Influence of Cemented Mill Tailing As Backfill Material in Open Stopes

Influence of Cemented Mill Tailing as Backfill Material in Open Stopes
CHAPTER 1
INTRODCUTION
1.1 General
Filling of the mine voids has multiple reasons such as, a simple method of tailings
disposal, or as a void filler, in a few cases it is followed as an economic method for
supporting the weak wall rocks, and lastly, for creating a working floor in a few
stoping operations. Based on the specific purpose of backfilling, the composition of
backfill material has been varied. Of the various reasons of backfilling, the role of
backfilling in providing a passive support to the weak sidewalls of a stope is gaining
importance in both cut-and-fill as well as open stoping operations. In the former, fill is
introduced periodically during the progressive extension of the stope while in the later
case, fill placement in a particular stope is delayed until production from it is
complete. In both cases, the function and duty of the fill mass can be prescribed
quantitatively. It is necessary to design the backfill to meet prescribed operational
functions and safety requirements. In order that the backfill material serves the
purposes of offering passive support to the sidewalls, cement is added as a binder to
develop strength to the backfill.
Cemented backfill became popular when it is taken as a means to support the weak
wall rock. However, the high price of Portland cement has thrown open the challenge
of economic viability. The consequence is that the researchers have tried to look for
binder alternatives which have eventually resulted in the application of high density
slurry and paste backfill materials that have improved backfill mechanical strength
response, reduced cement consumption and water disposal.
Compressive strength and permeability are the two factors affecting fill stability. The
compressive strength of fill required in mining operation varies over a wide range
depending on its application. and the variation in the strength is dependent on the
percentage of binding material.
Permeability is an extremely important fill property, which affects the stope
dewatering capability, and it should be taken into account in slurry fill design. There is
1
Department of Mining Engineering, IIT Kharagpur
no designated provision for percolation rate, but the universally accepted rate in the
slurry hydraulic fill is about 2.5 to 3 x 10-3 cm/s.
The backfilling method used is often dependent on the mining system adopted and can
be classified in to two general groups; these are cyclic and delayed filling methods.
With delayed backfill, the fill must be capable of existing as a free standing wall after
being exposed during pillar recovery. From the practical point of view the stability is
more governed by the dimension of the stope in most of the cases.
Cemented fill of various solid compositions has been employed as an artificial support
with considerable popularity in the recent years. The most widely used cemented fill
consists of classified tailings, or mixtures of rock, sand and cement. Results of
practical studies show that cement content in a fill and its slurry density are essential
factors affecting fill stability and the economy of backfilling.
With accumulation of large amount of carbonaceous waste from the thermal power
plants and mill tailings from the mineral beneficiation plants of metal ferrous mines,
the environmental concern regarding the disposal of mine waste has grown in recent
years and this trend is unlikely to end. Thus the backfill technology has to address
three basic issues, namely the property of the backfill material which enhances the
stability of the ground, the utility of mine waste as a backfill material to control the
environmental pressure and lastly it has to take into account the pressures created by
the conservation of mineral resource.
The present study focus is laid on the characterization of cemented mill tailings and
attempts were made to increase the mechanical properties of the cemented mill tailings
with out adding on to the cost of production. The basic objective of increasing the
strength of the mill tailings is to study its influence on the stability of the wall rocks,
which are under severe side pressure.
1.2 Overview
Backfilling of mine voids is one of the two popular techniques adopted for controlling
local, stope wall behaviour and also mine near-filed displacements. Brady and Brown
(1985) outline three mechanisms that demonstrate the support potential of mine
backfill. The three mechanisms, illustrated in fig.1.1, represent fil1 performance as
2
superficial, local and global support elements in the mine structure. As a superficial
support element, fil1 provides kinematics constraint on surface blocks in distressed
rock. This helps prevent large-scale wall movements and collapse of openings. When
placed tight to the back, fill can provide back support as well. At a local scale. The
passive resistance of the fill may be mobilized by pseudo-continuous and rigid-body
displacements of the wall rock induced by adjacent mining. Lastly, fil1 may act as a
global support element and reduce stresses in the rock by carrying part of the load. In
order to provide such support the fil1 must either be very stiff or undergo large strains
in confined compression. The latter might occur in narrow-vein mining where the
hanging wall to foot wall closure strain is high.
Fig.1.1.Modes of support of backfill: (a) kinematic constraint on surface blocks in

de-stressed rock; (b) support forces mobilized locally in fractured and jointed
rock; (c) global support due to compression of fill by wall closure (Brady and
Brown, 1985).
The disposal of mill tailings in underground not only reduces the environmental
impact but provides the base of engineering material which can be used to improve
both the ground conditions and also acts as a working platform in a few stoping
operations. According to Barrett (1978) the purpose of the backfill is not to transmit
the rock stresses, but to reduce the relaxation of the rock mass so the rock itself will
retain a load carrying capacity and will improve load shedding to crown pillars and
3
abutments. This leads to less deterioration in ground conditions in the mine, improving
operations and safety.
When used as a support medium in open stope mining. The fill must be able to remain
stable as a freestanding wall during adjacent mining. It may also be required to remain
stable during undercutting. Depending on the mining sequence and ore body geometry,
the fill may undergo various combinations of monotonic and cyclic loading prior to
and during exposure.
Adding low percentages of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) of between 3% and 6% by
weight, permits the development of cohesive strength and the ability for the backfill
mass to be self supporting when exposed in vertical faces by adjacent pillar mining.
The self supporting nature of the backfill permits higher recovery of pillar ore, which
in turn improves the utilization of the mining reserve and the economics of the mining
operation. Increased ore recovery results in longer mine lives.
In some mining methods the backfill forms a working platform for people and
equipment and therefore must be capable of supporting the traffic. Generally, cement
is not required in this application.
The placement of backfill underground directly reduces the quantity to be disposed on
surface. This has direct operating and capital cost benefits and reductions in future
rehabilitation costs.
In India, large amounts of tailings and waste rock produced annually through mining
activity. The tailings consist of a coarse fraction and a fine fraction and can be either
reactive (acid generating) or non-reactive. Most mining operations utilize the coarse
fraction for backfilling while the fines have been traditionally disposed of at the
surface in tailings ponds. The development of paste backfilling technology allows an
underground mining operation to use a portion of the fines for backfill. reduction in
tailings pond accumulation and possible elimination of impoundment for reactive
tailings in ponds and on land; reduction in costs associated with constructing and
reclaiming tailings ponds during mine start up and final close down; removal of
constraints placed upon fine grinding as an effective means of mineral value liberation,
i.e. gold, uranium and metal bearing ores.
4
One practical method to modify the physical and chemical properties of the fine mill
tailings so that they can be utilized in an appropriate manner for underground
applications is by using the superplasticizer (Alsayed, 1998).
In short it can be said that backfill is one of the most important processes used
extensively in underground mining operations around the world for many purposes,
and they are:
To provide ground support;
To create a fresh working surface and roadways for machinery;
To permit maximum ore recovery;
To safe and selection extraction of ore deposits without loss of ore and
encountering dilution problems; and
To dispose of mining waste materials.
1.2.1 Cemented Mill Tailing as Backfill Considerations

There are two main types of Cemented Mill Tailing as Backfill: Hydraulic Slurry Fill,
and Paste Backfill. Each has certain advantages and disadvantages and their use is
dependent on certain aspects of the present mining method and surrounding ground
conditions. An important parameter for determining the suitability of hydraulic and
paste backfill is its strength. An adequate uniaxial compressive strength for a backfill
in a typical mine is 0.72 MPa (100300 Psi), and common strength specification is 1
MPa after 28 days (Andersion, &Pigdon 2005). The paste backfill must be designed so
that it will reach its target compressive strength values at 28 days of curing age and
beyond. This can be done by choosing optimal mixtures for tailings. In backfill the
cement strength can be reduced when rock walls are sufficiently close together to help
support the backfill by shearing stresses at the wall backfill contact (Mitchel and
Smith, 1982).
An adequate modulus for a backfill in a typical mine will vary widely depending on
the surrounding ground conditions, mining method, and mining depth. Resistance of
the fill to converge should be sufficient to absorb the strain energies expected as
mining progresses.
5
Hydraulic fills are slurry fills having a pulp density in the range of 6075% solids
weight for weight. Viles and Davis (1989) state that as much as 30% of the total initial
fill volume is lost by dewatering. Hydraulic fills consist of classified coarse tailings
along with a binder. The fine tailings are usually excluded from the fill because their
removal improves flow characteristics provides better fill consolidation and
subsequent water drainage, the high water content allows the slurry to be transported
by gravity or pumping at relatively high placement rates through boreholes and
pipelines. Level preparation and clean-up can be very time-consuming with this type
of fill. The high binder dosage needed to create a hydraulic fill with good strength
properties can be expensive.
Paste fill, on the other hand, has high solids content, usually with a pulp density in the
range of 7585% solids weight for weight. Paste backfill is cheap as comparison to
rock fill or hydraulic fill (Hassani & Archibald, 1998). This type of filling usually
contains fine material. According to Slatter (2006) as the concentration of fine particle
(below 20m) increases, viscous stresses also increases, and paste become nonNewtonian in nature. And it flow just like laminar. This viscous character is a dynamic
property of paste. When the paste is stationary, the attractive forces between particles
or agglomerates form a three- dimensional structure, which extends to wall of the pipe.
The shear stress required to rupture this structure and initiate flow, is called the yield
stress. Below this stress the material behaves like an elastic solid. As shear stresses and
shear rates increases, the agglomerates gradually reorientate and disintegrate, resulting
in a decrease in the viscosity of the backfill material. This process is known as shear
thinning. At very high shear stresses and shear rates, the reorientation and
disintegration process reaches equilibrium, and the viscosity becomes constant (Slater
2006).
Paste fills have gained popularity in the past few years due to several operational and
environmental benefits due to following achievement.
The water solid ratio for the paste fill is low, producing greater strength gain
per unit volume of cement added to consolidate the fill. So strengths
approaching rock fill can be achieved, while using less cement than hydraulic
fills;
6
Facilitates a rapid mining sequence because strength is achieved earlier

compared with hydraulic fill;
Allows the use of waste rock and slag as well as the fine fraction of tailings,
thereby reducing surface tailings impoundment requirements; so reduced the
environmental costs of the mine;
A uniform graded backfill is capable of generating greater compressive

strength due to fewer voids;
Paste fill has higher stiffness than hydraulic sand fill because of reduced
porosity;
Decant water from the fill is virtually eliminated, reducing costs and
problems associated with barricade set-up/level clean-up and wear on mine
dewatering pumps;
The present bore-hold delivery systems of slurry fills can be used;
In saturated condition within the paste backfill the ingress of oxygen, so

limiting the potential for generation of acid mine drainage.
Due to these advantages the use of paste technology has been accepted worldwide in
the modern mining industry of today.
1.2.2 Geology of Hutti Gold Mines
The Hutti Gold Mine is situated in the Archaean HuttiMaski Greenstone Belt
(HMGB) in the south Indian Dharwar Craton (Figure1.2). The hook-shaped HMGB
consists of a heterogeneous assemblage of volcano sedimentary units, which are
metamorphosed to the greenschistamphibolite facies transition. The western
boundary is tectonically juxtaposed to gneisses; the northern, eastern and southern
contacts are intrusive. Two generations of granitoids can be distinguished, namely the
Yellagatti and Kavital Granites. The stratigraphy of the schist belt remains unresolved
because of the lack of any definite younging direction criteria and radiometric dating.
A granitoid pebble within a conglomerate forming the base of the HMGB has yielded
a SHRIMP weighted mean 207Pb/206Pb zircon age of 2576F12 Ma, which is
interpreted as the maximum age of the belt.
7
Fig.1.2. Schematic geological map of the Hutti Maski

Greenstone Belt (Jochen Kolb 2004). Inset shows
location of the study area in South India.
1.3 Need of the present Investigation

Several mines in India are using hydraulic backfill, cemented rock filling etc., but until
now there in case where paste backfilling is being used. Paste backfilling is far better,
cheap than hydraulic backfill. The published research work in India has been on the
preparation and transport of hydraulic backfil1 rather than improving its cured
geotechnical properties. However in the last two decades a considerable extent of work
has been reported to have been carried out in many other countries on the aspects of
improving the strength and flowability of concrete by adding superplasticizer (Alsayed
98, Yoshioka 2002, Nkinamubanzi 2004, Khatib 1999, and Radocea 1992). However
the effect of superplasticizer on strength and flowability in cemented paste backfill
was not attempted. In the absence of any detailed laboratory work on paste fill strength
and deformation behaviour, in the present project work, the initial design of cemented
backfill technology for The Hutti Gold Mines Ltd. has laid its focus on improving the
8
strength of the backfill material, with different proportions of cement as well as the
addition of superplasticizer.
1.4. Objectives
In order to develop an understanding of the strength and deformation behavior of
Cemented mill tailing as backfill and to optimize its use at the Hutti Gold Mine. The
specific objectives of this thesis are to:
Review the pertinent physical and mechanical properties of paste backfill

along with relevant aspects of soi1 mechanics and published results of
laboratory testing Paste backfill;
Laboratory testing is identify a cost effective backfill mixture which will

fulfill the desired strength and deformation behavior of Hutti gold mine
Cemented mill tailing backfill as a function of binder content and cure time
in uniaxial, direct shear test. So that the mix characteristics will be adjusted
in such a way that when underground opening is filled with this mixture,
the filled structure will safely withstand strata loading, and will limit
underground and surface movements; and
To develop an understanding of the performance of cemented paste backfill

when exposed to superplasticizer.
9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review is focused on the published results of laboratory testing of
backfill material. It is structured around specific geotechnical properties and includes
discussion of relevant aspects of established soil behavior. A vast amount of literature
exists on laboratory testing of conventional hydraulic fill. Since paste fil1 is a
relatively new technology, most of the existing literature focuses on preparation and
transport rather than geotechnical characteristics. The following aspects of paste
backfill behaviour will be critically reviewed:
I. Specific gravity;
II. Particle size distributions;
III. Porosity & void ratio;
IV. Permeability;
V. Unconfined compressive strength;
VI. Shear strength.
VII. Superplasticizer
2.1 Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a fill is the ratio the weight in air of a given volume of fill
particles to the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water. The specific gravity
of a fill is often used in relating a weight of fill to its volume. By the help of specific
gravity we can find the unit weight of fill. And unit weight is very useful for finding in
nearly all pressure, settlement, and stability problem in backfilling.
2.2 Particle Size Distributions
The size distribution has the largest effect on fill porosity and delivery. Tailings have
been the most widely used materials in backfill, and as such their properties have
become of main interest. It is the fine fraction of the tailings that makes a fill into a
paste. A paste fill contains at least 15 % by weight of particles less than 20m (Slatter
2006; Amaratunga 1997). It provides the water retention properties needed to prevent
10
water bleeding, prevent One of the most important characteristics of any fill material is
a well-graded particle size segregation of larger particles in the fill, and act as a
lubricant during pumping (Amaratunga 1997).
A backfill should have a suitable particles grading for any of its coarse aggregates.
Viles and Davis (1989) state that suitable backfill materials have similar features to
those specified for concrete aggregates. If coarse aggregates ( 25m) are incorporated
into the mix, it must have a well graded distribution to help reduce the void ratio in the
fill. Particles size distribution curve can be described by the coefficient of curvature
(Cc) which should be between 1 and 3 for a well graded distribution (Das 2002).
2.3 Porosity & Void Ratio

Porosity is defined as the amount of air space in a soil that is available for fluid flow
(Meegoda and Gunasekera 1992). The porosity, , defined as the ratio of void volume
to total volume in a fill mass.
While, the void ratio, e, is defined as the ratio of void volume to solid volume in a soil
mass,
So, porosity (%), n =
n=
(volume of air )
100
(volume of soil )
e
(1 + e)
2.1
2.2
Porosity decreases markedly with pouring pulp density within the practical hydraulic
range of 65- 75% pulp density. At low pulp densities a porous cement gel is formed
(Mitchel and Wong, 1982) which in turn, produces higher backfill porosity. The
porosity of a fine tailing decreases with addition of cement
Many author present the results of an investigation on the influence of porosity (n) on
the uniaxial strength n of various engineering materials. Fig. 2.1 shows the results of
test work by Li. Li; and Aubertin. M (2003) has determined the effect of each of these
factors On UCS. Higher UCS from lower porosities due to greater particles
interlocking and the fact more cement is available per unit volume of backfill.
Porosity is generally easy to measure with an acceptable level of accuracy, so it is a
practical property to use to characterize the influence of material internal structure. It
11
should also be kept in mind, however, that porosity, taken as an average scalar
parameter, provides only part of the information.
Fig.2.1. The effect of porosity on UCS of cemented sand (Li. Li. et al. 2003).
2.4. Permeability
Permeability is the measure of the ability for pore fluids to pass through the fill
material. Permeability is the key to successful drainage. Upon placement it is desirable
to have a fill drain as quickly as possible so that the fill material can settle and reach its
operating density. This process of drainage is dependent upon the permeability of the
fill. Thus preparation of the backfill is often required to remove the fine particles.
Paradoxically the best result strengths are obtained at high binder levels where the
binder is as fine as possible, therefore reducing permeability (Viles and Davis 1989).
Viles and Davis (1989) has given one solution to these problems is to eliminate the
need drainage by locking up the water within the backfill.
The importance of permeability can be seen in the fact that hydraulic mine backfill
must be dewatered from a moisture content of 30-40% (by weight) to around 20%
before being able to perform its ground support role (Viles and Davis 1989).The
processes by which dewatering occurs are decanting, exudation, and percolation, all of
which are dependent upon the permeability of the fill.
It is common practice to specify fill permeability in terms of percolation rate.
From Darcys Law the coefficient of permeability can be defined as (Aysen 2002)
12
K=
QL
A h
2.3
Where K= the coefficient of permeability (m/sec)

Q= the volume rate of flow through the fill (m3/sec)
L= length of fill (m)
A= the cross-sectional area of the fill (m2)
h = the head differential across the fill (m)
The percolation rate is the same as the coefficient of permeability except that the
hydraulic gradient
h
is equal to unity. Therefore, the percolation rate of any fills
L
material can be written as:

Kp=Q/A
2.4
Where Kp = the percolation rate of fill (m/sec)

Since the percolation rate is dependent on the fill material, the grain size distribution
and the porosity affect the drainage behavior of the fill. As for the fluid flowing
through the fill, in this case water, the viscosity and degree of saturation of the fill also
influence its dewatering capabilities.
The permeability coefficient varies considerably with grain size, Plasticity, and void
ratio demonstrate that Hazen's formula is best for predicting the average permeability
of sand tailings(Rankine 2002)
K=C d102
2.5
K= permeability constant, cm/sec

Where d10 = grain size in millimeters for which 10% of the particles pass by weight.
C=constant (1)
For a given size distribution, permeability will decrease with void ratio. A 20%
decrease in void ratio can cause a 50% decrease in permeability. The addition of
cement to tailings also decreases the permeability of tailings with finer materials
experiencing a greater percentage decrease (Mitchell and Smith 1982). The effect of
cementing reactions is to reduce the porosity of the fill and block drainage paths.
Permeability is an important design parameter for slurry fill. A good permeability is
required to ensure that excess transport water drains from the fil1 as quickly as
possible. The general industry accepted standard for minimum permeability of slurry
13
fill is about 2.5 to 3 x 10-3 cm/s determined using either a constant head or falling head
permeability test.
2.5. Unconfined Compressive Strength

The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) is regarded as the most useful measure
for comparing the relative strengths of paste backfills. There are several factors which
affect UCS including cement content, water-solids ratio, size distribution, and cement
type. Although the cement content contributes directly to the strength of the fill, the
final amount of cement is controlled more by economics than by design strength
parameters.
Laboratory work has also indicated that the grain-size distribution of a fill material is
important in optimizing its strength. Modification of a fills grain-size distribution is a
useful tool for improving a fills strength characteristics. The desirable size
distribution can be described as well-graded, containing course to fine particles
Thomas (1973) indicated that as the fines content of a fill material was increased, the
strength increased. Three cemented fills, prepared from deslimed tailings and
distinguished according to their grain-size distributions, were tested for strength.
Although comparable, the strengths of the medium and coarsely graded fills are less
than that of the well-graded fill that contains more fine particles.
2.5.1. Effect of Curing Conditions
The normal curing procedure for paste backfill, outlined by Archibald (1997), is to let
the sample drain for 48 hours then set it aside in a sealed polythene bag. Many paste
fills with a measurable slump are prepared in an oversaturated condition. If this is the
case, the paste fil1 may produce some decant water or bleed water from the base of a
sample tube which is not completely sealed. If the amount of water is small (e.g. 1-2%
of total sample weight), the effect of letting the water bleed from the sample prior to
curing should not be significant. The conditions under which the sample is cured have
a much greater effect on sample strength. If the sample is allowed to dry out at all, the
UCS will increase since lower moisture content will result in better cement hydration
14
(Mitchell and Wong, 1982). This is not considered realistic for paste fil1 because it is
not free-draining and remains close to saturation for a much longer period of time.
The curing time, temperature, and humidity have also been shown to have an effect on
cemented fills. As with normal concrete, the strength of a cemented fill increases with
curing time. Perry (1990) tested specimens of differing water/cement ratios and found
that ultimate fill strength is achieved after long periods of up to 90 days. Elevated
curing temperatures also accelerate the gain in strength of cemented backfills provided
that full saturation is maintained and the temperature does not exceed a critical level.
Kejin Wang et al. (2004) observed that strength can be increased by increasing curing
temperature and found that for common backfills, a curing temperature of 50C is a
safe limit. As opposed to time and temperature, the strength of cemented fill decreases
with humidity. Compressive strength increases more rapidly when dry cured rather
than wet cured (Mitchell and Wong, 82). Curing temperatures less than 15 C retard
reactions while higher temperatures accelerate reactions, excessively high curing
temperatures degrade humic materials in highly organic soils, detrimentally affecting
strength gain (Jesse Jacobson 2002)
Although these factors affect the strength of cemented fills, they may be impossible to
control due to the underground environment. Whatever curing temperature is used, the
specimens should be properly spaced and fans or pumps should be used to ensure that
all specimens cure at the same temperature (Jesse Jacobson 2002). It is important to
note that, excluding curing time, few mining environments will be able to provide the
ideal hot and dry environment that can help improve a cemented fills strength.
G. M.M. Ley, C.M. Steed, D. Bronkhorst and Robert Gustas (1998) have found in the
case of the garson mines that the laboratory material values (average UCS .65 MPa
with an average Youngs Modulus of 215 MP) for the paste fill varied significantly
from those obtained from insitu samples, with the insitu values being stronger and
(1.5MPa) stiffer (920MPa). Temperature monitoring carried out during fill placement
indicated high hydration temperatures which may account for the increased strength.
Although humidity control is not standardized, Jesse Jacobson (2002) recommends
several methods for controlling the humidity in the curing environment: curing
samples in sealed, airtight tubes; curing underwater; or placing samples inside an
insulating jacket found that providing the samples access to water while applying a
15
confining pressure during curing, which may imitate field conditions more accurately,
reduces strength.
Although free water in sample will readily evaporated at a relative humidity less than
45%, the cement gel water appears to resist evaporation and cured water content, under
low relative humidity, increases with increased cement content (Mitechell and Wong,
1982). Humid cured specimen, on the other hand, showed a general deceases in water
content with increases cement content, a result due to Hydration. Uniaxial strength, for
given cement content, was found to increase as the water content decreased.
2.5.2 Pulp Density

Pulp density is a measure of the percentage of the solids by total weight in the slurry or
paste backfill. Pulp density is an important factor in fill strength development and
pumping characteristics due to water content paste fills have a pulp density which
range from 75 % to 88% while hydraulic fills are placed at pulp density of 55% to 75
%( Amaratunga, and Yaschyshyn, 1997). For strength purpose a high pulp density is
ideal, however, paste fill pumping and placement consideration limit the density.
Fig. 2.2 shows the results of test work by Benzaazoua, (2003) have a significant
influence on the mechanical performance of the paste fill in different ways depending
on their concentration in the pore water. Fig.2.2 clearly shows that decrease in strength
(UCS) occurred with an increase in the water content (or slump value). This effect is
clear at short-term (7 days of cure) as well as medium term curing times (28 and 56
days of cure), however it is less clear at the long-term curing time (120 days of cure)
possibly due to a certain internal weathering of the samples as seen for samples made
of tailings
16
Fig.2.2. Effect of the water content (w%) on UCS (M. Benzaazoua 2003)
2.5.3 pH
When a significant quantity of lime is added to a mill tailing, the pH of the mill tailinglime mixture is elevated to approximately 12.4, the pH of saturated limewater at 25 C.
This is a substantial pH increase for mill tailing. Mehta and Monteiro (1993) show that
the solubilities of silica and alumina are greatly decreased at reduce the pH levels,
which can lead to a decrease in pozzolanic reactions as well as decreased cation
exchange capacity. Mehta (1993) suggested that the high pH causes silica from the
clay minerals to dissolve and, in combination with Ca++, to form calcium silicate. This
reaction will continue as long as Ca (OH)2 exists in the mill tailing and there is
available silica. A very small amount of Ca (OH)2 was required to raise the pH to the
target value.
2.5.4. Mineralogical Effects
The mineralogy of the mine tailings and cement plays an important role in the strength
development of cemented paste backfill. The mineralogical composition is determined
by X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), which provides the crystalline mineral
assemblage of a sample.
It is common knowledge that sulphide mine tailings generate sulphuric acid in the
presence of water and oxygen, which may lead to possible chemical weathering and
other consequences. The presence of sulphide minerals within cemented composites as
17
well as the soluble sulphates has a deleterious effect on the strength of paste backfill
due to sulphate attack (Kesimal, & Ercikdi, 2004).
The effect of sulphate on the strength of cemented paste backfill depends on the
strength of sulphate concentration, the curing time, and the cemented composition and
content (Benzaazoua et al. 2003).
According to Archibald (1999) the deleterious nature of sulphide on cement
performance increases with increasing O2 concentration, specific surface area and
temperature. pH is also an important factor in sulfide oxidation. At low pH, bacterial
action is an important factor in oxidation. But this role is eliminated at pH levels above
approximately 4. A typical sulfide oxidation reaction for pyrite, described in the
following equation illustrates the reason for its harmful effect on cement hydration.
FeS2 +15/4 O2 +7/2O2Fe(OH)3(s) +2SO42- +H+
2.6
the strength loss experienced by cement, curing the presence of this reaction, is due to
the production of hydrogen ions causing an acid attack that dissolves the calcium
hydroxide found in hydrating cement and the precipitation of gypsum, ettringite and
monoaliminate sulphate by the reaction of aluminates in the cement the mineral
species have low molar densities compared to the cement components they replace and
thus, cause expansion in cements.
Mitchell and Wong (1982) note that large variations in strength should be expected
between cemented tailings sands of different mineral or chemical composition. They
performed tests on tailings with 2.5% sulphur content and found that it produced
strengths that were only 60% of the strength of non-sulphide tailings prepared with the
same cement content due to an internal sulphate attack, which results from the
chemical interactions of the sulphate ions with the Portland cement hydration products.
They indicate that the possibility of long-term strength loss in some cemented tailings
backfills should be considered in backfill design and mine operations.
Kesimal (2004) also find that effect of sulfide on UCS. It was pointed out that for high
sulphide tailings, neither the slag-based binders nor the fly-ash based it was pointed
out that for high sulphide tailings; neither the slag-based binders nor the fly-ash based
binders were effective, whereas the sulphate-resistant-based binder gave good longterm strength. To control the deteriorating effects of sulphate attack, the amount of
18
calcium hydroxide and calcium aluminates hydrate must be kept to a

minimum(Hassani et al. 2001).
2.6. Shear Strength
2.6.1. The Mohr Coulomb Failure Criterion
The shear strength of backfill has traditionally been represented by the Mohr-Coulomb
failure criterion which States that shear strength increases with increasing normal
stress on a plane:
=c+ tan
2.7
Where = shear stress on the failure plane.

c = cohesion intercept.
= normal stress on the failure plane, and
= angle of shearing resistance.
Since shear stress cm only be resisted by the skeleton of solid particles according to
Terzaghis effective stress law. Shear strength is expressed as a function of effective
normal stress:
=c'+ ( u) tan'
2.8
=c'+ ' tan'
2.9
Where u= pore pressure, and

c' and ' = shear strength parameters in terms of effective stress (drained shear
strength parameters).
2.6.2. Effective Shear Strength
The determination of the internal friction angle () and the effective cohesion (c) is
commonly accomplished by the direct shear test or the triaxial test. The direct shear
test is preferred because of its simplicity and lower cost. The advantages and
disadvantages of direct shear tests are given below.
Advantages of direct shear testing are as follows:
The test is relatively inexpensive and quick to perform.
It requires less sophisticated equipment than other methods and it is easier to reduce
the data and interpret the results
19
It has been found that soil parameters and c obtained by direct shear
testing are nearly as reliable as triaxial values. Typical values obtained
with the direct shear test are 1 to 2 degrees larger than values obtained
with the triaxial test (Bowles, 1979).
It is good for measuring residual strength values.
Disadvantages or limitations of the direct shear test (Holtz and Kovacs, 2003) are as
follows:
Shearing stress is not uniformly distributed across the sample. Initial

failure occurs at the corners and ends of the box, and propagates
towards the center.
The test forces failure to occur along a fixed zone or plane.
There is an uncontrolled rotation of principal planes and stresses that

occurs between the start of the test and failure.
Pore water pressures for fine-grained soils are neither controlled nor
monitored.
2.7 Superplasticizer
2.7.1 Backfill Strength Enhancement by Superplasticizer
The properties of backfill material are governed by its strength and flow behavior,
which can achieved by the dispersion of backfill material. It is widely known that
better strength and fluidity is achieved by the addition of superplasticizer (Chandra,
2002.).
A superplasticizer is one of type of admixtures called water reducers (Stuart.1980) that
are used to reduction in water requirement of concrete. Water reduction results in
undesirable effect on setting, bleeding, segregation and hardening characteristics.
Superplasticizer is chemically different from normal water-reducers, and is capable of
reducing water contents by about 30%. The presence of superplasticizers (SP) in a
concrete mixture is quite advantageous, in that they assist in the effective dispersion of
cement particles due to the electrostatic repulsion (Termkhajornkit 2004) and yield
stress value decreased but the plasticity does not decrease significantly, paste will
20
obtain good flow ability without ingredient segregation. So it improves the workability
of concrete (V.S. Ramachandran, 1979 and P. Termkhajornki, 2004). The water to
cement ratio is reduced when SP is added to cement paste, which leads to reduced
permeability, increased strength and producing durable concrete
Due to these excellent properties superplasticizer can use in cemented paste backfill.
So basic advantages of superplasticizers in Cemented Paste Backfill (CPB) are (1) High workability of CPB, resulting in easy placement without reduction in cement
content and strength; (2) high strength CPB with normal workability but lower water
content (fig. 2.3); and (3) a binder mix with less cement but normal strength and
workability (4) CPB of good workability has advantages in that it permits easy and
quick placement. (5) It increases the flow characteristics and becomes self leveling.
.
Fig. 2.3. Effect of Super plasticizer on Strength (Stuart, 1980)

Sokalan HP 80 is an advanced superplasticizer that consists of a polycarboxylate. It has
the following advantages.
It creates strongly plasticizing effect on cement for high strength CPB;
Longer working time; and
Low consumption compared to conventional plasticizers.
Khatib (1999) states the inclusion of superplasticizer in cement paste leads to a

reduction in the total pore volume and to a refinement of the pore structures. The
21
dominant pore size is unaffected and the threshold diameter is reduced in the presence
of SP. The initial curing regime has a substantial influence on porosity and pore
structure. Less pore volume and finer pore structure are obtained when cement paste is
subjected to initial moist curing as compared with initially dry curing (Khatib, Mangat
1999). Flow velocity of cement paste increases with the increased concentration
(Yoshioka 2002).
2.7.2 Rheological Test

The transportation of cemented mill tailings in the form of paste through pipelines is
one of the main stages of paste backfill operations. One of the data-sets used for
pipeline design purposes are those correlating the yield stress of fluid material changes
with changes in friction loss and the diameter of pipes (Li and Moerman, 2002).
Furthermore, the yield stress-water content curves are usually used in the design of
pumping energy requirements for the transportation of paste backfills through
pipelines (Van Dijk, 2001); (Sofra and Boger, 2000). Therefore, the yield stress
measurement is of great importance to understanding the pipeline transportation
principles of paste backfill.
The yield stress of viscoplastic fluid material is defined as a critical shear stress at
where it begins to flow as viscous material with finite viscosity. Within the context of
rheology, paste backfill is categorized as a viscoplastic fluid; a non-Newtonian,
homogenous mixture that may show time-independent or time-dependent behaviour
(Cooke, 2001); (Brackebusch, 2002); (Li and Moerman, 2002). In either case, the yield
stress depends on the characterization of the mixture (Nguyen and Boger, 1992).
2.7.3. Apparatus
The yield stress of the specimens can find by using the vane method in controlled
shear rate (CSR) and controlled shear stress (CSS) modes, and slump tests by cone or
cylinder (Clayton 2003).
In the slump test methods, standard conical and cylindrical slump moulds can use.
Clayton (2003), Saak (2004) has find that the cylindrical model is an excellent
22
technique for slump test because its value is fully agreement with the experimental
yield stress data obtained using the vane method.
According to Clayton (2003) the cylindrical slump test has many advantages over the
cone slump test:
Cylindrical test value is fully agreement with the experimental yield stress data
obtained using the vane method.
The cylinder model is mathematically simpler which is important for operators

who may not have a strong background in mathematics.
Due to the more complex cone geometry, the cone is more difficult to fill,
during experiment; full extraction of material is also very difficult. Due to this
cause leading to the likely presence of air bubbles which can adversely affect
the results.
Cylinder slump measurements can be completed with a section of pipe or even

a beer can, whereas cone measurement must be completed with a cone
manufactured to certain specifications.
2.7.4. Theory
The cylinder model is generalized for any-sized cylinder. The cylinder theory
developed by Pashias (1996) is also presented to enable easy comparison with the
generalized cone theory. Schematic diagrams for the cylinder are presented in fig. 7.
The schematics display the important variables and the stress distributions involved in
slumping.
Fig.2.4. Schematic diagram of the cylinder slump test, showing initial and final stress
distributions (developed from Pashias et al., 1996).
The dimensionless yield stress of backfills can be calculated from slump height, s,
using the following equations (Pashias et al.1996):
23
1
2
y' = h'0
s = 1 2y [1 ln(2y )] ,
2.10
2.11
Where 'y is the dimensionless yield stress
y
gh
y' =
2.12
s' is the dimensionless slump
s' =
s
H
2.13
h0' is dimensionless height of undeformed region,
h0 ' =
h0
H
2.14
h1' is dimensionless height of deformed region.
h1' =
h1
H
2.15
and H is the height of cylinder.

The actual yield stress can then be estimated by multiplying 'y with gH.
24
CHAPTER 3
LABORATORY INVESTIGATION
3.1. Experimental Method

3.1.1 Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of backfill material was carried out in 25 ml bottles (also known
as pycnometer bottle). The density bottle with fill material, half full with water, were
placed in warm water bath for 30-45 minutes to remove entrapped air. This was latter
placed in a desecrator where a Crompton Parkinson vacuum pump, of 0.25 KW, 2.3
amp, rpm 1425 was used for about an hour to completely remove any remaining air
within the sample.
3.1.2. Particle Size Analysis
Particle Size Analysis is performed to evaluate the particle size by sieving procedure
most appropriate to the samples from Hutti gold mines. Generally, the distribution of
particle sizes larger than 75 m is determined by sieving.
Following sieves was used for particle size analysis is numbers: 4, 16, 25, 40, 60, 70,
100, 140, 200, and 270
3.1.3 Porosity
50 gram mill tailing with different cement % taken in different measuring
cylinder
and volume was measured. Then transfer the content of different cylinders in other
cylinders which are contains 50 ml water. Now leaved the composition in cylinder for
settle 1 day and then record the combined volume of the MT composition and water.
And measured the porosity by formula 2.1
porosity (%), n =
(volume of air )
100
(volume of soil )
3.1.4. Permeability
Using the constant and falling head permeability tests the coefficient of permeability
was determined. Initially water flows through the sample until flow (Q) and the
25
hydraulic head loss (h) has reached a steady state. The flow rate and head loss are
then measured and the coefficient of permeability calculated by equation 2.3:K=
QL
A h
Where, Q is the flow rate (q/t), h is the constant head loss and, A and L are the
cross sectional area and length of the sample respectively.
3.1.5 pH
Air-dried soil samples were adjusted to 100% water content by adding distilled water,
and pH values were measured using a calibrated pH probe.
3.2. Uniaxial Compression
3.2.1 Sample Preparation
The purpose of the uniaxial compression tests was to obtain unconfined compressive
strengths (UCS) and moduli as a function of binder content and cure time. Al1 test
samples were cast in the laboratory. The different cement contents were sampled for
each type of test: 3%, 6%, 10% and 20% by dry weight (Cement: mill tailing). In all,
60 samples were cured on laboratory for 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days in summer season.
Other samples were cured on laboratory for 28 days for different pulp density in winter
season. Again 24 samples were cured on laboratory for 28 and 90 days for different
composition of superplasticizer in winter season.
The samples of 54 110 mm diameter by length were cast in the Department in
wooden molds (Fig.3.1). After allowing them to set for 48 hours, al1 of the sample
were removed from the wooden molds and were waxed at both ends to prevent
moisture loss due to evaporation and possible oxidation of the samples. The samples
were cure for 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days
Fig.3.1. Sample preparation in the wood mold

3.2.2 Uniaxial Compression Test
26
Both ends of the samples initially were done parallel by polish. Before the testing
samples length, diameter and weight were measured. The sample was placed in the
testing frame its stroke control rate was 0.315mm/min and brought into contact with
the load cell by adjusting the hydraulic ram (fig.3.2). When the sample was failed load
and deformation was noted. UCS was calculated with the Secant value of Youngs
modulus at 50% peak stress (Unal 2002).
Fig.3.2 Uniaxial Compression test machine
3.3. Direct Shear Test under Consolidated Drained Conditions

The direct shear box of 50 50 25 mm was used for conducting shear strength
tests. All the direct shear tests were conducted in the laboratory using manual operated
equipment. Prior to testing, all samples were air-dried. All of these samples were
tested under five different values of normal stress from 19.6 to 76.6 KPa and at a
shearing rate of 0.25mm/min.
27
CHAPTER 4
LABORATORY TEST RESULTS
Several tests were performed on cemented Hutti Gold mill tailings to evaluate the
basic material properties that influence the strength and deformation behaviour of
paste fill.
4.1 Specific Gravity
Specific gravity has found 2.67
4.2. Mineralogy and Chemical Composition
A qualitative assessment of tailings mineralogy using X-Ray diffraction (XRD)
indicated the mine tailings consists mainly of quartz (SiO2), followed by Albite
(NaAlSi3O8), Calcium Peroxide (CaO2), Cordierite(Mg2Al4Si5O18), Potassium sulfate
oxide(K2S2O5), sulfur (S7)and Sodium Manganese Silicate (Na2Mn6Si7O21) as shown
in the Fig. 4.1. The relative proportions of the minerals are based on peaks from an Xray diffraction analysis of the Hutti gold mine tailing. Chemical composition had
determined by scanning electron microscope method given in Table 4.1.
The mineralogy analysis shows that sulphide minerals are not present. And its pH
value is 7.89. So strength will be not more affected due to bacterial action in oxidation.
28
1600
900
T A IL IN G b .rd
400
20
30
Chemical component
Na2O
MgO
Al2O3
SiO2
SO3
K2O
CaO
TiO2
MnO2
Fe2O3
NiO
ZnO
K2 S2 O5; Na Al Si3 O8; Ca Mn2 As2; S7
K2 S2 O5; Si O2; Na Al Si3 O8; Mg2 Al4 Si5 O18; S7
40
50
60
% by weight
5.88
6.23
9.83
42.31
4.89
1.1
9.08
1.46
.34
17.43
.1
1.35

70
80
90
Si O2
Si O2
Si O2
K2 S2 O5; Si O2; Ca Mn2 As2

Si O2; Ca Mn Si; Ca Mn2 As2
K2 S2 O5; Si O2; Ca Mn Si
Si O2; Ca Mn Si
K2 S2 O5; Na Al Si3 O8; S7

K2 S2 O5; Si O2; Na Al Si3 O8; Ca Mn Si; Ca Mn2 As2; S7
K2 S2 O5; Na Al Si3 O8; Mg2 Al4 Si5 O18; Ca Mn2 As2; S7
K2 S2 O5; Si O2; Na Al Si3 O8; Mg2 Al4 Si5 O18; Ca Mn2 As2; S7
K2 S2 O5; Si O2; Na Al K2
Si3S2
O8;
CaSiMn
Si;Mg2
Mg2Al4
Al4Si5
Si5O18;
O18;S7
S7
O5;
O2;
100
K2 S2 O5; Ca Mn Si; S7
K2 S2 O5; Na Al Si3 O8; Ca Mn Si; Ca Mn2 As2; S7

Na Al Si3 O8; Ca Mn Si; Ca Mn2 As2; S7
Si O2; Na Al Si3 O8; Mg2 Al4 Si5 O18; S7
Na Al Si3 O8; Ca Mn2 As2; S7
K2 S2 O5;
Si3Mg2
O8;Al4
Mg2
Al4
Si5 S7
O18; S7
K2Na
S2Al
O5;
Si5
O18;
K2 S2 O5; Na Al Si3 O8; Ca Mn Si; S7
Si O2; Mg2 Al4 Si5 O18

Na Al Si3 O8; Mg2 Al4 Si5 O18; S7
K2 S2 O5; Mg2 Al4 Si5 O18; S7
Mg2 Al4 Si5 O18

Ca Mn Si; Ca Mn2 As2
C o unts
P o s i ti o n [ 2 T he ta ]
100
Element
Na
Mg
Al
Si
S
K
Ca
Ti
Mn
Fe
Ni
Zn
110
Fig.4.1 X-ray diffractogram of hutti gold mill tailing
Table 4.1 Chemical Composition of Hutti gold mill tailing (determined by Scanning
Electron Microscope method)
% by weight
6.72
6.20
8.97
35.55
3.79
1.67
11.76
1.58
.47
21.29
.13
1.89
4.3. Particle Size Distribution
The particle size distribution of the tailings was measured using a sieve analysis (table
4.2). Fig. 4.2 shows the size distribution obtained by sieve analysis method compared
with a size distribution obtained by sieve analysis:
4.3.1 Sieve Analysis
Mass of dry mill tailing taken was 500 gram
Mass loss during sieve analysis is given by the following equation
29
Mass loss % =
(W W1 )
100
W
Mass loss % =
(500 498.6)
100 = 0.28%
500
4.1
Table.4.2. Sieve Analysis result

Mass of
% of mass
Opening
soil retained
soil retained
Sieve
size
on each sieve
on each sieve
Cumulative percent
finer,
no.
(mm)
Wn
Rn
retained Rn
100 -Rn
4.75
100
16
1.18
1.6
0.32
0.32
99.68
25
0.71
0.2
0.52
99.48
40
0.425
2.1
0.42
0.94
99.06
60
0.25
8.7
1.74
2.68
97.32
70
0.212
21
4.2
6.88
93.12
100
0.15
80
16
22.88
77.12
140
0.106
266.3
53.26
76.14
23.86
200
0.075
58.1
11.62
87.76
12.24
270
0.053
59.1
11.82
99.58
0.42
0.7
0.14
99.72
0.28
Pan
Percent
=498.6
30
% Passing
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.1
10
Grain Size D(mm)
Fig.4.2 Plot of Percent Finer vs. Grain Size

The following properties were obtained from the particle size distribution:Effective diameter D10 = .071mm
D30 = .125mm
D50 =.14 mm
D60 =.15 mm
Uniformity Coefficient C u =
D60
D10
4.1
So Cu=2.1126
Coefficient of gradation Cc =
D302
( D60 D10 )
4.2
Cc= 1.4671
Percent of silt= 12.22
Percent of fine sand =86.82
Percent of medium sand = .96
4.3.2 Effective Grain Size, D10
The effective grain size of a soil, D10, refers to the diameter of soil particles for which
10 % of particles are finer. D10 is an important value in regulating flow through fills
31
and can significantly influence the permeability of fills. The higher the D10 value, with
the coarser the soil and the better is the drainage characteristics.
The effective grain size is 0.071mm, which is very small signifying that permeability
of fill material will be less. Hazen (1930) related the permeability to the effective grain
size of a soil using equation 2.5
K=Cd102
K= permeability constant, cm/sec
Where d10 = grain size in millimeters for which 10% of the particles pass by weight.
C=constant (1)
4.3.3 Coefficient of Uniformity
The coefficient of uniformity (Cu) is defined as the ratio D60/D10.
The uniformity coefficient provides a measure of uniformity. Aysen (2002) suggests
that a uniformity coefficient of less then four indicates uniform grading of soil grains.
Whereas, values greater then four indicate a wider assortment of grain sizes. In
general, the uniformity coefficient of the fills was less than four, indicating that the
hydraulic fills were not well graded.
4.3.4 Coefficient of Curvature
D302
.
The coefficient of curvature (Cc) is defined as the ratio
( D60 D10 )
Where D60, D30, and D10 are refers of fill particles for which corresponding to 60, 30,
and 10%of particles are finer on the cumulative particle size distribution curve.
For sand, a coefficient of curvature between one and three with the uniformity
coefficient greater then 6, indicates a well-graded soil. Here from the laboratory testing
we have obtained from the laboratory testing Uniformity coefficient Cu = 2.11267,
Coefficient of gradation Cc=1.4671. So this result is also giving information that fill
material is not well graded soil
4.4. Permeability
Falling head permeability tests result is given in Table 4.3.
From table the coefficient of permeability is 4.0810-3cm/sec which is very less for
hydraulic backfill. Because for hydraulic backfill Coefficient of permeability should be
32
more so that after placement of backfill in open stope in mine, water drainage will be
good. But by this sample, paste backfill will be good because for paste backfill
permeability should minimum so that water will be not drainage.
Table 4.3. Determination of permeability by falling head method
Length
Height
of water
of soil
L (cm)
h (cm)
11
29
11
Area of
Time
Water
quantity
min
q (ml)
15.21
185
48
15.21
14.5
44.5
14.5
qL
h At
1712
18832
81576.43
0.23
60
820
9020
43791.26
0.20
15.21
122
1105
16022.5
82549.57
0.19
24.5
15.21
100
580
8410
37252.99
0.22
19.5
37.5
15.21
115
655
12772.5
65572.86
0.19
24
42
15.21
65
465
11160
41510.47
0.27
28
31
15.21
1020
4010
112280
480791.6
0.23
28
21
15.21
145
538
15064
46300.14
0.32
32.5
26.5
15.21
262
1055
34287.5
105570.4
0.32
Sample
no.
tube
A
(sq cm)
(cm/min)
4.5. pH
At first determined the weight into a cup. After that added pure water to the sample to
bring the solution to a weight to weight ratio of 1:1. Again stir vigorously for 5
seconds and let stand for 10 minutes .now placed electrodes in the slurry, swirl
carefully and read the pH on pH meter.
Weight of beaker (W1) =102.9gm
Weight of beaker+ mill tailing (W2) = 172.6gm
Weight of beaker +mill tailing +water (W3) = 242.3gm
Result =7.89.
It means mill tailing nature is basic so it is also indicates that in mill tailing sulfate
concentration is negligible.
33
4.6. Unconfined Compression

4.6.1. Compressive Strength and Youngs Modulus
The unconfined Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) is calculated as the mean value
of the maximum stresses obtained during the testing of three samples of the same mill
tailing and cement mixture. Table 4.4 summarizes the strengths and moduli obtained
from uniaxial compression testing of fully sealed 54 mm diameter samples for
different cement % and curing period. The secant values of Youngs Modulus are
calculated at the point corresponding to 50% of the compressive strength value (Unal
2000). Different Uniaxial Compressive Strength (KPa) and Young Moduli (MPa) were
obtained for different cement proportions and the curing time.
Fig. 4.5.1 and 4.5.2 show the relationship between UCS and cement %, Youngs
modulus and cement % respectively for different curing period. These figures clearly
show the compressive strength and Youngs modulus of the fill increases with binder
content and curing time as expected. Compressive strength and stiffness are relatively
low for 3% cement in mill tailing, with a notable increase starting to occur for some
mixes with a binder dosage higher than 6%. All samples gradually gained strength and
elastic modulus up to 28 days of curing. These results agree with reports by Belem
(2000). UCS increases nonlinearly with the cement dosage for the all cement mill
tailing composition. Modulus values also follow the same trend, increasing nonlinearly
with binder dosage for all cement mill tailing composition. The rate of increase in UCS
and modulus values is higher in the initial 21 days compared to its increment after 21
days.
High strength values were obtained in the samples containing high amount of cement.
It can also be seen from Fig. 4.5.1 that binders have high strength gain in the
corresponding sample at curing 28 days. Therefore, it can be concluded that longer
curing period also plays an important role for increasing the strength and moduli of
paste backfill. In the present studies it has been noticed that the strength increment is
not as high with curing period as compared to the previous reported works of Lamos
and Clark, 1989. This is may be due to change of temperature in environment.
Fig. 4.5.3 shows the stressstrain curve for different cement composition and for
different curing period.
34
Table 4.4. UCS and Youngs Modulus of Hutti Gold mines paste fill.
UCS(KPa)
MT:C
Pulp density
Curing Time (days)

3
80 %
21
28
277.7
299.1
288.6
97: 3
173.44 184.6
94: 6
635.25 819.48 929.4
90:10
1702.8 1863.0 1990.7 2068.8 2075.6
80:20
5159.3 5727.9 5793.8 5718.0 5867.0
Youngs Modulus(MPa)
Pulp density 80 %
14
1278.0 1288.2
Curing Time (days)

3
14
21
28
97: 3
26.6
27.0
27.3
28.4
91.8
94:06
159.20 187.3
193.7
233.5
237.0
90:10
277.7
331.9
345.1
346.9
467.8
80:20
654.6
694
705.4
765.1
811.1
7.00
6.00
UCS (MPa)
5.00
for 3 days
for 7 days
4.00
for 14 days
3.00
for 21 days
for 28 days
2.00
1.00
0.00
3%
6%
10%
20%
Cement %
Fig. 4.5.1 Effect of Cement and Curing time on Uniaxial Compressive Strength
35
900
Young'sModulus(MPa)
800
700
for 3 days
600
for 7 days
500
for 14 days
400
for 21 days
300
for 28 days
200
100
0
3%
6%
10%
20%
Cement %
Fig. 4.5.2 Effect of Cement and curing time on Youngs Modulus
1600
300
1400
250
1200
Stress (KPa)
U C S(K Pa)
350
curing 3 days
200
curing 7 days
150
curing 14 days
1000
curing 3 days
800
curing 7 days
600
curing 14 days
100
curing 21 days
400
curing 21 days
50
curing 28 days
200
curing 28 days
0
0
0.5
1.5
0.5
1.5
Strain (%)
Strain (%)
b
7000
2500
6000
2000
UCS (KPa)
UCS (KPa)
5000
1500
curing 3 days
curing 7 days
1000
curing 14 days
500
curing 21 days
4000
curing 3 days
3000
curing 7 days
2000
curing 14 days
curing 21 days
1000
curing 28 days
cuirng 28 days
0.5
1.5
1.5
Strain (%)
Strain (%)
0.5
Fig. 4.5.3 Typical stressstrain curves for paste backfill specimen for different curing
period containing (a) 3% cement (b) 6% cement (c) 10% cement (d) 20 %
cement.
36
4.6.2 Effect of Pulp Density on UCS

Table 4.5 summarizes the strengths and moduli obtained from uniaxial compression
testing of fully sealed 54 mm diameter samples for different pulp density at 28 days
curing period.
Figure 4.5.4 shows the relationship between UCS and different pulp densities for 28
days curing period at 6% cement. Figure 4.5.5 shows the relationship between moduli
and pulp density for 28 days curing period and 6% cement dry weight composition.
When pulp density 83.3% is used then result of UCS of these sample after 28 days
curing in laboratory was 566 KPa, which is 135% more compared with UCS of sample
with pulp density 66.7%. Similarly, Youngs Modulus of pulp density 83.3% sample is
86% more as compared to that of the sample with 66% pulp density (Table 4. 5 and Fig.
4.5.4 and 4.5.5). It can therefore be inferred that the compressive strength and Youngs
moduli of the backfill samples are related to the pulp density. It is also noticed from Fig
4.5.4 that there is no difference in strength values for the samples with pulp densities
between 83.33% and 80 %. This may be due to the required amount of water to react
with cement and develop bonds between tailing materials. The strength of the backfill
decreases as the pulp density decreases mainly because of the subsequent increase in
overall porosity caused by the water-filled voids. On drying these samples air voids are
created which are likely to decrease the strength of samples. On the contrary, the lower
the pulp density ratio the stronger due to greater cement particle interlocking with mill
tailing and less air voids creation.
Fig. 4.5.6 also shows the stress strain curve at different pulp density for 6% cement.
Table 4.5 Effect of pulp density on UCS and Youngs Modulus.
Pulp density (%)
Composition
UCS
Youngs Modulus
(MT:C:W)
(KPa)
(MPa)
83.3
94:6:20
566.3
157.1
80.0
94:6:25
503.3
127.9
76.9
94:6:30
369.4
128.5
74.0
94:6:35
269.4
121.0
71.4
94:6:40
242.9
86.9
66.7
94:6:50
240.8
84.3
37
600
566.3
503.3
UCS (KPa)
500
369.4
400
269.4
300
242.9
240.8
71.4
66.7
200
100
0
83.3
80
77
74
Pulp density (%)
Fig.4.5.4 Effect of Pulp density on uniaxial compressive strength
180
Young's Modulus (MPa)
160
157.1
140
127.9
128.5
121
120
100
86.9
84.3
71.4
66.7
80
60
40
20
0
83.3
80
77
74
Pulp density (%)
Fig.4.5.5 Effect of pulp density on Youngs Modulus
700
Stress (KPa)
600
500
PD 83.3 %
400
PD 80%
300
PD 77 %
200
PD 74 %
PD 71.4%
100
PD 66.7 %
0
0
0.5
1.5
Strain (%)
Fig. 4.5.6 Typical Stress- Strain curves at different pulp density for 6% cement
(dry weight %)
38
4.6.3 Effect of Porosity on Uniaxial Compressive Strength

Porosity has decreased with addition of cement in mill tailing due to fineness of cement.
So when we mix cement in mill tailing then void ratio of mill tailing decreased. So
higher uniaxial compressive strength has found in lower porosity due to greater particle
interlocking and the presence of more cement is available per unit volume of backfill.
The effect of cement addition is given in table 4.6. And effect of porosity on uniaxial
compressive strength is given in fig. 4.5.7.
Table 4.6: Effect of Cement addition on Porosity and UCS
Cement content in
Porosity (n %) UCS(KPa)
Mill tailing (%)

3
60
173.44
59.18367
635.25
10
58.69565
1702.8
20
55.5556
5159.3
6000
5159.3
UCS (KPa)
5000
4000
3000
2000
1702.8
1000
635.25
173.44
0
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
Porosity (n%)
Fig. 4.5.7 Effect of Porosity on UCS for (after curing 3 days)

4.7. Shear Strength Parameters
Normal stresses required for testing were estimated by dividing the applied
load by the area of the shear box. Peak shear strength was determined from plots of
shear stress versus shear strain. Internal friction angle was obtained using a linear bestfit line from the plot of peak shear strength versus normal stress. The residual friction
angle was obtained using a similar best-fit line. Fig. 4.6.1 shows the variation of shear
stress with shear strain. Table 4.7 and fig 4.6.2 show the shear strength with normal
stresses which gives internal friction angle 300 and cohesion. 17.4 KPa.
39
Shear Stress (KPa)
70
60
50
40
normal stress 19.6 Kpa
normal stress 35.28 KPa
normal stress 47 KPa
30
20
10
0
0
10
Shear Strain (%)
Fig. 4.6.1 shear strain vs. shear stress curve from direct shear test
Table 4.7. Variation of shear strength with
normal strength
Normal Stress
(KPa)
19.6
Shear Strength
(KPa)
31.85
35.28
35.53
47.00
40.15
58.80
50.63
70.56
60.57
70
y = 0.5697x + 17.4
R2 = 0.928
S
h
e
a
rS
tre
n
th(K
P
a
)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
Nor m al s tr e s s (KPa)
Fig.4.6.2 Normal stress vs. Shear strength from direct shear test
40
CHAPTER 5
BACKFILL STRENGTH ENHANCEMENT
5.1. Introduction
The evolution of backfill technology is closely related to the advancement of modern
mining methods and the development of new backfill technology continues to evolve.
Backfill operations employ large quantities of cement and experience large costs
associated both with backfilling practice and cement use. Opportunities exist for
reducing backfill energy costs and enhancing the application of alternative cementing
agents in backfill. One of the techniques is the application of superplasticizer
[Stuart.1980] which is equally effective both in terms of enhancing the strength as well
as in the cost. This project paper presents the results of only two design stages
associated with the superplasticizer: Strength development and flow performance. The
advancement of this technology has reached a stage that should promote industrial
implementation within the Indian mining industry. A number of Indian mining
operations exhibit potential for plant optimization through possible binder source
replacement, and might thus realize associated reductions in backfill and energy costs.
Utilization of superplasticizer in mine backfill would create a new market for
manufacturing of this, so that its cost will be reduced.
5.2. Effect of Super Plasticizer on Compressive Strength and Youngs Modulus
For the cemented paste backfill with superplasticizer specimens, the same procedure
was performed, but differed by adding the superplasticizers after 5 minutes and mixing
the superplasticizer with paste backfill for extra 2 minutes in mixing bucket.
The results of all the UCS tests due to variation of superplasticizer are summarized in
table 5.1 and fig. 5.1 and 5.2 for the different % of composition after 28 and 90 days of
curing. A typical stressstrain curve is shown in the fig.5.3 and 5.4 for the different %
of composition after 28 and 90 days of curing.
The unconfined compressive strength was calculated as the arithmetic mean of the
maximum stresses obtained during the testing of three samples of the same paste
41
mixture. Secant values of Youngs modulus are calculated at the point corresponding to
50% of the compressive strength value
Table 5.1. Effect of SP on Compressive strength and
Youngs Modulus for 28 and 90 days curing
for 28 days curing
Composition
94:6:.2
96:4:.2
94:6:0
97:3:.3
UCS(KPa)
94:6:.2
96:4:.2
94:6:0
97:3:.3
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
938.9
UCS(KPa)
Young's
Modulus(MPa)
654.26
214.2
545.91
165.36
313.64
124.84
130.16
150.90
for 90 days curing
938.9
892.1
586.1
331.87
234.0
198.6
170.2
97.3
892.1
654.26
586.1
545.91
for 28 days
313.64
331.87
for 90 days
130.16
94:6:.2
96:4:.2
94:6:.0
97:3:.3
Composition (MT:C:SP)
Fig.5.1 Effect of Superplasticizer on UCS for different curing days
42
Young's Modulus (MPa)
250
234
214.2
200
198.6
170.2
165.36
150
150.9
124.84
for 28 days
97.3
100
for 90 days
50
0
94:6:.2
96:4:.2
94:6:.0
97:3:.3
Composition (MT:C:SP)
Fig.5.2 Effect of superplasticizer on Youngs Modulus for different curing days
800
S tre s s (K P a )
700
600
500
.2% SP mixed with

MT:C (94:6)
.2 %SP mixed with
MT:C (96:4)
no SP mixed with
MT:C (96:4)
.3% SP mixed with
MT:C (97:3)
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Strain (%)
Fig.5.3 Typical Stress- Strain curve after 28 days of curing for the
different % of composition
43
1200
S tre s s (K P a )
1000
800
.2% SP mixed with
MT:C (94:6)
.2% SP mixed with
MT:C (96:4)
no SP mixed with
MT:C (96:4)
.3% SP mixed with
MT:C (97:3)
600
400
200
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
Strain (%)
Fig. 5.4 Typical Stress- Strain curve after 90 days of curing for
the different % of composition
Fig.5.1 and 5.2 show the variation in the UCS and Youngs Moduli with the variation of
composition of paste backfill with superplasticizer for 28 and 90 days curing. Fig. 5.1
shows the maximum compressive strength 654.26KPa (just double) of the composition
MT:C:SP containing 94:6:.2 ratios respectively as compression to compressive strength
313.64 KPa of composition MT: C: SP containing 94:6:0 ratios (control binder)
respectively for 28 days curing. Compressive strength of another binder in which MT:
C: SP containing 96:4:.2 ratios are also 74% more strength as compression to that
control binder. But effect of superplasticizer is not good in binder which contains MT:
C: SP containing 97:3:.3 ratios. Compressive strength 130.16 KPa of this binder is less
than half value of compressive strength of control binder. Fig. 5.2 shows Youngs
modulus 214.19 MPa of binder which contains MT: C: SP containing 94:6:.2 ratios is
also 70 % more than that of the Youngs modulus of control binder. This type of
increment in compressive strength and stiffness has happened due to renders a lower
porosity hardened material and increased the rate of cement hydration in well dispersed
cement so
that between cement mill tailing
better particle packing and denser
structure upon hardening in pastes contains admixture superplasticizer.
44
Fig. 5.1 and 5.2 clearly show the variation of curing time on its strength and moduli.
Increment on strength due to curing varies from 50- 100% for different composition.
This has happened may be due to long term hydration between cement and mill tailing.
Fig. 5.3 and 5.4 produced not cleared stress-strain relationship for 28 and 90 days
curing.
Superplasticizer affects the unconfined compressive strength with curing. The cement
paste backfill mixture MT: C: SP containing 94:6:.2 developed the highest unconfined
compressive strength over a 90 days curing period and showed the maximum stiffness
development as compared to with other those of paste backfill specimens without
admixture.
But the cement paste backfill mixture MT: C: SP containing 96:4:.2 also developed the
required unconfined compressive strength over a 90 days curing period and showed
the maximum stiffness development as compared to with other those of paste backfill
specimens without admixture. So for economical purpose this composition is also best.
45
CHAPTER 6
RHEOLOGICAL TEST
6.1. Laboratory Preparations

The materials used for characterizing the rheological properties were non-plastic mine
tailings from a Hutti gold mine.
The two types of homogenous solid-liquid mixtures characterized in this study were
cemented paste backfill with superplasticizer and other without superplasticizer
cemented paste backfill, in both case pulp densities was used 77%. For the cemented
paste backfill without superplasticizer specimens were prepared by adding 6% cement
and 23% tap water to mill tailing, the water was mixed for 5 minutes in the mixing
bucket. For the cemented paste backfill with superplasticizer specimens, the same
procedure was performed, but differed by adding the superplasticizer after 5 minutes
and mixing the superplasticizer with paste backfill for extra 2 minutes.
6.2. Experimental Procedure
Cylindrical mould was used for determination of slump value. There is no required
standard for the cylinder test. Cylinder was made by PVS with the length 115 mm and
diameter 102 mm. The both side of the cylinder was opened so that slumped material
is 100% consistent during lifting. And filling with sample time used 1 strong smooth
steal plate on top of cylinder. The cylinder was filled with sample, and the cylinder
lifted slowly and evenly. The change in height between the cylinder and deformed
material was measured (fig.6.1). The midpoint of the slumped material was taken as
the representative height. Heights were measured with a scale. Density and
concentration were measured at the time of testing. Average value was finding of three
tests for each. Cylindrical slump test (a) with superplasticizer (b) without
superplasticizer
46
Fig. 6.1 Slump test of backfill with Superplasticizer

6.3 Calculation
Length of PVC Cylinder = 115 mm
Diameter of PVC Cylinder = 102 mm.
So volume of Cylinder = 9.4 10-4 m3
Weight of material used in cylinder =2 kg
So slurry density of material = 2127.66 kg/m3
For without superplasticizer
Height of undeformed region = (115-20)/2 = 47.5
'
Dimensionless height of undeformed region, h0 =
h0
H
h0' =47.5/115 = .413

The dimensionless yield stress of backfills,
'
y
1
h '0
2
'y =.413/2 = .206

Yield stress of backfills y = 'y gH
y= .20621279.8.115 = 493 Pa
Dimensionless slump s = 1 2y [1 ln( 2y )]
s' = .2226
So slump height = .2226 115 = 25.6 mm
47
For with Superplasticizer

Height of undeformed region = (115-50)/2 = 32.5
'
Dimensionless height of undeformed region, h0 =
h0
H
h0' =32.5/115 = .282

The dimensionless yield stress of backfills,
'
y
1
h '0
2
'y =.282/2 = .141

Yield stress of backfills y = 'y gH
y= .14121279.8.115 = 338 Pa
Difference of yield stress between both = 155 Pa
Dimensionless slump s = 1 2y [1 ln( 2y )]
s' = .36
So slump height s = .36115 = 41.51 mm
Difference of yield stress between both = 155 Pa
Difference of slump height between both =41.51-25.6 =15.91 mm
6.4 Result
Yield stress of backfills without superplasticizer = 493 Pa
Slump height = 25.6 mm
Yield stress of backfills with superplasticizer =338 Pa
Slump height = 41.51 mm
The results of the slump tests performed with 6% (dry weight %) cements with .2%
superplasticizer and without superplasticizer (fig. 6.2). It has seen that there is very
much difference (155 Pa) on the yield value and also much difference between slump
height(15.91mm) between both while water 23% in solution present in both condition.
So here fluidity increased with superplasticizer.
48
600
Yield Stress (Pa)
493
500
400
338
300
200
100
0
without SP
with SP(.2%)
Fig.6.2 Effect of Superplasticizer on Yield Stress
6.5 Setting Time

6.5.1 Procedure
Setting time was determined by Vicat needle test (penetration test). Specimen For the
vicat needle test were cylindrical cup 70 mm in diameter and 40 mm high. After being
filling with paste (pulp density 80%). The standard test method, the Vicat needle test,
was used to determine the initial and final setting times hydraulic cement. The initial
setting is the determined for the needle to reach a penetration depth 5mm in standard
Vicant apparatus. The final setting takes place when the needle does not visibly
penetrate into the paste i.e., the specimen has a solid structure.
6.5.2 Result
Result is given in table 6.1.
Table 6.1.Vicat needle test result
Binder
content
94:6 MT:C
94:6 MT:C
Additive
none
SP.2% of dry
weight
Water(%) of total
weight
Setting time(min)
Initial
Final
23
65
125
23% of total weight
45
120
49
Table 6.1 shows the initial and final times of setting for paste in which one is without
superplasticizer and other is with superplasticizer. The data indicates that initial time
setting of paste with superplasticizer is less as compared to without superplasticizer
paste. And final time setting of both pastes is about same while superplasticizer paste
is wet as comparison to without paste. So we can say for same slump value time
setting will be reduced in superplasticizer paste than without superplasticizer paste.
6.6. Flowability Test
For flow behavior test, one galvanized iron sheet 120 cm length was used at inclination
200 degree as shown in figures 6.3-6.7.
Figures 6.3-6.7 show the flow characteristics of backfill material. The result of the test
performed with 4 different compositions. In first experiment for flow test, .2 %
superplasticizer was used in MT: C contains 94:6 ratios binder. In 2nd experiment no
superplasticizer was used for same combination. In 3rd experiment, .2%
superplasticizer was used in MT:C contains 96:4 ratios respectively. In 4th experiment,
.3% superplasticizer was used in MT: C contains 97:3 ratios respectively. It is seen
that there is significant difference on the fluidity of different composition. At .2%
superplasticizer in Mill Tailing Cement (94:6 ratios) binder, the fluidity increased
compared to the other composition. And in other composition some part of paste has
flowed and some part has not flowed. Higher the fluidity in first case was observed
due to electrostatic repulsion between particles, causing dispersion (Nkinamubanzi and
Aitcin 2004). In 3rd and 4th experiment an insufficient amount of cement may be
available to react with main hydration (i.e. calcium silicate hydrates or C-S-H) to
produce effective dispersion at later stage. Fine particle is also important role played
with superplasticizer for fluidity purpose.
The rheological behaviour of two paste backfills characterized in this study was yieldpseudoplastic. The superplasticizer controls not only the rheological behaviour of paste
backfill, but also their yield stress. Yield stress measurements in slump test method
show reliable results for superplasticizer as comparison to non superplasticizer paste
backfills. So Based on the results of this research, we can conclude that the use of
superplasticizer in backfill material will be economical because this will not increase
the strength but also aids in the rheological characteristics of paste backfill material.
50
Fig.6.3 Flow characteristics of mill tailing when .2 % superplasticizer mixed with

MT: Cement (94: 6)
Fig.6.4 Flow characteristics of mill tailing When no superplasticizer used in

MT: Cement (94: 6)
51
Fig.6.5 Flow characteristics of mill tailing when .2 % superplasticizer mixed with

MT: Cement (96: 4)
Fig.6.6 Flow characteristics of mill tailing when .3 % Superplasticizer mixed with

MT: Cement (97: 3)
52
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSIONS
An effort is made in the present study to generate value on physical, chemical,

mechanical and rheological characteristics of Hutti gold mill tailing samples.
Mechanical and rheological characteristics of mill tailings were found with different
percentage of cement, water and superplasticizer. Ninety different cemented backfill
materials were tested to determine the influence of their composition on the
unconfined compressive strength in laboratory.
7.1 Conclusions
The studies lead to the following conclusions which may be of significance for the
further research and for the practice of mine backfill using cemented paste backfill
method.
Predominant oxides found in the Hutti mill tailing samples are SiO2, Fe2O3, Al2O3,
CaO, Na2O, MgO, SO3, and TiO2. The sums of these oxides were above 90%. The
presence of CaO at 9 % in the mill tailing samples indicates the strong pozzolanic
characteristic of mill tailings.
Generally mill tailings contain sulfate concentration. pH was found to be at 7.89 in

this sample and by SEM very less sulfur concentration has been observed. So it is
also good for strength purpose. Because sulfate concentration decreased strength
after 90 days. Due to this cause dilution problem will be decreased.
Particle size distribution show that the Percent of fine sand is 86.82%, for paste
backfill purpose minimum15% of below size 20m mill tailing will be required
will be required.
Coefficient of permeability of mill tailing is 4.0810-3cm/sec, which is very less

and after cement, addition its value again will be decreased. So it is not good for
drainage in hydraulic backfill purpose without any flocculent. This is good for
paste backfill purpose. After addition of cement and fine particle permeability will
be decreased.
53
One hundred twelve different cemented backfill materials were tested to determine
the influence of their composition on the unconfined compressive strength in
laboratory. 60 samples were tested with different percentage of cement at 80%
pulp density. 18 samples were tested with different pulp density. And 24 samples
were tested with different percentage of binder with superplasticizer.
The material composition strongly influenced the strength of cemented backfill.

Pulp density is a critical determining factor in the strength of cemented backfill.
Increase in its value significantly increased the backfill strength.
Increased cement content increased the backfill strength.
Superplasticizer also play good impact for increment on its strength with cement,
Slump heights obtained from the slump cylinder experiments is observed to

increase and decrease yield stress with mixing of superplasticizer in binder. So its
flowability increased with mixing of superplasticizer. Setting time has also not
increased with superplasticizer. Due to these good properties of superplasticizer, it
may play a vital role in paste backfill.
So the use of paste backfill in place of hydraulic backfills will be correct choice for
backfill operation. This shall not only enhance the performance of the backfill as a
ground support system but also likely to reduce the dilution of muck, and thus may
result in the full recovery of ore.
7.2 Scope for further Studies
Numerical modeling is required for determination of accurate strength

requirement of backfill for stability in stope.
Transportation of paste backfill could not be studied. Transportation rate and

quantity of discharge from surface to stope should be conducted both
numerically and experimentally to model and verify long term characteristics.
54
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1
Alsayed S.H., 1998. Influence of superplasticizer, plasticizer, and silica fume on

the drying shrinkage of high-strength concrete subjected to hot-dry field
conditions. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 28, No. 10, pp. 14051415,
Amaratunga, L.M., and Yaschyshyn. D.N., 1997. Development of a high modulus

paste fill using fine gold mill tailings. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering,
15, pp. 205219
Andersion. R.M., Petrolito, J., and Pigdon, S. P., 2005 A review of binder
materials used in stabilized backfills Cim bulletin. January- February 85.
Archibald J.F; Chew J.L; and Lausch P; 1997. Use of ground waste glass normal
Portland cemented mixtures for improving slurry and paste backfill support
performance. CIM bulletin, vol. 97, May, pp. 74-80
Aubertin, M., Li, L., Arnoldi, S., Simon, R., 2003. Interaction between backfill
and rock mass in narrow stopes. Soil and Rock mechanics America, pp. 1157
1164
Aysen, A., 2002. Soil mechanics. Basic concepts and engineering application.
A.A. Bakma Publisher
Barrett, J R., Coulthard, M A., and Dight, P. M., 1978. Determination of Fill
Stability, Mining with Backfill, 12th Canadian Rock Mechanics Symposium,
CIM Special Volume 19, Sudbury, Ontario, May, pp. 23-25, 1978
Belem T., Benzaazoua M., Bussire B., 2000 Mechanical
paste backfill. in
behaviour of cemented
Geotechnical Engineering at the dawn of the 3rd millennium :
Proceedings of the 53rd Canadian Geotechnical Conference and the 1st Joint IAHCNC/CGS Conference (53rd : September 18-20, : Montral Canada). Leboeuf,
D.(dir.) Richmond, Canada, Canadian Geotechnical Society, pp. 373-380
Benzaazoua, M., Fall, M., Belem, T., 2003. A Contribution to understanding the
hardening process of cemented paste backfill. J. Miner. Eng. UK 17/2, pp. 141
152
10 Bowles, J.E., 1979. Physical and Geotechnical properties of soils, 1. McGrawHill, Inc., pp.478
55
11 Brackebusch, F. W. A., 2002. Design of paste tailings disposal system.

Proceedings of 34th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Mineral Processors. Ottawa,
Canada
12 Brady. B.H.G. and Brown. E.T. 1985. Rock mechanics for underground mining.
1" Ed. London. George Allen and Unwin
13 Chandra, S., Bjornstrom, J., 2002. Influence of superplasticizer type and dosage
on the slump loss of Portland cement mortas. Cement and concrete research 32,
pp. 1613-1619
14 Clayton, S., Grice, E, T. G. and Boger, D. V., 2003. Analysis of the slump test for
on-site yield stress measurement of mineral suspensions. International Journal of
Mineral Processing, 70, pp. 2-21
15 Cooke, R., 2001. Paste Reticulation System: Myths and Misconceptions.
Minefill 2001: proceedings of the 7th international Symposium on mining with
Backfill
16 Das, B.M., 2002. Soil mechanics Laboratory manual sixth edition. New york
oxford. Oxford university press
17 Grice A. 1998, Underground Mining With Backfill The 2nd Annual Summit
Mine Tailings Disposal Systems, Brisbane
18 Hassani, Archibald, 1998. Backfill Design. Chapter 8.
19 Hassani, F.P., quelled, J., and Hussein, M., 2001. Strength development in
underground High- sulphate paste backfill operation. CIM Bulletin, vol. 90, No.
1050, pp. 57- 62
20 Holtz, W.G. and Gibbs, H.G., 1956. Triaxial Shear Tests on Previous Gravelly
Soils. Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Division, 82: pp. 122.
21 Jacobson, J., 2002, Factors Affecting Strength Gain in Lime-Cement Columns
and Development of a Laboratory Testing Procedure, M.Sc, Thesis, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
22 Kesimal, A., Yilmaz, E., and Ercikdi. B., 2004. Evaluation of paste backfill
mixtures consisting of sulphide-rich mill tailings and varying cement contents. 34,
pp. 1817-1822
56
23 Khatib, J.M., Mangat, P.S., 1999. Influence of superplasticizer and curing on

porosity and pore structure of cement paste. Cement & Concrete Composites 21
pp. 431-437
24 Kolb, J., Rogers, A., Meyer, F.M., Vennemann, T.W., 2004. Development of
fluid conduits in the auriferous shear zones of the Hutti Gold Mine, India: evidence
for spatially and temporally heterogeneous fluid flow. Tectonophysics 378, pp.
6584.
25 Kolb, J., Rogers, J., Meyer, F.M., Siemes, H., 2005. Dominant coaxial
deformation of veins during the interseismic stage of the fault-valve cycle:
microfabrics of laminated quartz veins of the Hutti gold mine, India. Journal of
Structural Geology 27, pp. 20432057
26 Lambe, T.W., 1991. Soil testing for engineers. Bitech publisher ltd. Vancouver,
B.C. Canada
27 Lamos, A.W. and Clark, I.H., (1989), The Influence of Material Composition and
Sample geometry on the Strength of Cemented Backfill, Proceedings of the 4th
International Symposium on Mining with Backfill Innovations in Mining Backfill
Technology, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 89-94.
28 Ley, G. M.M., Steed, C.M., Bronkhorst D., and Robert Gustas (1998), Mining
under backfill CIM bulletin. May 1998, pp. 65-71
29 Li, Li., and Aubertin, M., 2003. General relationship between porosity and
uniaxial strength of engineering materials. Canadian journal of civil engineering.
Vol 30, no 4, pp. 644-658
30 Li, M., and Moerman, A., 2002. Perspectives on the scientific and engineering
principles underlying flow of mineral pastes. Proceedings of 34th Annual Meeting
of the Canadian Mineral Processors. Ottawa, Canada
31 Marston, A., 1930. The theory of external loads on closed conduits in the light of
latest experiments. Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, Ames Iowa
32 McLoren, H., Bayer, D., and Peppin, C., (2001). Effect of admixtures on strength
and flowability characteristics of cemented backfill. Mine backfill 2001:
Proceedings of the 7 International symposiums on Mining with Backfill. Edited by
David stone, P.E., society of mining metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., pp. 73-87
57
33 Meegoda, N.J., and Guasekera, S.D., 1992. A new method to measure the
effective porosity of clay. Geotechnical testing journal, GTJODJ,, vol. 15, No. 4,
December, pp. 340-351
34 Mehta, P.K., and Monteiro, P.J.M., 1993. Concrete: structure, properties and
materials. 2nd ed. Prentice hall Inc., Englewood Cliffts, N.J.
35 Mitchell. R.J. Olsen. R.S. and Smith, J.D., 1982. Model studies on cemented
tailings used in mine backfill. Canadian Geotechnical Journal., 19, pp. 14-28.
36 Mitchell. R.J. and Wong, B.C. 1982. Behaviour of cemented tailings sands.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 19. No. 3, pp. 289-295.
37 Nguyen, Q. D. and Boger, D. V., 1992. Measuring the flow properties of yield
stress fluids. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, pp. 24
38 Nkinamubanzi, P.C. ,and Aitcin, P.C., 2004. Cement and Superplasticizer
Combinations: Compatibility and Robustness. Cement. Concrete and aggregate,
Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 102-109.
39 Pashias, N., Boger, D.V., Summers, J., Glenister, D.J., 1996. A fifty cent
rheometer for yield stress measurement. Journal of Rheology 40 (6), pp. 1179
1189.
40 Perry, R.J. and Churcher, D.L., 1990. The application of high density paste
backfill at dome Mine. CIM bulletin, May, pp. 53-58.
41 Pirapakakaran, K., Sivakungan, N., 2006. Arching within hydraulic fill stopes.
Geotechnical geological engineering. March.
42 Qie, Y. J., and Sego, D.C., 2001. Laboratory properties of mine tailings.
Canadian geotechnical journal. Vol. 38. pp. 183-190.
43 Radocea, A., 1992. A new method for studying bleeding of Cement Paste.
Cement and Concrete and research. vol. 22, pp. 855-868.
44 Ramachandran, V.S., 1979. CBD- 203 Superplasticizer in concrete Canadian
building digest, February
45 Rankine, K.S., 2002. Permeability and drainage characteristics of hydraulic fills
in underground mines. Bachelor of Civil Engineering with Honours, thesis, James
cook university
58
46 Saak, A.W., Jennings, H.M., Shah, S.P., 2004. A generalized approach for the
determination of yield stress by slump and slump flow. Cement and Concrete
research. Vol. 34, pp. 363-371
47 Slatter, p., 2006. Plant design for slurry handling. the Journal of the South
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Vo106, October, pp. 687-691
48 Stuart, K. D., Anderson, D. A. and Cady. P. D., 1980. Compressive strength
studies on Portland cement motors containing fly ash and superplasticizer Cement
and Concrete research. Vol.10, pp. 823-832.
49 Sofra, F. and Boger, D.V., 2000. Exploiting the rheology of mine tailings for dry
disposal. In Tailings and Mine Waste 00: Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference, Fort Collins. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, pp.69180.
50 Termkhajornkit, P., Nawa, T., 2004. The fluidity of fly ashcement paste
containing naphthalene sulfonate superplasticizer Cement and Concrete Research
34, pp.10171024
51 Terzaghi, K., 1943. Theoretical soil mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, New York
52 Thomas, E.G., (1973), A Review of Cementing Agents for Hydraulic Fill, Mine
Filling Proceedings of the Jubilee Symposium, Australian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Queensland, Australia, pp. 65-76.
53 Unal, E., and Cakmakci, G., 2000 Laboratory Evaluation of cemented Backfill
Materials for Mines, Geotechnical Testing journal, GTJODJ, Vol. 23, No.4,
December, pp. 496-505.
54 Van Dijit, H., 2001. Pumping of high concentration tailings. Mining
Environmental Management, 9(5): pp. 2123
55 Viles, R.F. Davis, R.T.H., and Boily, M.S.,1989. New material technologies
applied in mining with backfill. Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium
on Mining with Backfill Innovations in Mining Backfill Technology, A.A.
Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 95-101
56 Wang, K., Shah, S.P., Mishulovich, A., 2004. Effects of curing temperature and
NaOH addition on hydration and strength development of clinker-free CKD-fly
ash binders. Cement and Concrete Research 34, pp. 299309.
59
57 Yoshioka, K., Tazawa., E, Kawai, K., Enohata, T., 2002. Adsorption

characteristics of superplasticizers on cement component minerals. Cement and
Concrete Research 32 , pp.15071513
60
APPENDIX
BACKFILL DESIGN
The aim of backfill design is to develop a procedure for calculating the fill strength
requirement for a different height, strike length and width of fill exposure.
Various authors have published backfill design techniques and these are briefly
reviewed in the following section. The techniques discussed are:
1. Freestanding Vertical Faces
2. Vertical Slopes
3. Limit Equilibrium Wedge,
4. Arching.
A1. Free Standing Vertical Face
Mitchell et al (1982) note that the largest shear stresses in backfill are caused by selfweight. The cemented backfill can be designed as a freestanding vertical face. A
freestanding wall where the unconfined compressive strength required at any depth in
the fill is given as
z g z
A.1
Where
z =unconfined compressive strength (kPa)
g =bulk density of backfill (KN/m3)
z =depth of backfill from the surface (m)
A2. Vertical Slopes
Mitchell et al (1982) discuss the vertical slope method where = 0 for a constant
strength fill
z =
gH
2
A.2
Where: H = overall height of exposed fill (m)
61
A3. Limit equilibrium wedge by Mitchell
Fig.A.1. Confined block mechanism (Mitchell et al. 1982)

Mitchell et al. (1982) modeled the failure of a single exposure 3-D fill mass as shown
in Fig.A.1. A shear plane for sliding failure was defined within the block. By
assuming that there exists some shear resistance between the fill and stope walls due to
the fill cohesion, the design uniaxial compressive strength required to maintain
stability with safety factor of F can be evaluated by using following relationship
(Mitchell et al. 1982):
A.3
Where is the Fill bulk unit weight (kN/m3), is the angle of failure plane from
horizontal (= 45 + /2), is the friction angle of fill (Degree), c is the cement bond
strength ( cohesive strength) of fill (kPa), l is the strike length of block (m), w is the
width of block (m), h is the height of the block (m), h* is the height of block from top
to the centroid of the triangular section of the sliding wedge (m), F is the Factor of
safety.
In the long term, the compressive strength of the fill material is mainly due to binding
agents and strength contributed by friction can be neglected (i.e. = 0). For a
frictionless material, cohesion is considered as half of the uniaxial compressive
strength (UCS) (i.e. c = UCS/2). Therefore, Eq. (A.3) can be modified as:
62
A.4
The stability of a free standing backfill can also be determined when height of the
stope to be much greater than width. The required strength (UCS) of frictionless fill is
given by;
A.5
A4. Extended Arching - Marston theory by Pirapakaran (2006)
The analytical solution presented arching theory by Marston (1930), Terzaghi (1943)
and Aubertin et al. (2003) are for a 2-dimensional stope where the fill is subjected to
plane strain loading. In reality, mine stopes are rarely 2-dimensional, and therefore it is
quite useful to extend these theories to three dimensions.
An attempt is made here to extend the above theories and develop expressions for
vertical and horizontal stresses within a 3-dimensional mine fill stope
A schematic diagram of a 3-dimensional stope is shown in Fig. A.2.(a) With the
dimensions. Figure A.2 (b) shows the free body diagram of the forces acting on an
infinitesimal horizontal layer within a vertical stope, where h is the backfill height, w
the stope width, dh the thickness of the layer element, W is the weight of the backfill
above the layer element. dC is the lateral compressive force, dS is the shearing force at
the fill- rock interface and V and V+dV are vertical forces at the position h and h+dh
respectively.
Weight of the element
A.6
Compressive forces acting on the vertical faces
A.7
The shear force S is defined as:
A.8
Where is the friction angle between the backfill and the wall it cannot be greater than
(may be assumed between 1/3 to 2/3)
63
For the equilibrium of the small element,

A.9
Here, it is assumed v uniformly distributed over
Fig. A.2. Schematic diagram of a 3-dimensional stope (a) and the free body diagram
With forces (b) the entire width w (Pirapakaran 2006)
A.10
Earth pressure coefficient from soil mechanics theories is defined as;
A.11
The following relationships can be found out from equations (A.6)(A.11);
A.12
64
A.13
By integrating Eq. (A.13), vertical and horizontal stresses which are acting within the
stope can be found out as follows;
A.14
A.15
So for the strength requirement purpose I assume the following condition
1. The fill material is non cohesive i.e. c=0,
2. The friction angle between the backfill and wall = 1/3 ,
3. Rocks stiffness is stiffer than backfill material so that rock would be in rest
condition i.e. K=Ko =1-sin
4. Factor of Safety =1.5
UCSdesign =
l + w
1 exp 2
Kh tan FS
2 K tan l + w
lw
A.16
65
1600
U C S re q (K P a )
1400
1200
1000
l=60 m & w =5 m
800
l=60 m & w=10 m
600
l=60 m & w=20 m
400
l =80 m & w =20 m
200
l= 100m & w=10 m
0
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
Height (m)
Fig.A.3. UCSreq vs. height of fill for different width and length in backfill
Fig.A.3 shows strength requirement in backfill material increases with height, width
and strike length of fill. Here figure shows Impact of width, height is more than length
on strength.
From fig. A.3 we can say that uniaxial strength for narrow mining width 5
m, height 45 m and length 60 m (e.g. Hutti gold Mines) will be required approximate
515 KPa for stability of backfill material in stopes. We know that temperature also
play important role in backfill strength. Strength increases with temperature up to
control condition.. So we can say that in Hutti gold mines strength of backfill will be
increased than these laboratory values. Because 3% cement was given 288 KPa after
28 days curing in paste backfill composition and UCS of 6% cement was given 1288
KPa which is more than required value. So for safety and economical purpose we can
use cement in mill tailing between 3 to 6% in paste backfill.
66

Influence of Cemented Mill Tailing As Backfill Material in Open Stopes

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Influence of Cemented Mill Tailing As Backfill Material in Open Stopes

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Influence of Cemented Mill Tailing as Backfill Material in Open Stopes