axis rotates in the air gap at a constant speed of «0 rad(elect)/sec. Key Point : This shows that when a three phase stationary windings are excited by balanced three phase a.c. supply then the resulting field produced is rotating magnetic field. Though nothing is physically rotating, the field produced is rotating in space having constant amplitude. Thus at t) =0, Fp =3Fn cos@ when phase a is at its maximum. Thus axis of resultant m.m4 coincides with the axis of the phase a. At ta 23, Sr =3h, cos(0-3 and phase b is at its maximum. Thus axis of resultant m.m.f. coincides with the axis of phase b. At ts =43, the axis of resultant mam. coincides with the axis of phase ¢ and so on. Key Point : So if phase sequence is a-b-c, the rotating magnetic field rotates in the direction of phase sequence. 1.9.1 Speed of Rotating Magnetic Field It is known that its speed is @ rad(elect)/sec. The mechanical angular velocity ©, is related to electrical « as, om = 20 = =P 2mN _ 2 ‘ BE 2it = ar pene + a8 = 2f electrical 120f N= This is the speed of the rotating magnetic field. This is called synchronous speed and denoted as Ns. Key Point: Thus rotating magnetic field rotates with synchronous speed N..Electrical Machines - I 1-44 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines 1.9.2 Direction of Rotating Magnetic Field ‘The direction of the r.m.f. is always from the axis of the leading phase of the three phase winding towards the lagging phase of the winding, In a phase sequence of R-Y-B, phase R leads Y by 120° and Y leads B by 120° So r.m.f. rotates from axis of R to axis of Y and then to axis of B and so on. So its direction is clockwise as shown in the Fig.1.32(a). This direction can be reversed by interchanging any two terminals of the three phase windings while connecting to the three phase supply. The terminals Y and B are shown interchanged in the Fig. 1.32 (b). In such case the direction of rm. will be anticlockwise. Re Sg a R eT. -[. 7 } ‘Clockwise Re r f *, Anticlockwise ‘| 2 rotation tT} rotation Three RMF R RMF phase ac. supply ¥ Be Three phase 5 winding of induction motor (2) Clockwise rotation (b) Anticlockwise rotation Fig. 1.32 As Y and B of windings are connected to B and Y from winding point of view the phase sequence becomes R-B-Y. Thus R.MF. axis follows the direction from R to B to Y which is anticlockwise. Key Point : Thus by interchanging any two terminals of three phase winding while connecting it to three phase a.c. supply, direction of rotation of r.m,. gets reversed. 4.9.3 Peak Value of Rotating Magnetic Field The resultant m.m.f, wave due to three phase ac. winding is, Fx = Fpeak cos(@ —ot) Where Fpak = Peak value of rotating magnetic field = 3 34 “Tyn (series) Foca = 7K Tm Where 1m = Maximum value of the phase current Key Point: The rotating magnetic field is also called rotating mm.f. wave in three phase ac. machines.ctrical Machines 2 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Neglecting reluctance of iron path, the resultant mmf. produces sinusoidal rotating flux density (B) wave in air gap whose peak value is given by, Bae = “Hohe Where g = Length of the air gap 1.10 Flux and M.M.F. Phasors in Synchronous Machines When the synchronous machine behaves as a generator, then the induced emf. Er supplies the load current which is an armature current J,. Hence both Ey and I, have the same positive direction. Let the current I, is supplied by the coil R - R’ which is in phase with the coil em4f, E. Hence whenever the coil e.m.f. achieves its maximum, the current I, also achieves its maximum, in both positive as well as negative directions. The main field m.m.f. is represented as Fj, and eam-f. in the coil R - R’ is maximum when Fj, is 90° ahead of the axis of the coil in the direction of rotation. This is shown in the Fig. 1.33 (a). Fis ahead by 90° with F,, when E, and = ig are in phase ie Axis of the Lis FE, colR-R positive maximum F Fig. 1.33 (a) M.M.F. vector diagram Now when the current I, flows, there is production of armature flux proportional to armature mmf. E,,. This is directed along the direction of Ik ie. along the direction of the axis of the coil. This is called armature reaction mm. Now the main flux m.m.f. F leads armature reaction mmf. Fy, by 90°, when Er and I, are in phase. This is also shown in the Fig. 1.33 (a). The two mimfs F and F,, interact with each other to produce the resultant mmf. f; as shown in the Fig. 1.33 (a).Electrical Machines - I! 1-43 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines R= R+Fe (1) It can be seen that F, lags F; by angle 5. The m.m-f. phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.33 (b) Field axis Generating action xr Nr 4% | F leads E, by 90° Axis of the coil RR’ Fig. 1.33 (b) Flux and m.m.f. phasor diagram for generating action Now F,, is in phase with i, and proportional to I, as i, is responsible to produce armature reaction. The resultant m.m.f. F, produces the resultant air t gap flux ,. Now this flux is responsible to induce e.m-f. in the armature denoted as E,. This e.mf. lags the corresponding m.m.f. F, by 90°. Thus E, lags E; by 8. The emf. £, is called air gap emf. while E; is called excitation emf. If [, lags the excitation em. E; by angle y, then the current in the coil R - R’ attains maximum Generating action Field axis Axis of the coil R-R’ Fig. 1.34 Flux and m.m.. phasors when I, lags E; by vElectrical Machines 44 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines value y angle later. But Fy, is in phase with I, as 1, produces F,,. Thus F; now leads Fy, by angle (90°+y). Then Fy and Fy produce the resultant mmf. F. The corresponding air gap em-f. E, lies 90° behind the m.mf. F;. The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1.34. The angle between E, and i, is called the power factor angle denoted as @, if armature resistance and leakage reactance are neglected. The above discussion is applicable for the generating action, In the motoring action of synchronous machine, the positive current flows in opposite direction to the induced em... Hence for obtaining F,, direction, the current I, must be reversed compared to conventional direction in case of generating action. Assuming [, lags E; by angle w, the phasor diagram for the motoring action is shown. in the Fig, 1.35. ie Ta Field axis Motoring action| Reversed for motoring action Axis of the coil R-R’ Fig. 1.35 Flux and m.m.f. phasors for motoring action It can be seen from the phasor diagram that F; and Fy again produce resultant mmf. F. This F, now leads F; by angle 5. The m.nf. F, is responsible to produce the air gap eam.f. E, which lags F, by 90°. Thus E, also leads E; by angle 8. The angle between E, and [, is 8. 1.11 Rotating Magnetic Field (Vector Approach) A three phase induction motor consists of three phase winding as its stationary part called stator. The three phase stator winding is connected in star or delta. The three phase windings are displaced from each other by 120° The windings are supplied by a balanced three phase ac. supply. This is shown in the Fig. 136. The three phase windings are denoted as R-R’, Y-Y’ and B-B’.Electrical Machines - II 1-45 Basic Concepts of A.C, Machines Induction motor Three phase —e| ac. supply ‘Star or delta connected 3 phase winding Fig. 1.36 The three phase currents flow simultaneously through the windings and are displacect from each other by 120° electrical. Each alternating phase current produces its own flux which is sinusoidal. So all three fluxes are sinusoidal and are separated from each other by 120° If the phase sequence of the windings is R-Y-B, then mathematical equations for the instantaneous values of the three fluxes Ox, ¢y and op can be written as, OR = Om sin Ot) = $m sind dy = Om sin @t- 1209 = Om sin @ - 1209 oo = om sin @t- 240) = Om sin (@ - 2409 ‘As windings are identical and supply is balanced, the magnitude of each flux is m+ Due to phase sequence R-Y-B, flux $y lags behind 6x by 120° and @g lags oy by 120°. So $y ultimately lags ¢, by 240° The flux $x is taken as reference while writing the equations. The Fig. 1.37 (a) shows the waveforms of three fluxes in space. The Fig. 1.37 (b) shows the phasor diagram which clearly shows the assumed positive directions of each flux. Assumed positive direction means whenever the flux is positive it must be represented along the direction shown and whenever the flux is negative it must be represented along the opposite direction to the assumed positive direction. Let >R, Oy and $y be the instantaneous values of three fluxes. The resultant flux $r is the phasor addition of @x, Oy and op. a Or = Opty +05 Let us find $y at the instants 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in the Fig. 1.37 (a) which represents the values of @ as 0%, 60°, 120° and 180° respectively. The phasor addition can be performed by obtaining the values of dr, dy and $y by substituting values of @ in the equations (1), (2) and (3).Electrical Machines - Il 1-46 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines ° PhaseR Phase Y PhaseB 120° 420° (2) Waveforms of three fluxes (b) Assumed positive directions Fig. 1.37 Case 1:0= 0° Substituting in the equations (1), (2) and (3) we get, on = Om sinO?=0 Oy = $m sin (- 120) = - 0866 m On = om sin (- 2409 = + 0866 Om A The phasor addition is shown in the Fig. 1.38 (a). The positive values are shown in assumed positive directions while negative values are shown in opposite direction to the assumed positive directions of the respective fluxes. Refer to assumed positive directions shown in the 4a = +0.866 6, By - - - YE by =-0.866 Fig. 1.37 (b). ze BD is drawn perpendicular from Assumed positive // B on 6r-. It bisects @1- direction of oy 7 = DA=$E Fig. 1.38 (a) Vector diagram for @ = 0° OD = DA="5 In triangle OBD, ZBOD = 30" _ OD__ 61/2 00s 30° = OF = 786600 br = 2%0.8664 m xcos 30® = 156m So magnitude of 61 is 1.5 ¢m and its position is vertically upwards at 6 = 0°Electrical Machines - il 1-47 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Case 2: 0 = 6 Equations (1), (2) and (8) give us, On = Om sin OP = + 0.866 Om Oy = Om sin © 60%) = - 0.866 Om $5 = Om sin ( 180°) = 0 So $p is positive and gy is negative and hence drawing in appropriate directions we get phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 1.38 (b). Assumed positive of oy. Fig. 1.38 (b) Vector diagram for 6 = 60° Doing the same construction, drawing perpendicular from B on 6; at D we get the same result as, or = 15 om But it can be seen that though its magnitude is 1.5 @», it has rotated through 60° in space, in clockwise direction, from its previous position. Case 3: 6 = 120° Equations (1), (2) and (3) give us, Ox = om sin 120 = + 0.866 b, oy = bm sind=0 $5 = bm sin (- 120) = - 0.866 Om So ox is positive and 95 is negative. Showing $x and $y in the appropriate directions, we get the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 1.38 (c). After doing the construction same as before ie. drawing perpendicular from B on ér, it can be proved again that, Fig. 1.38 (c) Vector diagram for 0 = 120° or =15 omElectrical Machines - II 1-48 Basic Concepts of A.C, Machines But the position of ¢; is such that it has rotated further through 60° from its previous position, in clockwise direction. And from its position at @ = 0°, it has rotated through 120° in space, in dockwise direction. Case 4: ® = 180° From the equations (1), (2) and (3), OR = Om sin (180) = 0 OY = Om sin (609) = + 0.866 om $6 = Om sin - 60) = — 0.866 Om Assumed postive s, So x= 0, oy is positive and Op is rection of ¢— negative. Drawing $y and op in the o appropriate directions, we get the phasor Hao diagram as shown in the Fig. 1.38 (d). From phasor diagram, it can be easily proved that, or =15om ‘Thus the magnitude of 67 once again remains same. But it can be seen that it has further rotated through 60° from its previous position in dockwise direction. 1,36 (0) Vector, diagram for 0=100° So for an electrical half cycle of 180°, the resultant ¢7 has also rotated through 180°. This is applicable for the windings wound for 2 poles. From the above discussion we have following conclusions : a) The resultant of the three alternating fluxes, separated from each other by 120°, has a constant amplitude of 15 i where ¢m is maximum amplitude of an individual flux due to any phase. b) The resultant always keeps on rotating with a certain speed in space. Key Point ; This shows that when a three phase stationary windings are excited by balanced three phase a.c. supply then the resulting field produced is rotating magnetic field. Though nothing is physically rotating, the field produced is rotating in space having constant amplitude. The speed of rotating magnetic field is always synchronous speed N, as proved earlier and it rotates in the direction of phase sequence.Electrical Machines - Il 1-49 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Examples with Solutions mp Example 1.7: In a 3 phase, star connected alternator, there are 2 coil sides per slot and 16 turns per coil. Armature has 288 slots on its periphery. When driven at 250 r.pan. it produces 6600 V between the lines at 50 Hz. The pitch of the coil is 2 slots less than the full pitch. Calculate the flux per pole. Solution : N, = 250 r.p.m., f = 50 Hz Slots = 288, Byine = 6600 V 120xf N= pS 120 x50 250 = Pp P = 24 = Slots _ 288 _ "= Pole ~ 24 ~ me Bed ~ 2°53 _ 180 _ 180° i ST a “() =(34) an() anal) Now coil is short pitched by 2 slots. Angle of short pitch a= =2xP=2x15=30 K. = cos (3) = cos (15) = 0.9659 Each coil consists of 16 turns, ie. in a slot each coil side consists of 16 conductors as shown in Fig. 1.39. And in each slot there are 2 coil sides. So each slot consists of 16 per coil side x 2 ie. 32 conductors. 16 conductors 2 coll sides Fig. 1.39 76 ConductorsElectrical Machines - il 1-50 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Conductors/slot = 32 Total conductors = Slots x Conductors/slot Z = 288 x 32 = 9216 Zpy = Conductors /phase = 2p = 3072 Tp = Zep = 3p s+. (2 conductors — 1 turn) = 1536 E Now Ey = Say = 60 = sei051 v v3 3 Ey, = 444K. Ky Of Tph 3810.51 = 4.44 x 0.0959 x 0.9576 x @ x 50 x 1536 = 0.012 Wb = 12 mWb hus Example 1.8: A single phase 1500 rp.m., 4 pole alternator has 8 conductors per slot with total of 24 slots. The winding is short pitched by z th of full pitch. Assume distributed winding with flux per pole as 0.05 Wb. Calculate the induced emf. Solution : Ns = 1500 r.p.m., P = 4, Slots = 24; Conductors/slot = 8 Note that the alternator is single phase and not the three phase. _ PNs _ 4x1500 pe 720 ~~ 120 50 Ee — Slots _ 24 _ "= Pole 4 ~° m = n= 6as number of phases is one p= BEL ap Kas — aay yay = Full'pitch = n = 6 slots Coil short pitched by 2 th of full pitch ie. by x6 = 1 Slot a éElectrical Machines - Il 1-51 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Angle of short pitch = 1 slot angle a = B= 30° K, = cos (3) cos (15) = 0.9659 Total conductors = Condele x slots a Z = 8x24 =192 But as no. of phase = 1, Z= Z,, = 192 Tn = Sot = 2 ~ 96 -+- 2 conductors > 1 turn Epy = 444K. Kao f Tym = 4.44 x 0.9659 x 0.6438 x 0.05 x 50 x 96 662.74 V ‘mp Example 1.9: A 12 pole, three phase, 600 rpm. star connected alternator has 180 slots, There are 2 coil sides per slot and total 10 conductors per slot. If flux per pole is 0.05 Wh determine from first principles, i) rms. value of emf. in a conductor ii) r.m.s. value of emg. in a turn iii) rms. value of emf. in a coil _ i) per phase induced em, Assume full pitch coils. Solution : P= 12, Ni= 60 rpm. t= PXNs _ 12600 720 ~ ~ 120 = 60 Hz. i) Average value of emf, ina conductor = 2 £4 mm.s. value 111 x 2 £ = 2.22 x 60 x 0.05 = 6.66 V i) Average value of emf, ina turn = 4 £0 As 2 conductors joined properly form a turn. rams. value = 111 x4 =444 x 60 x 0.05 = 13.32 V iii) Now each slot has 10 conductors and 2 coil sides. So conductors/coil side = 2 =5 Such coil sides are connected to another coil sides to form a coil. So in a coil there are 5 turns as shown in Fig. 1.40.Coil side 2 Fig. 1.40 2 nm.s. value of emf. in a coil = Tins.value of e.mf. No.of tums turn coil = 1332x5 = 66.6 iv) Now total conductors Z = Conductors . no, of slots Coil side Z = 10x 180 = 1800 Zn = 600 Tpn = 300 And ne =15 m= B= we ” x12 sin (5222 Ki = = = 0.9566 in (B in( 2 ouin(8) sain( Eph = rams, value per turn x Typ, x Ky X Ke = 1332 x 300 x 0.9566 x1 = 3822.88 V or En = 444 K Ky f Typ = 4441 x 0.9566 x 0.05 x 60 x 300 = 38228 VElectrical Machines 1-53 ic Concepts of A.C. Machines om Example 1.10: A 3 phase, 8 pole, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has 96 slots with 4 conductors per slot. The coil pitch is 10 slots. If the flux per pole is 60 mWb find i) the phase voltage ii) the line voltage iti) if each phase is capable of carrying 650 A, what is the kVA rating of the machine ? Solution : Given values are, P=8 f=50Hz, >=60mWb, Coil pitch = 10slots No. of slots = 96 n = Slots per pole = B = Slot angle = isn = 15° m= Slot per pole per ph = 42 = 4 Coil pitch = 10 slots = 10 xB = 150° electrical @ = Angle of short pitch = 180° 150° = 30° cos & = cos 15° = 0.9659 sin ™B Ky = 2_ = 0.9576 msin§ Total conductors = Number of slots x Conductors/slot = % x4=384 Total tums = Baim 192 Ty = “5 = 64 i) Epy = 444K, Kyo f Typ = 444 x 0.9659 x 0.9576 x 60 x10% x50 x 64 = 788.497 V ii) Eine = J9 Ep = 3 x 788.497 = 1365.71 V I = 60A=1, +. as star connected KVA rating = [3 Eine i, = 1537.56 kVAElectrical Machit 1-54 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines mp Example 1.11: The flux distribution of a 600 rp.m., 3 phase, 10 pole alternator is given by B=(sin@+0.3 6 + 0.2 sin 5 0) Tesla where 8 is measured from neutral axis. The pole pitch is 35 cm and core length is 30 cm. The stator coil span is 8/9 of a pole pitch. Determine phase and line values of induced emf. if there are 8 conductors per slot in two layers and 3 slots per pole per phase. Solution : The given values are, N, = 600rpm, P= 10, 1= 30cm Pole pitch = ze = 35cm Area of each fundamental pole = Ai = “8! = 30x35 = 1050 cm? = 0.105 m? From the given flux density equation we can write, Bai = 1 Byy=03 and Bays = 02 = 2 Ay Ba =2 x 0.105 x1 = 0.0668 Wb 120f _ 120f N, # apr Sg: 10x 600 120 " = 50 Hz Coil span = gx pole pitch = é x 180° = 160° @ = 180°- Coil span = 20° Ka = cos $ = 0.9848 = cos 32 = 0866 = Slots/pole/ph = 3 vse given = Slots/pole = 3x 3 =9 180° Kg Bee Kg = cos $= 0.6427 m n B= =S= 20° sin as Xe “ snsin2e myElectrical Machines - Il 1-55 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines _ mB sin Ka = 2. = 0.9597 mein? 2 Kis = ——2> = 0.6667 Kis = 57 02075 msin= Total slots = Slots/pole x No. of poles = nx P = 9x 10 = 90 Total conductors = Conductors/slot x No. of slots = 8 x 90 = 720 Total turns = a = 360 vie 2 conductors 1 tum Tyr = 75 = 120 Eph = 4.44 Ky Kar 1 £ Th = 4.44 x 0.9848 x 0.9597 x .0.0668 x 50 x 120 = 1681.87 V Ewn = Eig Ba te fs ww. x is order of harmonic 0.3% 0.866 0.6667 Bap = 1681.87 «9 opasx 0.9597 ~ 9088 V 0,2 0.6427 0.2175 and Bipn = 168187 xy ogigxo.s507 = 975 V Egy = of tpi)? + Espn)? + Esph)? = 1720.602 V In a line value, 3" harmonic does not appear Eine = V2% y Eip)? +(Esm)? = 2914.358 V wm Example 1.12: A three phase, 6 pole, 1000 r.p.m. alternator has an air gap diameter of 28 cm and a core length of 23 cm. A two layer winding with 60° phase spread is used and the winding is accommodated in 4 slots/pole/phase with 8 conductors/sot. The coils are short pitched by one slot. The flux density wave consists of a fundamental of 0.87 Wh/m?, a 3° harmonic of 0.24 Wo/m? and a SY harmonic of 0.14 Wh/m?, Estimate the resultant phase and line voltages for ster and delia connections. "Electrical Machines - lI 1-56 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines Solution : The given values are, P=6 N,=1000rpm, d=28cm, [= 23cm Bat = 0.87, Bas = 0.24, Bas = 0.14, m=4 120f N= 120f 1M sg A f£ = 50Hz ‘Area of each fundamental pole is, Ay = “ = men = 387.1976 cm? = 0.033719 m? Average flux per pole (fundamental component) is = 2 Ay Bra = 2 x 0.033719 x 0.87 = 0.01867 Wb m = Slots per pole per ph = 4 n = Slots per pole = 4x 3 = 12 180° 180°_ 4, Ba meg 8 Coils are short pitched by 1 slot @ = 1slotangle= B= 15° Ka = cos $ = 0.9914 3a. Ka = cos 2% = 0.9238 Ks = cos 5 = 0.7088 Ka = Ki = 09576Electrical Machines - II 1-57 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machii si Smp | i 2 Kas = 8 0.2053 sin Total slots = nx P=12x6=72 Total conductors = Conductors/slot x No. of slots = 8 x 72 = 576 576 Total turns = 7° = 288 .- 2 conductors 1 tum 288 Tn = = 96 Ein = 444 Ka Ka 6 f Ton = 444 x 0.9914 x 0.9576 x 0.01867 x 50 x 96 = 377.75 Now Bygh = Eph x pte ... xis order of harmonic 377 .75x0.24 x 0.9238 x 0.6532 Fah = ——Garx0.os1ax0.9576 = 6234 V 377,750.14 x 0.7933 x 0.2053 and Foon = ——Qa7xo.omdx0.9576 — ~ 142V Bay = ¥ (Bip)? + (Bayh )? + Espn)? = 383.654 V . total phase voltage Ina line value, 3" harmonic does not appear in both star and delta connection. Eine = 43 X J Bip)? + (Espn)? = 654.52 V .. for star and Eine = -¥ (Etph)? + (Espn)? = 377.89 V «++ for delta m=) Example 1.13 : A three phase, star-connected 16 pole alternator has 192 slots with 8 conductors/slot, coil spain = 160 electrical degrees, speed of alternator = 375 rp.m., flux/pole = 55 mWb. Calculate the phase and line voltages. Solution ; p= 16, 192 slots, 8 Conductors/slot, Coil span = 160", N, = 375 rp.m, >= 55 mWb _ PNg _ 16x375 PS apy py =e Slots _ 192 "= Pole 16 ="? m= Daliglectrical Machines 1-58 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines & = Angle of short pitch = 180°-160° = 30° Ke = cos{ $) = cos (15) = 0.9659 n sin sxe eal si 1) Ka = w=) ws Z = (Conductors/slot) x Slots = 8x 192 = 1536 Zn = 1556 = siz «++ 2 conductors one turn Ep = 444 K-KaofTpn 4.44 x 0.9659 x 0.9576 X55 x10 x50 256 2891.1587 V = 2.8911 kV Eline = ¥3%Eph = 5 kV ws. Star connection iw Example 1.14: A 3 phase, 50 Hz, 2 pole star connected turboalternator has 54 slots with 4 conductors per slot. The pitch of the coils is 2 slots less than the pole pitch. If the machine gives 3300 V between the lines on open circuit with sinusoidal flux distribution, determine the useful flux per pole. IR. : 2007] Solution ; £ = 50 Hz, P = 2, 54 slots, 4 conductors/slot, Eine = 3300 V n = Slots/pole = 3 = 27 B 13.333" 2 K = con = co | = 09932Electrical Machines - II 1-59 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines ‘Ton Now, Epn 195.2558 > ‘mp Example 1.15 : Eine . 3300 _ 1905.2558 V 3 V3 Slots x Conductors/slot = 54x 4 = 216 444 Ke Ka 6 fTpn 4.44x 0,9932x 0.95547x6 x 50x 36 0.2512 Wb oo Star . flux/pole A 4 pole a.c. machine has a three phase winding wound in 60 slois. The coils are short pitched in such a way that if one coil lies in slot number 1 then the other side of the same coil R lies in slot number 13. Calculate the winding factors for : i) Fundamental ii) Third harmonic iii) Fifth harmonic frequency waveforms u Solution : P = 4, Slots = 60 Slots/pole = 2 =15 Slots /pole/phase = [R.U. : 2006) +» Slot angle For full pitch coil, the number of slots corresponds to 15. Actually the coil span is (13 ~ 1) = 12 slots. And a a Hence the winding factors are, i) Fundamental : Kat slot angle is 8 = 12°. Hence coil span = 12x = 144° 180° Coil span 180°- 144° 36° Full Pitch xElectrical Machines 1-60 Basic Concepts of A.C, Machines ii) Third harmonic : Kas Kg = iii) Fifth harmonic : Kas Ks um> Example 1.16: A 3 phase, 12 pole, star conmected alternator has 180 slots with 10 conductors per slot and conductors of each phase are connected in series. The coil span is 144° electrical. Determine the phase and line values of emf. if the machine runs at 600 r.p.m. and the flux per pole is 0.06 Wh, distributed sinusoidally over the pole. IR.U, : 2005) Solution : P = 12, N, = 600 Epa, 180 Slots, 10 Conductors/slot, 6 = 0.06 Wb. n, = 22f ie. 600 = 120f ‘ P - 12 f = 60Hz Z = Slots x Conductors/slot = 180x10 = 1800 Zon = Tp = . two conductors one tum n= B .» slot angle m= 180°— Coil span = 180°- 144° = 36° Ka = 2) = 095667 and K. = cos = 0.95105 mail1-61 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines = 444K Kadf Tyr = 4.44% 0.95667 x 0.95105 x 0.06% 60x 300 = 4362.8994 V » phase emf = V3 Epn = 7556.763 V «line emf mim Example 1.17 : Calculate the rm.s. value of the induced em, per phase of a 10 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz alternator with 2 slots per pole per phase and 4 conductors per slot in two layers. The coil span is 150°. The flux per pole has a fundamental component of 0.12 Wh and a 20% third harmonic component. IR. : 2004} Solution : P = 10, f = 50 Hz, m = 2, 4 Conductors/slot, @; = 0.12 Wb n Slots Zz Zh Ty = Slots/pole = mx3 = 2x3 = 6 = axP = 6x10 = 60 = Slots x Conductors/slot = 60x4 = 240 = & = x = 80 .». conductors per phase = Zet. - 8 - 49 wu 2 conductors 1 turn 180 _ 18° eee vw Slot angle = 180° Coil span = 180°- 150° = 30° _... short pitch angle so 3) si 2) s 2 2 0.9659 mein(B) 2 sin( 3° 2 2 = cos® 3R = cos = cos = 09659 = 444 Kaka Of Tn = 444% 0.9650 x 0.9659 0.12% 50% 40 = 994.2183 V sin( 3") = —+/ = 0701 main( P) = cos( #)- o7or and Brg 03 = * but $5 = 20% of hence % = 02 $3 oElectrical Machines - I! Bunt Bm Exph E3ph Eph 1-62 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines 1 an? 7 BrxKoKax 1), 0.7071 x 0.7071 Eph BaKeaKar goaaassx| Fhe 0.9655 0.9659 106.5656 V (Eipn)? + Ban)? = \0942183) + 1065056)" 999.913 ~ 1000 V i> Example 1.18: A 3 phase, 4 pole, 50 Hz star connected alternator has 60 slots with 2 conductors per slot and having armature winding of the double layer type. Coils are short pitched such that if one coil side lies in slot number 1 then other side lies in slot number 13. Find the useful flux per pole required to induce a line voltage of 6.6 kV. [R.U. : 2003] Solution : P = 4, f = 50 Hz, 2 Conductors/Slot, 60 slots, Ejine = 6.6 kV Z = Total conductors = 60x2 = 120 Z_ 120 Zon Zon = F=7Z-= 40 hence Ty = "= 20 coil span = 13~1=12slots n = Slots/pole = 7 =15 180° _ 180° _ 456 B= =5e=2 .. slots angle Coil span = 12xf = 12x12 = 144° @& = 180°~Coil span = 180°~ 144° = 36° m= Ka = Eine _ 6.6% 103 E, = — = ———— = 36105117 V o» Star Ll 43 3 Epy = 444KeKa 6 Tpn 3810.5117 = 444x0.9567x 095105x6 x50x 20 6 = 0.9432 Wb .. flux per poleElectrical Machines - Il 1-63 Basic Concepts of A.C. Machines mm Example 1.19: A three phase star connected alternator has the following data : Voltage required to be generated on open circuit = 4000 V at 50 Hz, Speed = 500 rp.m., Stator has slots / pole / phase = 3 and conductors / slot = 12. Calculate : i) Distribution factor ii) Useful flux per pole. IR, : 2002) Solution : f = 50 Hz, N, = 500 r.p.m, Ejine = 4000 V, m = 3 120f 120x 50 Ny = => ie. 500 = P= 12 Slots/pole = mx 3 = 3x3 = 9 nxP = 9x12 = 108 _ 180° 8 7 sin| 2 Z Kg = =— = = 0.9598 » “ : 8) 3 Pe] msin(B) 3sin 2 ii) Z = Total conductors = Slots x Conductors/slot = 108x12 = 1296 _ Z_ 1296 Zn = F = Ae = 42 Za _ 432 Ty = AH = 3 = 6 Assume full pitch coils hence K, = 1 Eine _ 4000 E, = —St = —— = 2309.40107 V mR But Epy = 444 KKy 6fTpa 2309.40107 = 4.44x1x0.9598xq x50x 216 9 = 0.05017 Wb «flux per pole Review Questions 1. Explain the soning Principle of synchronous machine and derive te retin between dete! and mechanical an; Explain the oon raps of three phase a.c. windings. Draw and explain the mm, space wave of a single coil. Draw and explain the m.m,. space wae of one phase of distributed a.c. winding. . Derive the expression for peak value of the fundamental mmf. space wave of single phase distributed a.c. winding. Prove that mmf wave of a single phase distributed a.c. winding is standing ie. pulsating. 7. Explain the concept of rotating magnetic field. aR oDElectrical Machines - I 1-64 Basi Concepts of A.C. Machines 10. 1. 12. 13. 14, 15, 16, 17. 18. 2. 24. 8. 9% 19. 20. a. Prove that the resultant mam,f. wave of three phase ac. winding is rotating in space with speed @ but its magnitude i constant. Write a note on rotating mmf. wave in a.c. machines. Establish the working principle of a three phase alternator. What is the difference between degrees mechanical and degrees electrical ? Explain. Derive the generalized expression jor an induced e.m.f. per phase in three phase alternator, when coils are not full pitch and concentrated in one slot. Define and state the expressions for, i) Pitch factor it) Distribution factor Derive the expressions for the Pitch factor and Distribution factor. Briefly explain the significance of chording and distribution factors. Develop the emf equation for a synchronous generator having fractional pitch and distributed windings. Explain the methods adopted to eliminate harmonics in the volinge in an alternator. Explain why the windings of an alternator are distributed and coils are short pitched. Derive expressions for the above two winding factors. A S-phase, 20 pole, 300 r.p.m., star connected alternator has 180 slots on the armature. There are 6 conductors per slot. The coils are short-chorded by one slot. If the flux per pole is 42 mW, sinusoidally distributed, find the phase and line values of induced emf TAns. : 1.586 kV, 2.747 kV] A three phase, 12 pole, alternator stator has 72 slols and there are 6 conductors/slot. If the speed of alternator is 500 R.P.M. Calculate the emf. induced per phase. Assume coil span to be 150° (electrical) and flux in the air-gap as 40 mWb/pole. (Ans. : 596.51 VI A S-phase, 8-pole, star connected ac. generator is driven at 900 r-p.m. The armature coils are short chorded by one slot, the coil span being 165° electrically, Determine the induced emf. across terminals of the alternator if there are 12 conductors per slot and flux per pole 50.mWb distributed sinusoidally, TAns. : 4.205 kV] Each winding of a 3 phase, 50 Hz alternator has an em.f. wave consisting of a fundamental with maximum value of 1000 V, 20% of 3. harmonic and 10% 5. harmonic. Calculate the rms value of the line voltage when the windings are connected in star. Find the value of the circulating current when the winding is connected in delta if the reactance per phase is 12 ohms. TAns. : 1.23 kV, 3.9284 Al A 36, 4 pole, 50 Hz, ster connected alternator has 2 slots/pole/phase and 40 conductors/siot. Calculate the e.m.f. generated if the flux/pole is 0.06 Wh, distributed sinusoidally. TAns. : 3.565 kV] Calculate the induced e.m.f. per phase of a 3 phase, 10 pole, 50 Hz, star connected alternator from the following data : No. of slots 120, conductors per slot, 4, cvil span 150? electrical, flux per pole 0.1 Wb. [Ans 64275 kV] A 3phase, 20-pole, 360 rp.m., star connected alternator has a double-layer winding arranged in 180 slots. There are 6-conductors per slot. Find the e-m,f. induced per phase, if the flux per pole is 0.042 Wb. The coils are shori-chorded by one slot. fAns. :1903 kV} Q00Three Phase Induction Motors (Characteristics and Analysis) 2.1 Introduction An electric motor is a device which converts an electrical energy into a mechanical energy. This mechanical energy then can be supplied to various types of loads. The motors can operate on d.c. as well as single and three phase a.c. supply. The motors operating on d.c. supply are called d.c. motors while motors operating on a.c. supply are called a.c. motors. As ac. supply is commonly available, the a.c. motors are very popularly used in practice. The a.c. motors are classified as single and three phase induction motors, synchronous motors and some special purpose motors. Out of all these types, three phase induction motors are widely used for various industrial applications. The important advantages of three phase induction motors over other types are self starting property, no need of starting device, higher power factor, good speed regulation and robust construction. The working principle of three phase induction motors is based on the production of rotating magnetic field. The concept of rotating magnetic field is already discussed in the last chapter. Key Point: The magnetic field produced by a stationary three phase winding is rotating having fixed amplitude but its axis rotates with a synchronous speed. ‘The speed of the rotating magnetic field is synchronous and given by, 120f Ne = 5 2.2 Concept of Slip Rings and Brush Assembly Whenever there is a need of connecting the rotating member of the machine to the stationary external circuit, then slip rings and brush assembly is used. Consider a three phase rotating star connected winding as shown in the Fig. 2.1. It is required to connect external three stationary star connected resistances to this windings. The winding must keep on rotating ard external resistance must remain stationary and still there should be contact between the two. This is possible by slip rings and brushes. (2-1)Three Phase Induction Motors Machines - I! 2-2 [Characteristics and Analysis] Rotating slip ring saatonay brush Rotating (Stationary terminais to winding) armature External stationary circuit R R& tobe connected in series with rotating winding 2 Fig. 2.1 Concept of slip rings and brush The three rings made up of conducting material called slip rings are mounted on the same shaft with which winding is rotating. Each terminal of winding is connected to an individual slip ring, permanently. Thus three ends R-Y-B of winding are available at the three rotating slip rings. The three brushes are then used. Each brush is resting on the corresponding slip ring, making contact with the slip ring but the brushes are stationary. So rotating three ends R-Y-B are now available at the brushes which are stationary as shown in the Fig. 2.1. Now stationary external circuit can be connected to the brushes which are nothing but the three ends of the winding. Thus the external stationary circuit can be connected to the rotating internal part of the machine with the help of slip rings and brush assembly. Not only the external circuit can be connected but the voltage also can be injected to the rotating winding, by connecting stationary supply to the brushes externally. Key Point ; Such slip rings and brush assembly plays an important role in the working of slip ring induction motor. Let us see the construction of three phase induction motor 2.3 Construction Basically, the induction motor consists of two main parts, namely 1. The part ie. three phase windings, which is stationary called stator. 2. The part which rotates and is connected to the mechanical load through shaft called rotor.Three Phase Induction Motors 2-3 [Characteristics and Analysi Electrical Machines. The conversion of electrical power to mechanical power takes place in a rotor. Hence rotor develops a driving torque and rotates. 2.3.1 Stator The stator has a laminated type of construction made up of stampings which are 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. The stampings are slotted on its periphery to carry the stator winding. The stampings are insulated from each other. Such a construction essentially keeps the iron losses to a minimum value. The number of stampings are stamped together to build the stator core. The built up core is then fitted in a casted or fabricated steel frame. The choice of material for the stampings is generally silicon steel, which minimises the hysteresis loss. The slots on the periphery of the stator core carries a three phase winding, connected either in star or delta. This three phase winding is called stator winding. It is wound for definite number of poles. This winding when excited by a three phase supply produces a rotating magnetic field as discussed earlier. The choice of Fig. 2.2 Stator lamination number of poles depends on the speed of the rotating magnetic field required. The radial ducts are provided for the cooling purpose. In some cases, all the six terminals of three phase stator winding are brought out which gives flexibility to the user to connect them either in star or delta. The Fig. 2.2 shows a stator lamination. 2.3.2 Rotor The rotor is placed inside the stator, The rotor core is also laminated in construction and uses cast iron. It is cylindrical, with slots on its periphery. The rotor conductors or winding is placed in the rotor slots. The two types of rotor constructions which are used for induction motors are, 1. Squirrel cage rotor and 2, Slip ring or wound rotor 23.24 Squirrel Cage Rotor The rotor core is cylindrical and slotted on its periphery. The rotor consists of uninsulated copper or aluminium bars called rotor conductors. The bars are placed in the slots. These bars are permanently shorted at each end with the help of conducting copper ring called end ring. The bars are usually brazed to the end rings to provide good mechanical strength. The entire structure looks like a cage, forming a closed electrical circuit. So the rotor is called squirrel cage rotor. The construction is shown in the Fig. 2.3.Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - fl 2-4 {Characteristics and Analysis] er or aluminium bars End ring (a) Cage type structure of rotor (b) Symbolic representation Fig. 2.3 Squirrel cage rotor As the bars are permanently shorted to each other through end ring, the entire rotor resistance is very very small. Hence this rotor is also called short circuited rotor. As rotor itself is short circuited, no external resistance can have any effect on the rotor resistance. Hence no external resistance can be introduced in the rotor circuit. So slip ring and brush assembly is not required for this rotor. Hence the construction of this rotor is very simple. Fan blades are generally provided at the ends of the rotor core. This circulates the air through the machine while operation, providing the necessary cooling. The air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as possible. In this type of rotor, the slots are not arranged parallel to the shaft axis but are skewed as shown in the Fig. 24. srt The advantages of skewing are, 1. A magnetic hum ie. noise gets reduced due to skewing hence skewing makes __the motor operation quiter. 2. It makes the motor operation smooth. 3. The stator and rotor teeth may get magnetically locked. Such a tendency Fig, 2.4 Skewing in rotor construction Of Magnetic locking gels reduced due 4, It increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor. 2.3.2.2 Slip Ring Rotor or Wound Rotor In this type of construction, rotor winding is exactly similar to the stator. The rotor carries a three phase star or delta connected, distributed winding, wound for same number of poles as that of stator. The rotor construction is laminated and slotted. The slots contain the rotor winding. The three ends of three phase winding, available afterThree Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - Il 2-5 [Characteristics and Analysis] connecting the winding in star or delta, are permanently connected to the slip rings. The slip rings are mounted on the same shaft. We have seen that slip rings are used to connect external stationary circuit to the internal rotating circuit. So in this type of rotor, the extemal resistances can be added with the help of brushes and slip ring arrangement, in series with each phase of the rotor winding. This arrangement is shown in the Fig. 2.5. Slip ings a a Shalt — Brush ry Y, 8 Extemal star connected theostat Star connected Rotor rotor winding frame Fig. 2.5 Slip rings or wound rotor Key Point : This way the value of rotor resistance per phase can be controlled. This helps us to control some of the important characteristics of the motor like starting torque, speed etc. In the running condition, the slip rings are shorted. This is possible by connecting a metal collar which gets pushed and connects all the slip rings together, shorting them. At the same time brushes are also lifted from the slip rings. This avoids wear and tear of the brushes due to friction, The possibility of addition of an external resistance in series with the rotor, with the help of slip rings is the main feature of this type of rotor. 2.32.3 Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor Wound or slip ring rotor Squirrel cage rotor Rotor consists of a three phase winding simitar to the stator winding. Rotor consists of bars which are shorted at the ends with the help of end rings. Construction is complicated. Construction is very simple. Resistance can be added externally. As permanently shorted, external resistance cannot be added. Sip rings and brushes are present to add external resistance. Slip rings and brushes are absent.Electrical Machines - II 2-6 Three Phase Induction Motors [Characteristics and Analysis] 5 | The construction is delicate and due to The construction is robust and maintenance brushes, frequent maintenance is necessary. | free. 6 | The rotors are very costly. Due to simple construction, the rotors are cheap. 7 | Only 5 % of induction motors in industry use | Very common and almost 95 % induction sslip ring rotor. motors use this type of rotor. 8 | High starting torque can be obtained. Moderate starting torque which cannot be controlled. 9 _ | Rotor resistance starter can be used. Rotor resistance starter cannot be used. 10 | Rotor must be wound for the same number | The rotor automatically adjusts itself for the of poles as that of stator. same number of poles as that of stator. 11. | Speed control by rotor resistance is possible.| Speed control by rotor resistance is not possible. 12 | Rotor copper losses are high hence efficiency Rotor copper losses are less hence have is less. higher efficiency. 13 | Used for tits, hoists, cranes, elevators, Used for lathes, driling machines, f compressors etc. blowers, water pumps, grinders, printing machines et 2.4 Working Principle Induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When a three phase supply is given to the three phase stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is produced as discussed earlier. The speed of this rotating magnetic field is synchronous speed, N, r-p.m. N, = 20F < Speed of rotating magnetic field. where £ = Supply frequency. P = Number of poles for which stator winding is wound. This rotating field produces an effect of rotating poles around a rotor. Let direction of rotation of this rotating magnetic field is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 26 (a). Diresion of Direction of a MF. eee $ERQ ‘Stator: \ cnn! i utah, hy Pidetg to RMP es LET etue due to ty rt induced bind TQ PN tor current Rotor conductors Induced current in rotor conductor (a) (b) (ce) Fig. 26Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - It 2-7 [Characteristics and Analysis] Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux R.MLF. is rotating. So its obvious that there exists a relative motion between the R.M.F. and rotor conductors. Now the RMF. gets cut by rotor conductors as RM.F. sweeps over rotor conductors. Whenever conductor cuts the flux, e.m-f. gets induced in it. So em-f. gets induced in the rotor conductors called rotor induced e.m.f. This is electro-magnetic induction. As rotor forms closed circuit, induced e.m.f. circulates current through rotor called rotor current as shown in the Fig. 26(b). Let direction of this current is going into the paper denoted by a cross as shown in the Fig. 2.6 (b). Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. So rotor produces its flux called rotor flux. For assumed direction of rotor current, the direction of rotor flux is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 2.6 (c). This direction can be easily determined using right hand thumb rule. Now there are two fluxes, one R.M.F. and other rotor flux. Both the fluxes interact with each as shown in the Fig. 2.6 (d). On left of rotor conductor, two fluxes are in same direction hence add up to get high flux area. On right side, two fluxes cancel each other to produce low flux area. As flux lines act as stretched rubber band, high flux density area exerts a push on rotor conductor towards low flux density area. So rotor conductor experiences a force from left to right in this case, as shown in the Fig. 2.6 (d), due to interaction of the two fluxes. RMF As all the rotor conductors experience a force, the overall rotor suas experiences a torque and starts rotating. So interaction of the two — ity} Cenceation fluxes is very essential for a onnnes “SST dowton ree) motoring action. As seen from the (an eeee) Mechanical Fig. 2.6 (d), the direction of force Rotor Rott force experienced is same as that of conductor rotating magnetic field. Hence rotor Fig. 2.6 (d) starts rotating in the same direction as that of rotating magnetic field. Alternatively this can be explained as : According to Lenz's law the direction of induced current in the rotor is so as to oppose the cause producing it. The cause of rotor current is the induced e.m.f. which is induced because of relative motion present between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor conductors. Hence to oppose the relative motion i.e, to reduce the relative speed, the rotor experiences a torque in the same direction as that of RMF. and tries to catch up the speed of rotating magnetic field. So, N, = Speed of rotating magnetic field in p.m. N 0 W Speed of rotor ie. motor in rp.m.Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - il 2-8 [Characteristics and Analysis] N,-N = Relative speed between the two, rotating magnetic field and the rotor conductors. Thus rotor always rotates in same direction as that of R.M.F. 24.1 CanN=N, 2 When rotor starts rotating, it tries to catch the speed of rotating magnetic field. If it catches the speed of the rotating magnetic field, the relative motion between rotor and the rotating magnetic field will vanish (N, - N = 0). In fact the relative motion is the main cause for the induced emf. in the rotor. So induced e.m-f. will vanish and hence there cannot be rotor current and the rotor flux which is essential to produce the torque on the rotor. Eventually motor will stop. But immediately there will exist a relative motion between rotor and rotating magnetic field and it will start. But due to inertia of rotor, this does not happen in practice and rotor continues to rotate with a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field in the steady state. The induction motor never rotates at synchronous speed. The speed at which it rotates is hence called subsynchronous speed and motor sometimes called asynchronous motor. N The $2 is the angle between E, and I, which determines rotor p.f. on standstill. Fig. 2.9 In the running condition, Z, changes to Z,, while the induced e.m.f. changes to E,,. Hence the magnitude of current in the running condition is also different than I, on standstill. The equivalent rotor circuit on running condition is shown in the Fig. 2.10. 1, = Rotor current per phase in running condition . Ra AW Xp, = 8Xq O& > All values are phase Fig. 2.10 The vaiue of slip depends on speed which inturn depends on load on motor hence Xo, is shown variable in the equivalent circuit. From the equivalent circuit we can write, ly = Zar Ra? + (6X2)? 42, is the angle between E,, and I,, which decides p-f. in running condition. Key Point ; Putting s = 1 in the expressions obtained in running condition, the values at standstill can be obtained.Three Phase induction Motors Electrical Machines - II 2-15 [Characteristics and Analysis] 2.8 Induction Motor as a Transformer We know that, transformer is a device in which two windings are magnetically coupled and when one winding is excited by ac. supply of certain frequency, the em-f. gets induced in the second winding having same frequency as that of supply given to the first winding. The winding to which supply is given is called primary winding while winding in which e.m.f. gets induced is called secondary winding. The induction motor can be regarded as the transformer. The difference is that the normal transformer is an alternating flux transformer while induction motor is rotating flux transformer. The normal transformer has no air gap as against this an induction motor has distinct air gap between its stator and rotor. In an alternating flux transformer the frequency of induced e.m.f. and current in primary and secondary is always same. However in the induction motor frequency of emf. and current on the stator side remains same but frequency of rotor e.m.f. and current depends on the slip and slip depends on load on the motor. So we have a variable frequency on the rotor side. But it is important to remember that at start when N = 0 the value of slip is unity (s = 1), then frequency of supply to the stator and of induced e.m-f. in the rotor is same. The effect of slip on the rotor parameters is already discussed in the previous section. And last difference is that in case of the alternating flux transformer the entire energy present in its secondary circuit, is in the electrical form. As against this, in an induction motor part of its energy in the rotor circuit is in electrical form and the remaining part is converted into Transformer action mechanical form. ‘Stator ‘Wound rotor In general, an induction motor can be treated as a generalised transformer as shown in the Fig. 2.11. In this, the slip ring induction motor with star connected stator and rotor is shown. So if E, = Stator emf. per phase in volts. E, = Rotor induced emf. per phase in volts at start when. motor is at standstill. Then according to general transformer there exists a fixed relation between E, and “B, called transformation ratio. Fig. 2.11 Induction motor as a transformerThree Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - I 2-16 [Characteristics and Analysis] —= At start when , Ep _ Rotor turns / phase Ei ‘Stator turns / phase and we get, Key Point : So if stator supply voltage is known and ratio of stator to rotor turns per phase is known then the rotor induced em. on standstill can be obtained. ‘mp Example 2.4: A 8 pole, three phase induction motor is supplied from 50 Hz, ac. supply. On full load, the frequency of induced em,f. in rotor is 2 Hz. Find the full load slip and the corresponding speed. Solution : The given values are, P = 8, £=50 Hz, f,=2Hz Now sf sx 50 2 8 = g = 008 * %s = 0.04x100= 4% «+. Full load slip. The corresponding speed is given by, N = N,(1-s) ... From s = N, - N/N, where ny, = BOL. 12090 _ 759 rpm. P 8 N = 750 (1 - 0.04) = 720 rpm. .s. Fulll load speed. wep Example 2.5: For a 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz induction motor ratio of stator to rotor turns is 2. On a certain load, its speed is observed to be 1455 rp.m. when connected to 415 V supply. Calculate, i) Frequency of rotor e.m,f. in running condition. ii) Magnitude of induced e.mf. in the rotor at standstill. ifi) Magnitude of induced e3 Assume star connected stator. Solution: The given values are, K = Rotor turns/Stator turns = 1/2 = 0.5 and P=4, f=50 Hz, N=1455 rpm, Eye = 415 V 120f — 120x50 So = = 1500 rpm. in the rotor under running condition, N, =Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - il 2-17 [Characteristics and Analysis] For a given load, N = 1455 r.p.m. Ns-N _ 1500-1455 _ ‘ "iE 0.03 i.e. 3 % i) f, = sf£=003x50 =15 Hz ii) At standstill, induction motor acts as a transformer so, Eoph _ Rotor turns _ Eps Stator turns s= But ratio of stator to rotor turns is given as 2, ic. Ni ye oy, Nae Be Np?) # Nptae® and Et tine = 415V The given values are always line values unless and until specifically stated as per phase. Ey = 2-8 AS star connection Eyge = /3 Epy Eyn = 2396.V Ex 1 Hip ~ 2 Ey = $2396 = 119.8 V ... Rotor induced exmf, on standstill iii) In running condition, Ey, = s E, = 0.03 x 119.8 = 3.594 V The value of rotor induced e.mf. in the running condition is also very very small. hm> Example 2.6: A 3 phase, 4 pole, 50 Hz, induction motor has slip ring rotor. The rotor winding is star connected with 0.2 Q of resistance per phase and standstill reactance of 1 & per phase. Its open circuit emf. between the slip rings is 120 V, when stator is excited by a rated voltage. Its full load speed is 1440 rp.m. Find the rotor current and rotor power factor. 4) At start and i) On full load condition. Solution: The given values are, P= 4, f= 50 Hz,R,=029,%,=12 Now open circuit emf. between slip rings means rotor induced e.m.f. on standstill. As long as rotor is open, there cannot be rotor current and rotation of rotor. And between the slip rings means it's a line value of E,, for a star connected rotor. The open circuit emf. is shown in the Fig. 2.12.Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - Il 2-18 [Characteristics and Analysis] Fig. 2.42 Entine = 120 V, for star Ep tine = 13 Eopn Engh = a = Uh = 028V 15 n BE. oe ects pit R i) At start, cosy = Fo == E) 6.28 2” Tre ra JO22 +0? = 67.93 A per phase ii) On full load, N = 1440 rpm. ¢ = Ne=N _ 1500-1440 Ne 1500 = 0.04 Ro . R . 0.2 Ze JR? +(6X2)? { (0-2? +(0.04x1)? = 09805 lagging €08 Oy, =Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machin 2-19 [Characteristics and Analysis} and. 9.04 69.28 _ v (0.2)? +(0.04x1)? = 13.586 A It can be observed that current is drastically reduced from its value at start. In the running condition, slip controls and limits the magnitude of the rotor current. 2.9 Torque Equation The torque produced in the induction motor depends on the following factors : 1. The part of rotating magnetic field which reacts with rotor and is responsible to produce induced em. in rotor 2. The magnitude of rotor current in running condition. 3. The power factor of the rotor circuit in running condition. Mathematically the relationship can be expressed as, T =< © ly, cos Oy, vw (1) where } = Flux responsible to produce induced emf. L, = Rotor running current. cos @ 2, = Running pf. of rotor. The flux 4 produced by stator is proportional to E, ie. stator voltage. oo B -Q) While E, and E, are related to each other through ratio of stator turns to rotor turns ite. k. E2 eo k . B) Using equation (3) in (2) we can write, . Ey <@ oo @® Thus in equation (1), 4 can be replaced by E,. sE While ley .. @) Ry R and 08 $a, = ie Alay 6) a J R:? +(8X2)? Using equation (4), (5), (6) in equation (1), Rp TYRE HOG)? YR? +0%G)? Te«&£,Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - 1! 2-20 [Characteristics and Analysis] Ea Re N-m Ro? +(sX2)? 2 y= Kobe? Re 0) Ra? +(sX2)? where k = Constant of proportionality The constant k is proved to be 3/2n n, for the three phase induction motor. -_3 k * tan, “& ‘ Ns Key Point : n, = Synchronous speed in rps. = %o Using equation (8) in (7) we get the torque equation as, E,” R; Te 852 nem 46x @ So torque developed at any load condition can be obtained if slip at that load is known and all standstill rotor parameters are known. 2.9.1 Starting Torque Starting torque is nothing but the torque produced by an induction motor at start. At start, N = 0 and slip s = 1. So putting s = 1 in the torque equation we can write expression for the starting torque Ty as, 3. ER 8 Fans? x) s+ (10) Key Point : From the equation (10), it is clear that by changing Ro the starting torque Tu can be conirolled. The change in R, at start is possible in case of slip ring induction motor only. This is the principle used in case of slip induction motor to control the starting torque T,. hum Example 2.7 : A 3 phase, 400 V, 50 Hz, 4 pole induction motor has star connected stator winding. The rotor resistance and reactance are 0.1 9 and 1 Q respectively. The ‘full load speed is 1440 r.p.m. Calculate the torque developed on full load by the motor. Assume stator to rotor ratio as 2 : 1.Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - Il 2-21 [Characteristics and Analysis) Solution ; The given values are, P=4, f=50Hz, R= 019, X,=-12, N= 1440 rpm. Stator tums _ 2 4, Rotor turns Rotor turns _ K = > Stator tums 7275 120f _ 120x50 _ Ny = —p- =p = 1500 rpm. Enine = 400 V .». Stator line voltage given. Entine _ 400 Ey = UES = = = 230.94. V BS But Exh _ o5-k Eipn Ey = 0.5 x 230.94 = 11547 V Full load slip, = NaN. 00 SMO 004 n, = Synchronous speed in rp.s. _ Ns _ 1500_ = So = ey = BrPs 3 SE2* Rp 3 _ 0.04x(115.47)? x 01 x 2ans "Ry? 4(6Xz)? 28X25” (0.1)? +(0.04x1)*] = 8781 N-m 2.10 Condition for Maximum Torque From the torque equation, it is clear that torque depends on slip at which motor is running, The supply voltage to the motor is usually rated and constant and there exists a fixed ratio between E, and E, Hence E, is also constant. Similarly R,, X; and n, are constants for the induction motor. Hence while finding the condition for maximum torque, remember that the only parameter which controls the torque is slip s. Mathematically for the maximum torque we can write, aT ag"Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - 1 2-22 [Characteristics and Analysis] 3 wher = ESE Rr Ri* +(sX2)? While carrying out differentiation remember that E, R,, X, and k are constants. The only variable is slip s. As load on motor changes, its speed changes and hence slip changes. This slip decides the torque produced corresponding to the load demand. ksE,? Ry Te Rn? +82X2? va Writing (8 X2)? = s* X:? As both numerator and denominator contains s terms, differentiate T with respect to s using the rule of differentiation for u/v. (ks Ba? Re) 4 (Ry? 45? Xa) (Ry? +8? X22) 1 es? Re) ds ds as (Ry? +8? XQ)? k $ Bo” Ry [2s X27] - (Ri? + 8? Xa") (k En? Ry) = 0 2s8?k Xp? Ez? R,- Ry? k Ey? Ry - ks? X27 Ey? R= 0 ks? X27B)? Ry - Ry? kX2? Ry =0 s'X.7-R.? = 0 Taking k E2? R, common. 2_ Rk? x? R, . te Neglecting negative slip 2 Fhis is the slip at which the torque is maximum and is denoted as s,,. =®& x 2 It is the ratio of standstill per phase values of resistance and reactance of rotor, when the torque produced by the induction motor is at its maximum. 2.10.1 Magnitude of Maximum Torque This can be obtained by substituting s,, = —* in the torque equation. It is denoted by Ty:Three Phase Induction Motors 2-23 {Characteristics and Analysis] ksm E2? Rp Ry? +(8mX2)? From the expression of T,,, it can be observed that 1. It is inversely proportional to the rotor reactance. 2. It is directly proportional to the square of the rotor induced e.m-f. at standstill. 3, The most interesting observation is, the maximum torque is not dependent on the rotor resistance R2. But the slip at which it occurs ic. speed at which it occurs depends on the value of rotor resistance Ra. hu Example 2.8 : A 400 V, 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz star connected induction motor has a rotor resistance and reactance per phase equal to 0.01 Q and 0.1 Q respectively. Determine i) Starting torque ii) Slip at which maximum torque will occur iii) Speed at which maximum torque will occur iv) Maximum torque v) Full load torque if full load slip is 4 %, Assume ratio of stator to rotor turns as 4. Solution: The given values are, P = 4, f = 50 Hz, Stator turns/Rotor turns = 4, R, = 0.012, X, = 0.12 Eyjine = Stator line voltage = 400 V Ewph = Fue = * = 230.94 V ... Star connection Ks Exh _ Rotor turns _ 1 Eip ~ Stator turns ~ 4 E) = 4x By = SOM 2 57.75 v = a e at = 1500 rpan. i) At start, s=1 2 Ty = KE2 where k= 3 Ra° +Xa° 2mns N, _ 1500 ny = Sia = a5 rps.Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machi 2-24 [Characteristics and Analysis] 3 p= 2nx25 - 0.01909 x (57.735)? x 0.01 _ Te = —“Coperop? 7 O01Nm if) Slip at which maximum torque occurs is, =k X2 % Sq = 0.1% 100 = 10% iii) Speed at which maximum torque occurs is speed corresponding to 5, N = N, (1-8,) = 1500 (1 - 0.1) = 1350 rpm. iv) The maximum torque is, pt. = KE:? _ 0.01909x (67.735)? m * IX 2x01 v) Full load slip, s, =004 a58%s5,=4% k sy Ep? Ro = 0-01909 x 0.04 x (57.735)? x 0.01 Ra? +(5;X2)? (0.01)? + (0.04% 0.1)? 219.52 N-m = 318.16 N-m Ty, = 2.11 Torque-slip Characteristics As the induction motor is loaded from no load to full load, its speed decreases hence slip increases. Due to the increased load, motor has to produce more torque to satisfy load demand. The torque ultimately depends on slip as explained earlier. The behaviour of motor can be easily judged by sketching a curve obtained by plotting torque produced against slip of induction motor. The curve obtained by plotting torque against slip from s = 1 (at start) to s = 0 (at synchronous speed) is called torque-slip characteristics of the induction motor. It is very interesting to study the nature of torque-slip characteristics. We have seen that for a constant supply voltage, E, is also constant. So we can write torque equation as, sRo R2? +(sX2)? Te Now to judge the nature of torque-slip characteristics let us divide the slip range (s= 0 to s = 1) into two parts and analyse them independently.Three Phase Induction Motors: Electrical Machi: 2-25 [Characteristics and Analysis] i) Low slip region : In low slip region, 's' is very very small. Due to this, the term (sX,)* is so srtiall as compared to Ro that it can be neglected. sR2 ar “8 as Ra is constant. Hence in low slip region torque is directly proportional to slip. So as load increases, speed decreases, increasing the slip. This increases the torque which satisfies the load demand. Hence the graph is straight line in nature. AtN=N,, s=0 hence T= 0. As no torque is generated at N = N,, motor stops if it tries to achieve the synchronous speed. Torque increases linearly in this region, of low slip values. ii) High slip region : In this region, slip is high ie. slip value is approaching to 1, Here it can be assumed that the term R,” is very very small as compared to (s X,)*, Hence neglecting R,? from the denominator, we get where R, and X, are constants. So in high slip region torque is inversely proportional to the slip. Hence its nature is like rectangular hyperbola. Now when load increases, load demand increases but speed decreases. As speed decreases, slip increases. In high slip region as T ~ 1/s, torque decreases as slip increases, But torque must increase to satisfy the load demand. As torque decreases, due to extra loading effect, speed further decreases and slip further increases. Again torque decreases as T « 1/s hence same load acts as an extra load due to reduction in torque produced. Hence speed further drops. Eventually motor comes to standstill condition. The motor cannot continue to rotate at any point in this high slip region. Hence this region is called unstable region of operation. So torque - slip characteristics has two parts, 1. Straight line called stable region of operation 2. Rectangular hyperbola called unstable region of operation. Now the obvious question is upto which value of slip, torque-slip characteristic represents stable operation ?Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - Il 2-26 [Characteristics and Analysis] In low slip region, as load increases, slip increases and torque also increases linearly. Every motor has its own limit to produce a torque. The maximum torque, the motor can produce as load increases is T,, which occurs at s = §,,- So linear behaviour continues till s = If load is increased beyond this limit, motor slip acts dominantly pushing motor into high slip region. Due to unstable conditions, motor comes to standstill condition at such a load. Hence T,, i.e. maximum torque which motor can produce is also called breakdown torque or pull out torque. So range s = 0 tos = 5,, is called low slip region, known as stable region of operation. Motor always operates at a point in this region. And range s = s,, to s = 1 is called high slip region which is r lar hyperbola, called unstable region of operation. Motor cannot continue to rotate at any point in this region. At s = 1, N = 0 ie. at start, motor produces a torque called starting torque denoted as T,. ‘The entire torque-slip characteristics is shown in the Fig. 2.13. Torque eeneeeey ¢— Maximum torque OA= Stable region ‘AB = Unstable region Point A= Maximum torque <— Unstable region Point B = Starting torque Point C= Full load torque ‘Stable region _— Slip Fig. 2.13 Torque-slip characteristics 2.11.1 Full Load Torque When the load on the motor increases, the torque produced increases as speed decreases and slip increases. The increased torque demand is satisfied by drawing more current from the supply. The load which motor can drive safely while operating continuously and due to such load, the current drawn is also within safe limits is called full load condition of motor. When current increases, due to heat produced the temperature rises. The safe limit of current is that which when drawn for continuous operation of motor, produces a temperature rise well within the limits. Such a full load point is shown on the torque-slip characteristics as point C in the Fig. 2.13 and corresponding torque as Tr.Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - Il 2-27 [Characteristics and Analysis] The interesting thing is that the load on the motor can be increased beyond point C till maximum torque condition, But due to high current and hence high temperature rise there is possibility of damage of winding insulation, if motor is operated for longer time duration in this region i.e. from point C to B. But motor can be used to drive loads more than full load, producing torque upto maximum torque for short duration of time. Generally full load torque is less than the maximum torque. So region OC upto full load condition allow motor operation continuously and safely from the temperature point of view. While region CB is possible to achieve in practice but only for short duration of time and not for continuous operation of motor. This is the difference between full load torque and the maximum or breakdown torque. The breakdown torque is also called stalling torque. Teut load < Ta 2.11.2 Generating and Braking Region When the slip lies in the region 0 and 1 i.e. when 0s <1, the machine runs as a motor which is the normal operation. The rotation of rotor is in the direction of rotating field which is developed by stator currents. In this region it takes electrical power from supply lines and supplies mechanical power output. The rotor speed and corresponding torque are in same direction. When the slip is greater than 1, the machine works in braking mode. The motor is rotated in opposite direction to that of rotating field. In practice two of the stator terminals are interchanged which changes the phase sequence which in tum reverses the direction of rotation of magnetic field. The motor comes to quick stop under the influence of counter torque which produces braking action. This method by which the motor comes to rest is known as plugging. Only care is taken that the stator must be disconnected from the supply to avoid the rotor to rotate in other direction. To run the induction machine as a generator, its slip must be less than zero ie. negative. The negative slip indicates that the rotor is running at a speed above the synchronous speed. When running as a generator it takes mechanical energy and supplies electrical energy from the stator. Thus the negative slip, generating action takes place and nature of torque-slip characteristics reverses in this generating region. The Fig. 2.14 shows the complete torque-slip characteristics showing motoring, generating and the braking region.Three Phase Induction Motors 2-28 [Characteristics and Analysis] 's (Starting torque) {s>1) Braking Fegion Fig. 2.14 Regions of torque-slip characteristics 2.12 Torque Ratios The performance of the motor is sometimes expressed in terms of comparison of various torques such as full load torque, starting torque and maximum torque. The comparison is obtained by finding out ratios of these torques. 2.12.1 Full Load and Maximum Torque Ratio SE” Ro In general, Pie SE Re. R.? +(X2)? Let sy = Full load slip. 85 Ep? Re Tey, = Ee Be Rat (61%)? and Sm = Slip for maximum torque T,,. tT «om Eo? Ry Ra? +(SmX2) = —8¢Bo? Ry Ro? +(6mX2)*] [R:? +(6sX2)?] Sm Ex” Ra Sty (Ra? +(8m%2)*] Tm Sm [R:? +(51X2)?]Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - Il 2-29 [Characteristics and Analysis] Dividing both numerator and denominator by X3 we get, [E “| Tex - or DO" Tm m (Re Xa" Tm Sm X[8h +57] Tr _ _2958m_ Ta [5 +87] 2.12.2 Starting Torque and Maximum Torque Ratio Again starting with torque equation as, SE? Ry Ra? + (6X2)? Now for Ty, s=1 Te E,’ RB, Ta * gaa Ro? +X’ While for T,,, Ty « Sn Ei Re Ra? +(SmXa)* Te | Ex? Re (R:? +(onX2)?} Tr "IR? 4X2] SmE2? Rr Tr _ (Ro? +(SmX2)?] Tr Sm[Rz” +X2"] Dividing both numerator and denominator by X2” we get, bees te. z om| R241 x? Substituting =2 = 5, aThree Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - II 2-30 [Characteristics and Analysis] Ta. 28m? 25m Tn Sm(1+Sm. 1+5m2 Infact using the same method, ratio of any two torques at two different slip values can be obtained. Sometimes using the relation, R, = aX, the torque ratios are expressed interms of constant a as, Te __2as) Tm a? ts? Ts 2a and ee 28 Tn 1+a? where az Bes, x, 2 mm Example 2.9: A 24 pole, 50 Hz, star connected induction motor has rotor resistance of 0.016 Q per phase and rotor reactance of 0.265 Q per phase at standstill. It is achieving its full load torque at a speed of 247 r.p.m. Calculate the ratio of i) Full load torque to maximum torque ii) Starting torque to maximum torque Solution : Given values are, P=24, f=50 Hz, R,=0.016Q, X,= 0.2650, N = 247 rp.m. N, = 2Of . 120%50 _ 969 ppm. 50-247 . . 5 = Tap = 0012 = Full load slip 8m = = 0.06037 2x 0.06037 T+(.06037)" = 0120aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - i 2-43 [Characteristics and Analysis] i) f= 2 4 507 0.04 ie. 4% #5 2nN ii) Po = Teh X@= Ty x Now N = N,(1-s) at slip s = 0.04 120f N= = 220800 = 1500 rpm. N = N,(1-s) = 1500 (1 - 0.04) = 1440 rpm. 2nx 1440 Pout = 300x PE = 45.2389 kW Remember that T,, is net output torque available to load at shaft. iti) Tio = 50 N-m in friction Frictional loss = Tyog¢ X@ 2nN = Tho Fy 20x1440 8 a = 7539.82 W Now Pout = Pm ~ Frictional loss Pa = Poy + Frictional loss = 45.2389 x 10° + 7539.822 = 52.7872 kW We know, P2:P.:Py is 1:s:1-s Be. 8 Pn 1-8 = s_\_ 3 0.04 P= Ta ( hg )= 27787210 *(00) = 72199.1134 W These are total rotor copper losses. «. Rotor copper loss per phase = re = P1S4 _ 733.0378 WThree Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - I! 2-44 [Characteristics and Analysis] , _ Rotor output Pir iv) Rotor efficiency = Sor oonPr = 100 Now P, = Ee ae = 54977.8358 W % Rotor n = B72 100 = 96% vy) I, = 60A given per phase Now Rotor copper loss/ph = Iz;? x Rz 733.0378 = (60)* x Ry R, = 0.2036 O/ph mp Example 244: A 25 KW, 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz induction motor is running at 1410 r-p.m., supplying full load. The mechanical losses are 850 W and stator losses are 1.7 times rotor copper losses on full load. Calculate , i) Gross mechanical power developed ii) rotor copper losses iii) The value of rotor resistance per phase if rotor current on full load per phase is 65 A io) The full load efficiency. Solution : The given rating 25 kW of the motor is full load shaft output. Pour = 25 kW 120f _ 120x50 Nes prea N,-N _ 1500-1410 Ns 1500 = 0.06 Now Py — Mechanical losses = Pow i Pm — 850 = 25x10? i) Py = Gross mechanical power = 25x10? + 850 = 25850 W ii) Now P2: Pp: Pq is 1:s:1-s Bm _ os Pn oI-sThree Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - I 2-45 [Characteristics and Analysis] . 0.06 P, = 25850x 5°77 = 1650 W These are total rotor copper loss. iti) lL, = 65A Now Po = 3x Ize? x Re Ry = PB e 1650 3x (Ix? 3x( 65)? = 0.13 0 per phase iv) Stator losses = 1.7xP. = 17x 1650 2805 W Now Pe = SX Pz _ Pe _ 1650 Prom > = 06 = 27500 W Pin — Stator losses Pp Pin 27500 + 2805 = 30305 W Pout _ 25000 Gn = x10 = Fap5*100 = 8249 % wa) Example 2.15: While delivering an useful power of 24 KW to the full load, a 3 phase, 50 Hz, 8 pole induction motor draws a line current of 57 A. It runs at a speed of 720 rp.m. and is connected to 415 supply. The pf. of the motor is observed io be 0.707 lagging. Stator resistance per phase is 0.1 ©. Mechanical losses are 1000 watts. Calculate, i) Shaft torque it) Gross torque developed iii) Rotor copper losses io) Stator copper losses v) Stator iron losses vi) Overall efficiency. Assume star connected stator winding. Solution : P,. = 24 kW,I, =57A P = 8, N=720rpm,f = 50 Hz I, = 415 V coso = 0.707 120f _ 120x50_ Reeny 8 750 rpm.Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - Il 2-46 [Characteristics and Analysis] N=720rp.m. Pout = 24 KW Statorironioss «Rotor. = Mechanical + Stator copper loss copper joss. ioe (10001 Fig. 2.19 Py ~ Mechanical loss = Pou Pm = Pow + Mechanical loss = 24x10 +1000 = 25000 W For rotor P): Po: Pm is 1 wee Pn P= i) Shaft torque Ty, = 24x103 2x72) ii) Gross torque T = = 331572 N-maa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - I 2-62 [Characteristics and Analysis] 2.21 Effect of Harmonics on Performance of 3 Phase Induction Motor The induction motor performance is affected by the harmonics in the time variation of the impressed voltage. But its effect on the performance of the motor is not predominant hence it is not considered here. The torque-slip characteristics as shown in Fig. 2.13 is obtained when the space distribution of flux wave along the air gap periphery is sinusoidal. But the air gap flux is not purely sinusoidal as it contains odd harmonics (5%, 7", 11" etc). Hence at low speeds, the torque-slip characteristic is not smooth. The distribution of the stator winding and the variation of air gap reluctance due to stator and rotor slots are main causes of air gap flux harmonics. The harmonics caused due to variation of air gap reluctance are called tooth or stot harmonics. Due to these harmonics produced in air gap flux, unwanted torques are developed along with vibration and noise. Now eventhough stator currents are sinusoidal, the stator man-f. is not sinusoidal as stator winding has the number of slots not more than 3 to 4 per phase. If we carry out analysis of stator m.m-f. with the help of Fourier series it can be seen that in addition to fundamental wave it contains odd harmonics m.m-f. waves. The third harmonic flux waves produced by each of the three phases neutralize each other as it differs in time phase by 120°. Thus air gap flux does not contain third harmonics and its multiples. The fundamental mmf wave produces flux which rotates at synchronous speed which is given as n, = 2 rps where f, is supply frequency and p is number of poles. Similarly fifth harmonic mmf wave produces flux which rotates at i 3s rps and in a direction opposite to the fundamental mmf wave. The seven harmonic mmf produces flux which rotates at z rps and in the direction of fundamental m.m.f. wave. Thus it can be seen that harmonic maf. wave produces flux which rotates at times the fundamental speed and in the direction of fundamental wave if K = 6m +1 and in the reversed direction if K = 6m - 1 where m is any integer. The most important and predominant harmonics whose effects must be studied are 5% and 7 harmonics. The electromagnetic torque that is developed in the induction motor is because of zero relative speed between stator and rotor fields, This fact can be explained as follows :Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - il 2-63 [Characteristics and Analysis] When rotor is revolving in the same direction of rotation as the stator field, the frequency of rotor currents is sf, and the rotor field produced will have speed of sn, rpm with respect to rotor in the forward direction. But there is mechanical rotation of rotor at n rpm which is superimposed on this. The speed of rotor field in space is thus given by sum of these speeds snjt+n = sn tn, (1-s)=n, The stator and rotor fields are thus stationary with respect to each other which produces a steady torque maintaining the rotation, This torque existing at any mechanical speed n other than synchronous speed is called asynchronous torque. ‘The fifth harmonic field rotates at n,/5 rps and in a direction opposite to direction of rotor. Therefore slip of rotor with respect to fifth harmonic field speed is Ns ffthharmonic — Ne Tis fifth harmonic 85 = where n, is rotor speed. Here - 4* represents fifth harmonic field rotating opposite to the rotor. The frequency of rotor currents induced by fifth harmonic rotating field is fy sith harmonic = 85 X Stator frequency = (6-53) xf Now speed of fifth harmonic rotor field with respect to rotor is given by 2 (Er tonamonic) _ 2 SP SP Now, speed of fifth harmonic rotor field with respect to stator __ Speed of fifth harmonic rotor, Rotor speed £, © ~ 5s) = 5 (6-55) field with respect to rotor ~R 6H anid watt SE 6 - 5s) +n, =-2n, +n, +n, (1-5) =~ ps Negative sign is used before “* (6 ~ 5s) which indicates 5% harmonic field rotates opposite to rotor movement. Thus it can be seen that speed of fifth harmonic stator field and rotor field is equal and relative speed between the two is zero. Thus it produces 5" harmonic induction motor torque similar to torque produced by fundamental component.Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - Il 2-64 [Charactoristics and Analysis) Similar analysis can be made on 7" harmonic to show 7 harmonic torque produced similar to fundamental one. Thus each space harmonic can be considered to produce its own asynchronous torque. The induction motor can be considered as equivalent to number of induction motors in series having poles equal to number of harmonics multiplied by number of poles. The torque produced by fundamental component and the harmonic are shown in the Fig. 232. Fig. 2.32 Presence of harmonics 2.21.1 Crawling As fifth harmonic field rotates opposite to the rotor rotation, the torque produced by fifth harmonic opposes fundamental torque and it acts as braking torque on motor. The seventh harmonic field rotates in the direction of rotor rotation, the torque produced by seventh harmonic aids the fundamental torque. The resultant torque is shown in Fig. 2.32 which shows the addition of fundamental, fifth harmonic and seventh harmonic torque. The fifth harmonic torque is zero at - 5 sps while seventh harmonic torque is zero at + 54. There are two dips which can be seen in the resultant torque, one is near the slip 1.2 and other near slip 6/7. The dip near 5 = $ is more important as torque here decreases with increase in speed. The load torque is shown in figure. The motor will run at 3 with X as the operating point. Thus stable operation is obtained near sub-synchronous speed 3 This is called crawling or asynchronous crawling. Due to crawling there is much higher stator current accompanied by noise and vibration. The torque obtained from induction motor here is called asynchronous torque.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Electrical Machines - Il 2-72 Three Phase Induction Motors [Characteristics and Analysis} Tou and Iq are the currents in the upper and lower cages respectively referred to the stator Ro, and Rip are the resistances of upper and lower cages referred to the stator whereas Xy and Xz are the leakage reactances of the two cages referred to the stator of the motor. 2.22.3 Comparison of Single Cage and Double Cage Motors Single cage — Double cage Starting current is high hence not suitable for direct on line starting. Starting current is low hence suitable for direct on line starting. Stating torque is low. Starting torque is high. Effective rotor resistance is low hence at start rotor heating is not severe. Effective rotor resistance is high hence at start rotor heating is large. ‘As rotor resistance is low rotor copper losses are less and efficiency is more. The rotor copper losses are high due to high rotor resistance and efficiency is less. The breakdown torque or maximum torque is more. ‘The breakdown torque or maximum torque is, fF as two cages produce maximum torques at different speeds, The effective leakage reactance is high.Electrical Machines - II 2-73 {Characteristics and Analysis] ‘The power factor is high. The power factor is low. ‘The torque-slip characteristics are fixed and | With proper choice of resistances and constant. reactances of inner and outer cages, wide range of torque-slip characteristics can be obtained, For same rating, cost is low. For same rating, cost is high due to double cages. m> Example 2.18: The outer and inner cages of a double cage induction motor have standstill impedances of (0.05 + j 0.10) Q and (0.01 + j 0.6) Q respectively. Find the ratio of the torques due to the two cages i) At starting ii) When running with 3% slip Neglect stator impedance. Solution: Given, Zouter cage = (0.05 + j 0-10) 0 Zimmer cage = (0-01 + j 0.60) 2 Roo = 0.052, X} =012 Ry = 0019, Xi =062 Slip, s = 3% =003 We have to find the ratio of Tyuer cage Md Taner cage at standstill. The torque of induction motor is given by, Fen Base | sE2R: | 2an, |R2+6%) i) At starting s = 1 r 3 _ [SEER 2nn, | R2 +X? As E, , n, are fixed Te R3+X3 Toutoresge _ Roo / Roo’ +X3o° _ Roo Rei? +X4i? Tinnoresge Ry [Ra +X5,2 Rs Rig? + Xig" 0.05 (0.01)? +(0.6)? _ 0.05 0.3601 O01 (0.05)? +(0.? — 0.01 0.015 = 144Three Phase Induction Motors slectrical Machines - II 2-74 [Characteristics and Analysis] ii) Ats =3 % ies =0.03 sRy 2 To ayer Ea mare fixed 0.01 (0.05)? +(0.03 0.1)? 0.01 2.509x 10 = 0.8449 ium Example 2.19: The cages of a double cage IM have standstill impedances of (3.54j1.5) Q and (0.6 + j 7) Q. Full load slip is 6 %. Find the starting torque in terms of full load torque. Neglect stator impedance and magnetizing current. Solution : The equivalent circuit of induction motor by neglecting stator impedance and magnetizing current can be represented as, Impedance of inner cage during starting is given as, At starting, s = 1 Z =R+jX=06+j72 Impedance of outer cage is Z,=Ryt+jXp=35+j15Q Fig. 2.41 As Inner and outer cages are in parallel, . . _ Zi Zo _ (0.6+j7)3.5+ jl. Equivalent impedance, 2 = Fz * WerHOS +1 _ 7.025 £85.10°)(3.80.223.19°) - ait _ 26,6952108.29° = “SZ ERB = 2.828 244.05°Q = (2.032 + j 1.9662) Q Combined resistance of rotor, Rpg = 2.032 2 Vv Rotor current, b= 2" x98Three Phase Induction Motors Electrical Machines - Il 2-75 [Characteristics and Analysis] Torque during starting in synchronous watts per phase is, Ta =1 Re ( zs) (2.032) During full load, 5 = 0.06 Ria; 0.6 % = AsjXin Fyrj7-1+j79 Be = Fea jx= 35 4415 = 9833 +j150 0.06 Zi Zy___0+j7)(68.33 + 1.5) Z+Z, Q0+j7+E8.33+j1.5) _ (12.202 35°) (58,349 21.473") 68.337 8.5 _ 711.8572 36.473° ~ 68.85627 09° = (9.0081 + j 5.0722)Q Combined resistance, Reg = 9.0081 0 a 10.338 Equivalent impedance, Z= = 10.338 2 29.383° Rotor current, hk vy =2 R= Trull toad = 1} Ro (io x 9.0081 —Y? _|e.032) tm _ [REF _ (10.338)? (2.032) Ta. v2 -828)? (9.0081) [wear Za |e. 0081) Ty = (3x 100) Ty, Tye = 300% Ty, 2.23 Applications i) Squirrel cage type of motors having moderate starting torque and constant speed characteristics preferred for driving fans, blowers, water pumps, grinders, lathe machines, printing machines, drilling machine. ii) Slip ring induction motors can have high starting torque as high as maximum torque. Hence they are preferred for lifts, hoists, elevators, cranes, compressors.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page 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