Topic D.

1: Origin of Life on Earth

D.1.1 Describe the four processes needed for the spontaneous origin of life on Earth.
1) Non-living synthesis of simple organic molecules
a) Early Earth provided elements + chemicals needed for life
b) Oceans mixture of inorganic molecules simple organic molecules
c) Organic chemicals = from Earth or space
2) Assembly of these molecules into polymers
a) Polymerization = formation of larger, more complex organic chemicals in oceans
3) Origin of self-replicating molecules made inheritance possible
a) DNA requires protein enzymes for replication
b) RNA capable of self-replication
i) Catalyze its formation from nucleotides w/o proteins
ii) RNA-based catalyst (ribozyme)
c) Capable of undergoing evolution by natural selection
4) Packaging of these molecules into membranes w/ internal chemistry different from surroundings
a) Closed membrane vesicles form spontaneously from lipids
b) Different internal/external environments = cellular metabolism
D.1.2 Outline the experiments of Miller and Urey into the origin of organic compounds.
1) Earths Development
a) Formed 4.5 billion years ago from cloud of dust particles around Sun
b) Heat from force of gravity + radioactive decay melted interior = dense metallic core (iron + nickel)
i) Surrounded by cool liquid mantle
c) During cooling of crusts, gases from hot interior escaped through volcanoes = atmosphere of
hydrogen, water vapor, methane, ammonia, nitrogen and hydrogen sulfide
d) Lacked of oxygen = reducing atmosphere
e) Monomers of biological molecules formed in shallow ocean waters as products of reactions b/t
simple organic compounds in atmosphere + water
i) Primeval soup or chemical soup
2) Miller and Ureys Experiments
a) Simulated early Earth conditions
b) Establish if chemical evolution could occur in primeval soup
c) Water (H2O), methane (CH 4), ammonia (NH4), hydrogen (H2)
d) Sealed in sterile glass tubes + flasks connected in loop
i) Flasks = one water, one w/ pair of electrodes
e) Water heated to produce steam, sparks produced b/t electrodes (lightning)
f) Mixture cooled water condensed + trickled back into first flask = continuous cycle
g) After 1 week, 15% of carbon = organic compounds
i) 13 of 20 natural amino acids
ii) High concentration of adenine
D.1.3 State that comets may have delivered organic compounds to Earth.
1) Panspermia
a) Hypothesis that life on Earth may have originated by introduction of complex organic
chemicals/bacteria via comets
b) Comet = small body in solar system orbiting Sun
c) Some bacteria + archaebacteria = resistant to extreme conditions, possibly in deep space
i) Semi-dormant bacteria deep in Antarctic ice cores
d) Cosmic radiation = energy for organic molecule synthesis
i) Comet spectra = hydrocarbons, amino acids, peptides

D.1.4 Discuss the possible locations where conditions would have allowed the synthesis of organic
compounds.
1) Abiogenesis
a) Generation of life from chemicals
b) Hydrothermal Vents
i) Black smokers on seafloors
ii) Superheated water from Earths crust enters ocean floor
iii) Dissolved sulfides which crystallize to form black chimney
iv) Possible environment for polymerization
c) Volcanoes
i) Higher than average level of fixed nitrogen over lava lakes
ii) Usable by earliest bacteria
iii) Under sea bed or on land = chemical evolution
2) Extra Terrestrial Origin
a) Organic compounds = common in space, especially in outer solar system (not evaporated by solar
heating)
b) Mars
i) Cooled faster (smaller size) than Earth = prebiotic evolution while Earth was too hot
ii) Crustal material blasted from surface by asteroids + comets
iii) Lost atmosphere b/c of volcanic activity = no more evolution?
iv) Martian meteorites (possibly w/ fossilized bacteria) found in Antarctica
D.1.5 Outline two properties of RNA that would have allowed it to play a role in the origin of life.
1) RNA World Hypothesis
a) Behaves like DNA stores, transmits, replicates genetic information
b) Ribozymes
i) Naturally occurring small sequences of RNA that can act as enzymes
ii) Some can polymerize nucleotides using ATP
iii) Ribosome formation of peptide bond in protein synthesis catalyzed by ribosomal RNA
c) Capable of generating first proteins
i) Slightly modified replication + mutations = variation in RNA
D.1.6 State that living cells may have been preceded by protobionts, with an internal chemical environment
different from their surroundings.
1) Protobionts
a) First precursors to cells
b) Evolved from coacervate droplets which contained polynucleotides (DNA, likely RNA)
i) Large aggregations of polymeric molecules
ii) When protein coacervates heated in water, form boundary like cell membrane (w/o
phospholipids)
iii) Could absorb + concentrate substrate and release products into external solution
c) RNA developed ability to direct amino acid assembly = genetic code
d) Primitive process of enzyme-controlled binary fission
e) First cells = heterotrophic + anaerobic
D.1.7 Outline the contribution of prokaryotes to the creation of an oxygen-rich atmosphere.
1) Atmospheric Oxygenation
a) Small amounts first produced by ultraviolet radiation on water vapor
b) Reacts w/ water = traces of hydrogen peroxide
c) Accumulation = organisms which synthesized protective enzymes (e.g. catalase)
d) Bacteria evolved containing chlorophyll = simple oxygenic photosynthesis

e) Explosive rise in oxygen levels = oxygen catastrophe (2 bya)

f) Release of oxygen by cyanobacteria remaining organic chemicals in primeval soup broken down
into carbon dioxide + oxidized sediments = no more organic synthesis
g) Layer of ozone (O3) formed in upper atmosphere
i) Barrier to ultraviolet radiation from Sun
D.1.8 Discuss the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of eukaryotes.
1) Endosymbiotic Theory
a) Chloroplasts + mitochondria = derived from free living prokaryote ancestors
b) Engulfed by larger prokaryotes survived in cytoplasm = evolution into organelles
c) Mitochondria = from proteobacteria
d) Chloroplasts = from cyanobacteria
e) Contain DNA different from nucleus + similar to bacteria
f) Surrounded by 2 membranes (resemble prokaryotic cells)
g) New organelles formed by process similar to binary fission
h) Internal structure + biochemistry of chloroplasts = similar to cyanobacteria
i) DNA sequences plant nuclear DNA contains genes previously part of chloroplast
j) Some proteins encoded in nucleus transported to them
i) Smaller genomes than bacteria
ii) Increased dependence on host after forming endosymbiosis
iii) Most genes lost/transferred to nucleus required proteins made there, sent back
k) Ribosomes resemble those in bacteria (70S)
Topic D.2: Species and Speciation
D.2.1 Define allele frequency and gene pool.
1) Allele Frequency
a) Proportion of all copies of a gene in allelic form in a population
2) Gene Pool
a) Total collection of alleles in a sexually reproducing population
D.2.2 State that evolution involves a change in allele frequency in a populations gene pool over a number of
generations.
1) Evolution
a) Gene pool shows change between generations
b) New combinations of alleles = unique genotypes = natural selection
D.2.3 Discuss the definition of the term species.
1) Species
a) Real biological units
b) Different relationships b/t individuals than in other taxa
c) Breeding
i) Group of organisms capable of interbreeding + producing fertile offspring
d) Ecological
i) Group of organisms sharing same ecological niche (no 2 species share same niche)
e) Genetic
i) Group of organisms showing identical karyotype
ii) Only applies to sexually reproducing organisms (not single-celled)
iii) Some hybrids cannot mate w/ own kind but possibly w/ parent species
iv) In ring species, members of adjacent populations interbreed successfully (not if widely separated)
v) Can be physically impossible for members of same species to mate

vi) Individuals forming single gene pool

f) Evolutionary
i) Group of organisms sharing unique collection of structural + functional characteristics
g) Cladistic
i) Group of organisms sharing common ancestor
ii) Members may diverge = separate species
D.2.4 Describe three examples of barriers between gene pools.
1) Genetic Isolation
a) Commonest requirement for speciation
b) Accumulation of different allele frequencies
c) Maintained by reproductive isolating mechanisms
d) Prezygotic Isolation
i) Zygotes not formed b/c gametes dont meet + fertilize
ii) Temporal Isolation = Mate/flower at different times
iii) Ecological Isolation = occupy different same region but different habitats
iv) Behavioral Isolation = animals exhibit courtship patterns + only mate w/ acceptance
v) Mechanical Isolation = differences in genitals in animals, different pollinators in plants
e) Postzygotic Isolation
i) Zygotes dont develop
ii) Hybrid Inviability = hybrids dont develop
iii) Hybrid Infertility = hybrids dont produce functional gametes
iv) Hybrid Breakdown = F1 hybrids are fertile but F2 generation + backcrosses b/t hybrids + parental
stocks dont develop or are infertile
D.2.5 Explain how polyploidy can contribute to speciation.
1) Polyploidy
a) Condition of some organisms whose cells contain more than 2 homologous sets of chromosomes
b) Tolerated in many plant species
c) Form of sympatric speciation
d) Gives rise to new combinations of genes
e) Increased number of chromosomes in polyploids = improbable normal gamete formation during
meiosis rare survival rate in animals
f) Plants = asexual reproduction despite being polyploid
i) Increased size, hardiness and disease resistance = hybrid vigor
ii) Induced by chemical colchicine (blocks formation of spindle)
g) Autopolyploidy
i) Increase in number of chromosomes w/in same species
ii) Failure of cytoplasm to cleave = tetraploid (4n) formed from diploid
(1) Amount of cytoplasm increase to maintain ratio to nucleus = larger organism
iii) Odd number of chromosomes (triploid or pentaploid) = sterile
(1) During prophase I of meiosis, 3 homologues may line up (synapsis) = unbalanced gametes
h) Endomitosis
i) Occurs in animals = polyploid tissues + cells
ii) Chromosomes replication w/o cell division
i) Allopolyploidy
i) Chromosome number in sterile hybrid becomes doubled + produces fertile hybrid
D.2.6 Compare allopatric and sympatric speciation.
1) Speciation
a) Process by which one or more species arise from previously existing species

b) One species new species = intraspecific speciation

i) If occurs while populations are physically separated = allopatric speciation
(1) Geographical barrier blocks gene flow = adaptations to new environment = changes in allele +
gene frequencies = reproductive isolation
ii) If occurs while populations are occupying same area = sympatric speciation
c) 2 species new species = interspecific speciation
D.2.7 Outline the process of adaptive radiation.
1) Adaptive Radiation
a) Group of organisms share homologous structures which are differentiated to perform variety of
functions
b) Occurs in all taxonomic group except species
c) Shared features = adaptations to particular environments
D.2.8 Compare convergent and divergent evolution.
1) Convergent Evolution
a) Distantly related organisms evolve similar traits as they adapt to similar environments or ecological
niches
b) Result in analogous structures
c) Similarity due to pressure from natural selection
2) Divergent Evolution
a) Two or more adaptations have common evolutionary origin but have diverged over time (adaptive
evolution)
b) Result in homologous structures
c) Similarity due to common origin
3) Parallel Evolution
a) Two species maintain same degree of similarity while each undergoes evolutionary change
independently
D.2.9 Discuss ideas on the pace of evolution including gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
1) Punctuated Equilibrium
a) Many species show stasis throughout much of geological history
b) Account for observed gaps in fossil record
c) Rapid evolutionary change occurs during speciation
d) Occurred in small portion of population at edge of geographical range (higher selective pressure in
peripheral populations) peripatric speciation
2) Phyletic Gradualism
a) Most evolutionary change = relatively slow but not uniform rate
b) One species gradually transforms into another
3) Stabilizing Selection
a) Operates when environmental conditions = favorable to particular phenotype + competition isnt
severe
b) Eliminates extreme phenotypes maintains phenotypic stability, doesnt promote evolutionary
change
4) Directional Selection
a) Response to gradual environmental changes
b) Pressure to move mean toward new mean
c) Leads to stabilizing selection
5) Disruptive Selection
a) Fluctuating conditions favor presence of 2 phenotypes
b) May split into 2 sub-populations + later speciation

D.2.10 Describe one example of transient polymorphism.

1) Polymorphism
a) Existence of 2 or more forms of same species w/in population
b) Transient Polymorphism
i) One allele = displacing another
ii) Ex: Industrial Melanism in British Peppered Moths
(1) Disruptive selection + selective predation
D.2.11 Describe sickle-cell anemia as an example of balanced polymorphism.
1) Balanced Polymorphism
a) Maintained by selection in favor of heterozygote phenotype (stability)
b) Ex: Sickle-Cell Anemia
i) RBCs w/ sickle-cell hemoglobin (HbS) carry less oxygen = anemia
ii) Heterozygotes exhibit sickle-cell trait half RBCs = sickles
(1) Prevents carrier from contracting malaria
(a) Plasmodium cant complete life inside short-lived RBCs w/ HbS
iii) Balanced selection heterozygote advantage
(1) Maintain multiple alleles (genetic polymorphisms) in population
Topic D.3: Human Evolution
D.3.3 Define half-life.
1) Half-Life
a) Time for half of radioactive atoms in a sample to undergo decay
i) Takes place at constant rate independent of physical conditions
ii) Occurs in radioactive isotopes of atoms
D.3.1 Outline the method for dating rocks and fossils using radioisotopes, with reference to 14C and 40 K.
1) Radiocarbon Dating
a) Carbon-14 = radioactive isotope trace quantities in air, surface water, living organisms
b) Constantly produced in atmosphere by cosmic rays on nitrogen + oxygen nuclei
c) Decay of 14C into 14N = production of 14C
d) At death, more taken in, continues to decay according to half-life
e) Comparing amount of 14C in dead organism + comparing to amount in living organism = age of dead
of organism
f) Maximum range = 50,000 years 14 C too low to be distinguished from other radiation
g) Half-life = 5.6 x 103 years
2) Potassium-Argon Dating
a) Potassium contains small proportion of radioactive isotope, potassium-40
b) 40K released in lava from active volcanoes eruption = time 0
c) Isotope incorporated into sedimentary deposits, slowly decays to argon-40
d) Ratio of 40 K to 40 Ar = fossils age
e) Accuracy = over 100,000 years
f) Half-life = 1.3 x 109 years
D.3.4 Describe the major anatomical features that define humans as primates.
1) Primates
a) Humans, lemurs, monkeys, gibbons, apes (orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees)
b) Apes + humans = distinguished by being tailless + free motion of arms over head
c) Grasping limbs opposable thumb grip for power + precision
d) Rotating forelimb hand can rotate through 180

e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)

Stereoscopic vision eyes close together on face w/ parallel optical axes

Visual activity increased numbers of rods/cones w/ own nerve cells
Reduced olfaction reduced snout allowing flatter face
Enlarged skull expanded area for cerebrum, ventral foramen magnum
Large brain increased sensory/motor areas, deeply fissured
Few offspring longer gestation
Social dependency corporate activities, group cohesion
Adapted to arboreal (tree-dwelling) life pre-adapted (fortuitous) human ancestors to new niches
when African forests gave way to drier grassland savannas 5 mya

D.3.5 Outline the trends illustrated by the fossils of Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecus including A.
afarensis and A. africanus, and Homo including H. habilis, H. erectus, H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens.
1) Skulls and Brain Size
a) Humans = largest skull size (in relation to body mass) of hominids
b) Protruding jaw + shortened face
c) Modern humans = no brow ridges
d) Eyes located at front + foramen magnum (hole for spinal cord) = further underneath head than great
apes (e.g. gorilla) less robust neck muscles
e) Bipedalism facilitated enlargement of brain + increased height + range of vision
2) Teeth and Jaws
a) V-shaped jaw
b) Reduced molars + canines
3) Hands
a) Prehensile (grasp objects b/t thumb + finger tips)
b) Thumb = highly mobile
c) Relatively long fingers in humans (short in gorillas for knuckle walking)
d) Sensitive palms = sensory information to brain
4) Skeleton, Locomotion and Posture
a) Human rib cage = more barrel-shaped than great apes
b) Vertebral column has additional forward curves in neck + lower back
i) Help bring head + trunk above center of mass in upright position
c) Pelvis = broader + lower than great apes
d) Legs = longer than arms center of mass = lower
e) Broad flexible shoulder blade = free arm rotation while walking
f) Femur angled out towards knee = knee brought under body
g) Humans extend legs fully when walking leg bones = straight line
h) Big toe = non-opposable (opposable in apes)
i) Footprint = arched foot
5) Neoteny
a) Retention of traits seen in juveniles organisms development = slowed
b) Flat face + thin skull bones
c) Lack of body hair + pigmentation
d) Small teeth
e) Prolonged growth period
f) Long life span
6) Hominid Evolution

Genus of
hominid
Ardipithecus
ramidus

Age of
appearance
(mya)
4.4

Skull +
jaws
Flat jaw

Brain
capacity
(cm3)
375 550

Teeth

Diet

Posture

Distribution

Significance

Large
upper +
lower
canines
Small
canines +
incisors,
moderately
large
molars
Small
canines
Small
canines

Fruit,
leaves,
insects

Possibly
bipedal

Specimens
in Ethiopia

Currently
oldest
hominid

Herbivore,
some meat

Fully
erect

South + East
Africa

Lived in
trees +
savanna

Carnivore

Fully
erect
Fully
erect

South + East
Africa
South + East
Africa

Small game
hunter
Stone tools,
major
increase in
brain size
Beginning
of cultural
revolution,
use of fire,
rudimentary
language
Cave
dweller,
buried dead,
flint flake
tools

Australopithecus
afarensis

Large
jaws

450

Australopithecus
africanus
Homo habilis

2.5

Ventral
foramen
Lighter
jaw

450

Homo erectus

1.5

Thick
skull, low
forehead
brow
ridges

880

Small
canines

Omnivore

Fully
erect

Migrated out
of Africa 2.2
mya to Asia
+ Europe

Homo
neanderthalensis

0.08

1500

Heavier
than
modern
teeth,
wisdom
teeth

Omnivore

Fully
erect

Europe +
West Asia

Homo sapiens

0.03

Long +
narrow
face,
brow
ridges,
enlarged
nasal
cavity
Large
cranium,
shorter
skull,
reduced
jaws

1440

Teeth
closer
together,
wisdom
teeth

Omnivore

Fully
erect

Earliest
specimens in
South
Africa,
migrated to
Asia +
Europe

700

Carnivore

Polyphyletic
origin
giving rise
to
geographical
races by
migration +
isolation,
cave
painting,
primitive
religion

D.3.6 State that, at various stages in hominid evolution, several species may have coexisted.
1) Hominid Coexistence
a) Homo habilis + australopithecines (2 my)
b) Homo erectus + later australopithecines
c) Homo erectus = common ancestor to Homo sapiens + Neanderthals
d) Different species occupying different ecological niches
e) Neanderthals = side branch of hominid evolution
i) Adapted to cold of Ice Age in Europe
ii) Community living + beginnings of religion at burial sites
iii) Extinct suddenly possibly b/c of competition w/ H. sapiens (overlap for 0.5 my)
D.3.7 Discuss the incompleteness of the fossil record and the resulting uncertainties about human evolution.

1) Fossil Record
a) Many species appear at early rock strata + disappear abruptly at later level = origination + extinction
b) Lack of continuous record = missing links
c) Punctuated equilibrium gaps = pauses b/t speciation events
d) Dead organisms decompose rapidly + arent eaten by scavengers
e) Soft-bodied organisms dont fossilize easily
f) Small fraction of organisms die under fossilization conditions
g) Tiny fraction of fossils unearthed
h) Bones other than teeth + cranium = softer disintegrate
D.3.8 Discuss the correlation between the change in diet and increase in brain size during hominid evolution.
1) Increase in Brain Size
a) Greater behavioral flexibility to adapt
i) Ability to make more complex tools, stronger shelters, fire for warmth, protection from animals,
cooking
b) Transmission of cultural behavior b/t generations
c) Longer gestation period + extension of period for care of infant
i) Much development of brain = after birth critical care period = 2 years
ii) Requires high level of energy for mother
d) Better able to survive + reproduce
i) Increased nutritional intake
ii) Progression from omnivorous to carnivorous diet fatty meat + bone marrow = more energy
iii) Hunting + killing of animals
D.3.9 Distinguish between genetic and cultural evolution.
1) Cultural Evolution
a) Changes in actions + ideas of society and transmission b/t generations
b) Occurs via written/spoken word, images
c) Unique to human societies
2) Genetic Evolution
a) Genetic changes that occurred during hominid evolution
b) Differences b/t individuals + different racial/cultural groups
c) Studies of mitochondrial DNA, Y chromosomes + proteins = family tree + tracing human migration
patterns
d) Out of Africa Hypothesis
i) Modern humans evolved in Africa 200,000 100,000 ya, w/ members of one branch leaving
Africa 80,000 ya
ii) Spread to rest of world by replacing but not interbreeding w/ other Homo species already there,
like Homo erectus + Neanderthals
D.3.10 Discuss the relative importance of genetic and cultural evolution in the recent evolution of humans.
1) Hominization = process of becoming human
a) Due to evolution of manipulative skills + speech
i) Coordination of lips, tongue, larynx + 3 areas of brain: speech motor cortical area (delivery of
speech), + 2 areas on left side of cerebrum
b) Changes in sexual behavior = life-long relationships b/t men + women, who lived together w/
children
c) Food sharing = benefit to community
d) Transmitted b/t people by communication, not genetics = cultural evolution
e) Increased brain size in Homo habilis = stone tools
f) Homo erectus hand-held axes w/ 2 cutting edges

g) Homo sapiens flint, bone, wood tools (35,000 ya)

h) Science + technology = cultural evolution
i) Gene pool = little different from first Homo sapiens ancestors (Cro-Magnon) 20,000 ya in France
Topic D.4: The Hardy-Weinberg Principle
D.4.1 Explain how the Hardy-Weinberg equation is derived.
1) p = dominant allele (A) AA = p2
2) q = recessive allele (a) aa = q2 , Aa = pq
3) 100% probability that gamete contains A or a p + q = 1.0
4) 100% probability that offspring are genotypes AA, two Aa, and aa p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.0
5) Population in genetic equilibrium (for 2 alleles)
6) If Hardy-Weinberg assumptions = not met, deviations from expected genotype frequencies occur
a) No random mating inbreeding = increase in homozygosity for all genes
b) Small population size = random changes in genotype frequencies = genetic drift
c) Assortative mating = increase in homozygosity for genes involved in trait thats assertively mated
d) Natural selection = change in allele frequencies
e) Recurrent mutation maintains alleles in population
D.4.2 Calculate allele, genotype and phenotype frequencies for two alleles of a gene, using the HardyWeinberg equation.
1) p = dominant allele frequency
2) q = recessive allele frequency
3) p2 = homozygous dominant genotype
4) 2pq = heterozygous genotype
5) q2 = homozygous recessive genotype
D.4.3 State the assumptions made when the Hardy-Weinberg equation is used.
1) Mathematical Assumptions
a) Organism = diploid + sexually reproducing
b) Trait under consideration = autosomal (not located on sex chromosome)
c) Organism has discrete generations
2) Inherent Assumptions
a) Random mating occurs w/in single population
b) Population = infinite size, or sufficiently large to minimize genetic drift
i) In smaller populations, some alleles may be lost b/c of genetic drift in terms of frequency
c) No natural selection, mutation or immigration/migration (gene flow)
Topic D.5: Phylogeny and Systematics
D.5.1 Outline the value of classifying organisms.
1) Taxonomy
a) Based on natural relationships due to common ancestry
b) Biological classification based on evolutionary relationships = phylogenetic
c) Natural Classification
i) Members of group resemble one another for defining + non-defining characters
ii) Predict distribution of other characters
d) Identification keys identify organism from group of organisms
i) Rely on homologous structures over analogous structures
e) Cladistics

i) Organize data to assist in identifying organisms, suggesting evolutionary links, allowing

prediction of characteristics shared by members of taxonomic group
ii) Doesnt rank groups like Linnaean system suggests that some groups are equivalent
D.5.2 Explain the biochemical evidence provided by the universality of DNA and protein structures for the
common ancestry of living organisms.
1) Common Ancestry
a) Standard Genetic Code
i) Exceptions = protein synthesis in mitochondria, yeast, ciliated protozoans
ii) Established early in history of life, present in last common ancestor of all living organisms
b) Biochemical Studies
i) Similarities b/t organisms of different species
ii) Metabolism of different organisms based on cytochrome c (electron carrier essential in aerobic
respiration)
(1) Common ancestor used precursor of this protein for respiration
(2) Unlikely that this complex metal containing enzyme wouldve evolved independently
D.5.3 Explain how variations in specific molecules can indicate phylogeny.
1) Hemoglobin
a) Alpha chain = 141 amino acid residues
b) Beta chain = 146 residues
c) Humans + chimpanzees = identical, orangutans differ in 2 amino acids
d) Other observed proteins = cytochrome c, histones
e) Same relationship seen in fossil records, other taxonomic data
f) Molecular phylogenic approach based on evolutionary clock
D.5.4 Discuss how biochemical variations can be used as an evolutionary clock.
1) Evolutionary Clock
a) Technique in molecular genetics that dates when 2 species diverged
b) Calculates time since common ancestor from examining number of differences b/t DNA or protein
sequences
c) Rate of evolutionary change of any protein or DNA sequence = approximately constant over time +
different lineages
d) Assumes that DNA replication rate = constant over time + across species shouldnt be assumed =
uncertainty in molecular genetics
D.5.5 Define clade and cladistics.
1) Cladistics
a) Method of taxonomy based on constructing groups (clades) comprising organisms which share a
unique homologous characteristic
b) Identifying characteristics of clade = shared (derived) characters
c) Clade = group of organisms consisting of single common ancestor + its descendants
d) Cladists uses DNA sequences, biochemical + morphological data
e) Assumptions
i) Change in characteristics occurs in lineages over time (only when characteristic change can we
recognize different lineages/groups)
ii) Any group of organisms = related by descent from common ancestor (all life on Earth = related)
iii) Branching pattern of lineage-splitting (lineages typically split into 2 groups)
D.5.6 Distinguish, with examples, between analogous and homologous characteristics.
1) Homologous Characteristic

a) Structural or biochemical feature shared b/t 2 or more organisms b/c of common ancestor
b) Ex: Vertebral column (backbone), pentadactyl limb
2) Analogous Characteristic
a) Structural or biochemical feature shared by unrelated organisms
b) Same basic function but basic structure = fundamentally different
c) Develop by convergent evolution
d) Ex: Butterfly + bird wings
D.5.7 Outline the methods used to construct cladograms and the conclusions that can be drawn from them.
1) Cladogram
a) Relationships b/t clades
b) Based upon list of shared features
c) Joints (nodes) = shared homologous characteristics
d) From left to right, clades = smaller w/ more homologous characteristics in common
e) Provides maximum number of shared homologous characteristics
f) Depends upon assumption that if 2 organisms share homologous characteristic, they must be related
+ greater number of homologous structures = more relatedness
D.5.9 Analyze cladograms in terms of phylogenetic relationships.
D.5.10 Discuss the relationship between cladograms and the classification of living organisms.
1) Cladistics
a) Monophyletic Groups
i) Groups that include a single ancestor of all of its descendants
ii) Birds, mammals, amphibians
iii) Common traits that are unique to that clade (i.e. not fish b/c gills, scales, fins, tails arent unique
to them)
b) Polyphyletic Groups
i) Groups that dont include the common ancestor
c) Paraphyletic Groups
i) Groups that include the common ancestor but not all of its descendants
Topic G.1: Community Ecology
G.1.1 Outline the factors that affect the distribution of plant species including temperature, water, light, soil
pH, salinity and mineral nutrients.
1) Temperature
a) Different optimums for photosynthesis
2) Water
a) Xerophytes = adapted to dry areas
b) Hydrophytes = adapted to wet areas
3) Light
a) Insufficient light hampers growth, possibly causes death
b) Sun plants = adapted to receiving a lot of light
c) Shade plants = adapted to low amount of light
4) Soil pH
a) Affects its capacity to retain minerals
b) Acid soil H+ replace positive ions clinging to clay particles + leach them out of soil
i) Higher amount of iron
c) Alkaline soil calcium becomes more soluble (more available to plant roots)
5) Salinity

a) Salt content of soil dissolves in water, giving it higher osmotic value

i) More difficult for plants to take up (b/c they collect water by osmosis)
6) Levels of Mineral Nutrients
a) Rock from which soil is formed
b) Size of particles making up soil
i) Minerals + water drain rapidly thru large particles (sand) + are held by small particles (clay)
ii) Negatively charged clay particles bind to Ca 2+, K+, Mg2+
c) Biological factors
i) Undisturbed environment recycles nutrients via soil, plants, animals, microorganisms
ii) Harvesting depletes soil when nutrients = removed
iii) Too much manure = too many minerals leach into streams + lakes eutrophication (rapid
growth of algae which depletes oxygen when they die + are broken down by bacteria)
G.1.2 Explain the factors that affect the distribution of animal species, including temperature, water,
breeding sites, food supply and territory.
1) Temperature
a) Low temperatures = cell freezing = damage from ice crystals
b) High temperatures = denaturation of enzymes
c) Homeotherms can thermoregulate, poikilotherms cannot
i) Heterotherms regulate temperature part of the time
ii) Endothermic heat generated by metabolic processes controlled by hypothalamus
iii) Ectothermic use of external heat by behavioral means
2) Water
a) Amount of water needed to survive in an area differs
b) Ex: Fish need a lot to live in
c) Ex: Gerbils kidneys survive w/ little water
3) Breeding Sites
a) Many animals need special circumstances to reproduce
4) Food Supply
a) Some adapt to range of different foods, others cannot (extinct w/o specific food)
5) Territory
a) Area an animals defends against others of its species
b) Food, shelter, nesting space
G.1.3 Describe one method of random sampling, based on quadrat methods, that is used to compare the
population size of two plant or two animal species.
1) Quadrat
a) Wire shaped into a square of known size
b) Used for estimating plant populations
c) Thrown randomly to investigate certain areas
d) Generate random numbers to select coordinates for placing quadrats
e) Count number of individual species in quadrat + move to new location
f) Average number of individuals can be calculated
g) Divide by area of quadrat = individuals per unit area
G.1.4 Outline the use of a transect to correlate the distribution of plant or animal species with an abiotic
variable.
1) Line Transect
a) Line across area of geographical variation (e.g. slope or seashore)
b) Investigate all plants touching string or place quadrat at regular intervals

G.1.5 Explain what is meant by the niche concept, including an organisms spatial habitat, its feeding
activities and its interactions with other species.
1) Niche
a) A species role in an ecosystem
b) Spatial Habitat = where species lives
c) Food supply, how species interacts w/ other species in ecosystem
d) Information on abiotic + biotic factors
G.1.6 Outline the following interactions between species, giving two examples of each: competition,
herbivory, predation, parasitism and mutualism.
1) Competition
a) Organisms attempt to exploit the same limited resource such as food or space
b) B/t members of same species (intraspecific) or different species (interspecific)
c) Ex: 5 species of warbler (small bird) in spruce tree in North America
i) Solved by niche differentiation (resource partitioning)
ii) Each species has preferred area of tree for feeding = different niche
d) Ex: Lemna gibba and Lemna polyrrhiza (duckweeds) compete for light
i) L. gibba grows more slowly than L. polyrrhiza but, w/ tiny air sacs, floats to surface, shading
other species + winning most of the light
2) Herbivory
a) Eating of plants
b) Ex: deer, cattle, goats, zooplankton
3) Predation
a) Eating of live organisms
b) Ex: venus flytrap captures insects
c) Ex: lions prey = zebra, gazelles, wildebeests, etc.
4) Parasitism
a) Long-lasting relationship b/t individuals of different species where one benefits (parasite) and other is
harmed (host)
b) Parasite = considerably smaller than host
c) Ex: fleas on dogs, fungus causing athletes foot
5) Mutualism
a) Long-lasting relationship b/t individuals of different species where both benefit
b) Ex: lichens = symbiosis b/t algae (photosynthesis) + fungus (water + minerals)
c) Ex: sea anemones protect clownfish, which defends home from other fish
G.1.7 Explain the principle of competitive exclusion.
1) Competitive Exclusion Principle
a) 2 different species dont share same niche
b) If 2 species seem to be in same niche:
i) Niche = subdivided
ii) Species = competing w/ each other for everything + best adapted will remain
G.1.8 Distinguish between fundamental and realized niches.
1) Fundamental Niche
a) Potential mode of existence given a species adaptations
2) Realized Niche
a) Actual mode of existence resulting from adaptations + competition w/ other species
G.1.9 Define biomass.
1) Biomass

a)
b)
c)
d)

Organic mass in an ecosystem

Doesnt include water w/in living things
Measured in g, kg, or tones
Often expressed in mass / area (kg per Ha)

G.1.10 Describe one method for the measurement of biomass of different trophic levels in an ecosystem.
1) Measurement of Biomass
a) Take several samples of known size (quadrat)
b) Remove living things inside quadrat
c) Cut into small pieces + placed in oven (70C) for 24 hr to evaporate water
d) Calculate average biomass per m 2 + multiply by surface area of ecosystem
e) Sort collected organisms into correct trophic level
i) Measure biomass at each trophic level
Topic G.2: Ecosystems and Biomes
G.2.1 Define gross production, net production and biomass.
1) Gross Production
a) Amount of organic matter produced by photosynthesis in plants
b) 2% of light striking forest used for photosynthesis
2) Net Production
a) Part of gross production not used in plant respiration
3) Biomass
a) Organic mass in an ecosystem
G.2.2 Calculate values for gross production and net production using the equation: gross production
respiration = net production.
1) Gross Production (GP) Respiration (R) = Net Production (NP)
2) In plants, net production = of gross production (50% of captured energy used in cell respiration)
G.2.3 Discuss the difficulties of classifying organisms into trophic levels.
1) Classifying into Trophic Levels
a) Difficult to place predators as secondary or tertiary consumers
b) Few predators prey on only one species
c) Omnivores = primary + secondary consumers
G.2.4 Explain the small biomass and low numbers of organisms in higher trophic levels.
1) Higher Trophic Levels
a) Most energy contained in one trophic level = not used to create biomass in next level
i) Not all organisms eaten by those on next level
b) Metabolism of consumer requires most of energy contained in its food little converted into
biomass available for next level
c) Biomass decreases by 90% w/ each trophic level
d) Large amounts of producer biomass needed to sustain end of long food chain = small number of
larger organisms
G.2.5 Construct a pyramid of energy, given appropriate information.
1) Pyramid of Energy
a) Units = kJ m-2 yr -1
b) Never inverted illustrates amount of energy per unit area (or volume) flowing thru trophic level in
given time period

c) Requirements
i) Which species belong to each trophic level
ii) How many individuals of species found per m2
iii) What biomass is of each individual
iv) How much energy this biomass represents
v) Productivity of each organism
G.2.6 Distinguish between primary and secondary succession, using an example of each.
1) Succession
a) Process of gradual changes over time in occurrence of species in an ecosystem
b) Eventually leads to establishment of climax community = group of populations of species best
adapted to environment
c) Primary Succession
i) Habitat never colonized before
ii) Ex: Exposed rock from weathering (heat, water, freezing, wind)
(1) First organisms = pioneer species often lichens
(2) Cling to irregularities in rocks secrete acid to dissolve rocks
(3) Dead remains added to soil = accumulation of mosses shade + kill lichens
(4) Replaced by ferns, grasses, shrubs, trees
d) Secondary Succession
i) All life on site destroyed (fire)
ii) Soil = already present contains seeds of species present before disturbance
iii) Burned vegetation = more minerals + higher quality in soil
G.2.7 Outline the changes in species diversity and production during primary succession.
1) Primary Succession
a) Pioneer species gradually make environment more suitable for larger variety of species
i) Increases up to maximum
b) Productivity
i) Increase until maximum
G.2.8 Explain the effects of living organisms on the abiotic environment with reference to the changes
occurring during primary succession.
1) Changes to Abiotic Environment
a) Soil produced by breaking of rock by lichens + mosses + subsequent species
b) Decomposers use organic materials of leaves, plants, animals for respiration to release minerals into
soil
i) Depending on temperature, water amount, soil type, breaking down dead organic material can
take months to years
ii) Some soil holds minerals better than other types accumulation promotes plant growth
c) More plants = less erosion
i) Roots hold soil in place, prevent wind erosion
d) Plants provide shade = more water in soil + reduces erosion
G.2.9 Distinguish between biome and biosphere.
1) Biome
a) Large geographical area w/ certain kind of climate
b) Sustains specific communities of plants + animals
2) Biosphere
a) Total of all areas where living things are found b/t deep ocean + lower part of atmosphere
b) Contains biomes

G.2.10 Explain how rainfall and temperature affect the distribution of biomes.
1) Biomes
a) Tundra = dry + cold
b) Shrubland = colder than deciduous forest + often dryer
c) Desert = dry + hot
d) Grassland = quite dry + warm
e) Deciduous forest = moderate rainfall + temperature
f) Tropical rainforest = wet + hot
g) Climograph = information on amount of precipitation + temperature
G.2.11 Outline the characteristics of six major biomes.
Desert

Grassland

Shrubland

Temperate
Deciduous
Forest
-30C to 30C

Tropical
Rainforest

Tundra

Temperature

Summer: 50C
days
Winter:
-18C nights

-30C to 30C

Summer:
hot + dry
Winter:
cool + moist

20-35C

200-1000
mm/yr
Frequent
brushfires in
dry season;
plants conserve
water; small
needle-like
leaves =
reduced SA;
thick waxy
cuticle reduces
transpiration;
adaptations to
survive fires

500-1500
mm/yr
Trees drop
leaves in
autumn =
reduces water
loss in winter;
leaves staying
on damaged by
frost; lower
light intensity
during winter =
less
photosynthesis

> 1500 mm/yr

Winter:
-70C to
-10C
Summer:
3-15C
150-250 mm/yr

Precipitation

< 300 mm/yr

500-900 mm/yr

Vegetation

Xerophytes
conserve water;
reduced leaves
= less surface
for
transpiration;
photosynthesis
in swollen stem;
store water

Grass + small
herbs;
infrequent rain
= fewer trees;
frequent fires;
tall grass w/
more rain;
above-ground
parts die during
winter, roots
grow new plant
in spring; high
species
diversity

Example

Cactus

Milkweed

Rosemary

Oak Tree

Topic G.3: Impacts of Human on Ecosystems

G.3.1 Calculate the Simpson diversity index for two local communities.
1) Simpson Formula
N ( N 1)
a) D
n(n 1)
b) N = total number of individuals in area
c) n = number of individuals per species

High plant
diversity; high
competition for
light; smaller +
dark green
leaves =
reduced
transpiration +
better use of
light; few plants
on floor;
adaptations to
help water runoff; epiphytes
grow high on
other plants for
more light;
bougainvillea
plants have thin
bark; limited
root system w/
easy access to
water
Orchid
(Epiphyte),
Bougainvillea

Permanently
frozen subsoil =
no trees;
waterlogged
soil of summer
w/o drainage;
small + stunted
b/c of little
water + short
growing season

Mosses +
Tussock Grass

d) D = diversity index
G.3.2 Analyze the biodiversity of the two local communities using the Simpson index.
1) Significantly higher numbers of one species over others = less diverse than when species present in
similar number
2) High diversity = stable + ancient site
3) Low diversity = pollution, recent colonization, agricultural management, etc.
G.3.3 Discuss the reasons for the conservation of biodiversity using rainforests as an example.
1) Ethical Reasons
a) Local, indigenous cultures dont survive w/o biodiversity of rainforest
b) Future generations cant experience extinct species
2) Ecological Reasons
a) Interferes w/ balance of ecosystem
b) Change in one biome = change in worldwide factors like weather
c) Differences in recycling of nutrients
d) Rainforests hold soil in place to prevent erosion
3) Economical Reasons
a) Traditional medicine often based on rainforest plants
b) Valuable materials like timber + dyes
4) Aesthetic Reasons
a) Beautiful natural place = relaxation + pleasure for people
G.3.4 List three examples of the introduction of alien species that have had significant impacts on
ecosystems.
1) Alien Invasive Species
a) Biological Control ladybird beetles
i) Eat aphids (pests that damage crops)
ii) Very mobile spread to other areas
b) Accidental Release Golden apple snail
i) Introduced in Taiwan as food = unsuccessful
ii) Eat rice plants return nutrients to ecosystem that algae use to growth at increased rate (algae
bloom)
c) Deliberate release Golden apple snail
i) Compete w/ local snails in Africa + Asia which cause bilharzias (a disease) in humans
G.3.5 Discuss the impacts of alien species on ecosystems.
1) Interspecific Competition
a) Foreign plants in Hawaii cover native plants w/ shade increased erosion
2) Predation
a) Biological control of cane beetles by cane toads reduced biodiversity by preferring other small
vertebrates
3) Species Extinction
a) Brown treesnake in Guam caused 9 native bird extinctions
4) Biological Control of Pest Species
a) Myxoma virus affecting only rabbits in Australia reduce ecological damage by burrowing +
grazing
G.3.6 Outline one example of biological control of invasive species.
1) Myxoma virus for rabbits in Australia

G.3.7 Define biomagnification.

1) Biomagnification
a) Process in which chemical substances become more concentrated at each trophic level of food chain
b) Bioaccumulation can take place in organism
i) Organisms takes in small amounts of chemical w/o egesting or excreting it
G.3.8 Explain the cause and consequences of biomagnification, using a named example.
1) Biomagnification
a) Caused by many organisms in a lower trophic level containing low amount of certain chemical
i) Eaten by higher trophic levels concentrated into few organisms
b) Ex: DDT
i) Doesnt dissolve well in water
ii) Taken up by algae when sprayed on water to kill mosquito larvae
iii) Accumulates in organism + magnified by predation
G.3.9 Outline the effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on living tissues and biological productivity.
1) UV Radiation
a) Harm to DNA alters structure which may cause skin cancer
b) Harmful to eyes can cause cataracts (transparent lenses) or pterygium (growths on conjunctiva)
c) Absorbed by organic molecules = dissociation from forming atoms or groups w/ unpaired electrons
i) Highly reactive substances cause unusual reactions
d) Phytoplankton function less in moderate levels = less oxygen in atmosphere
e) Terrestrial plants = lower yield w/ higher UV levels
f) Kills nitrogen-fixing bacteria
G.3.10 Outline the effect of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the ozone layer.
1) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
a) Depletion of ozone layer
b) Refrigerators, air conditioners, fire extinguishers, propellants in aerosols
c) Break-down in stratosphere by sunlight = production of Cl atom
i) Highly reactive molecule breaks apart ozone molecule, doesnt reform
ii) 1 chlorine atom to 100,000 ozone molecules
G.3.11 State that ozone in the stratosphere absorbs UV radiation.
1) Ozone Layer
a) In stratosphere (10-45 km above Earths surface)
b) Stops 99% of UV rays
c) Formed spontaneously when UV light strikes atmosphere
i) Energy of UV radiation absorbed by oxygen molecule
ii) Separates O2 molecule into highly reactive oxygen atoms
iii) Each combines w/ oxygen molecule to form O 3
iv) Release absorbed energy as heat
d) In troposphere, is a pollutant
i) Component of smog + greenhouse gas
ii) Inhibits photosynthesis
G.4.1 Explain the use of biotic indices and indicator species in monitoring environmental change.
1) Environmental Change
a) Monitoring warns us in advance of undesired changes + allows for preventative action
b) Ex: Eutrophication rate of oxygen depletion = biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
i) Trent Biotic Index (TBI) + Chandler Biotic Score (CBS) measure organic pollution in water

(1) TBI monitors presence of key macroinvertebrate species together w/ diversity

(2) Links presence of certain species w/ certain levels of pollution
G.4.2 Outline the factors that contributed to the extinction of one named animal species.
1) Dodo
a) Lived on island of Mauritius in Indian Ocean
b) No natural predators, no flying ability nested on ground
c) Sailors discovered in 16 th century killed + ate birds
d) Settlers brought cats, dogs, pigs, rats ate dodos + eggs/chicks
e) Extinct by 1680
G.4.3 Outline the biogeographical features of nature reserves that promote the conservation of diversity.
1) Size
a) Large reserves = conservation of biodiversity more effectively than smaller ones
2) Edge Effect
a) More light + wind = more water loss but more photosynthesis at lower levels
b) Usually greater biodiversity than at core
3) Wildlife Corridors
a) Allow organisms to move b/t different parts of fragmented habitat
b) Foment expansion of gene pool
G.4.4 Discuss the role of active management techniques in conservation.
1) Management of Nature Reserves
a) Control of alien species
i) Promotion of native species
b) Restoration of degraded areas
i) Food, nesting space, planting seeds, clearing other plants
ii) Fix areas damaged by human activity
c) Promotion of recovery of threatened species
d) Control of exploitation by humans
G.4.5 Discuss the advantages of in situ conservation of endangered species (terrestrial and aquatic nature
reserves).
1) In Situ Conservation
a) One or more endangered species = protected in area where theyd normally be found nature
reserve
b) Advantages
i) Some species hard to breed in captivity
ii) Population remains adapted to original habitat
iii) Individuals maintain natural behavior
iv) Species interacts w/ others + fulfils role in ecosystem
v) Habitat remains available for endangered species (and others)
vi) Requires larger gene pool but then conserves this variation b/t individuals
G.4.6 Outline the use of ex situ conservation measures, including captive breeding of animals, botanic
gardens and seed banks.
1) Ex Situ Conservation zoos, captivity
a) Captive breeding = difficulty capturing animals w/o killing them
i) Variable reproductive success in captivity
ii) Young deaths (sea mammals)
b) Botanic gardens = large amount of energy to maintain plants

i) Action must be taken to prevent foreign plants from being replaced

c) Seed Banks
i) Preserve as many species as possible w/ minimum investment of energy
ii) Preserve certain plant genes
d) Zoos + botanical gardens raise awareness
Topic G.5: Population Ecology
G.5.1 Distinguish between r-strategies and K-strategies.
1) Reproductive Strategies
a) r-Strategy
i) Investing more resources into producing many offspring, having short life span, early maturity,
reproducing only once, small body size
b) K-Strategy
i) Investing more resources into development of long-term survival = longer life space, late
maturity, more likely to involve parental care, production of few offspring, reproducing more
than once
G.5.2 Discuss the environment conditions that favor either r-strategies or K-strategies.
1) r-Strategies
a) Unstable + unpredictable environments
b) Survival of species increased if there is large population where some individuals could cope w/
change
c) Disruption by humans
d) Ex: pathogens, mice, weeds, insects
e) Rapid production of large numbers of offspring
2) K-Strategies
a) Stable and/or predictable environments
b) Each organism need to compete for limited resources
c) Ex: humans, whales, elephants
d) Long-term development b/c of longer life span + extensive care of young
G.5.3 Describe one technique used to estimate the population size of an animal species based on a capturemark-release-recapture method.
1) Capture-Mark-Release-Recapture Method + Lincoln Index
a) Capture a number of organisms (random) + mark them (w/o harm or changing behavior)
b) Release into original population mix w/ unmarked individuals randomly
c) Capture second random sample of population
d) Assumes that natality, mortality, immigration, emigration = zero
e) Lincoln Index
n3 n1
n n
i)
N 1 2
n2 N
n3
ii) n1 = number in first sample
iii) n2 = number in second sample
iv) n3 = number of marked individuals in second sample
v) N = number of individuals of total population
vi) Requirements
(1) Very low natality, mortality, immigration and emigration
(2) Method of capturing has little to no effect on animal
(3) Markings have little effect on animal

G.5.4 Describe the methods used to estimate the size of commercial fish stocks.
1) International Council for Exploration of the Sea (ICES)
a) Estimates of fish stock on North Atlantic
b) Take sample of 200 fish for every 1000 tonnes of fish brought into port 1.6 mil/yr
c) Data on age, length, breeding condition of fish
d) Normal stocks = broad range of ages (determined by size of ring bones on either side of brain)
e) Mostly young fish = lower stock
f) Takes longer to catch certain number of fish = lower stock
g) Scientists fish in standard coordinate matter in one spot + compare to other spots
h) Echo + sound equipment to detect schools of fish
i) Very fine nets catch eggs + larvae as they float b/t plankton
i) Number of eggs indicates number of adult fish
G.5.5 Outline the concept of maximum sustainable yield in the conservation of fish stocks.
1) Catching fish limited to leave enough to produce sufficiently large generation the next year
2) Biomass limit = lowest amount of fish a stock can fall to
a) Below = reduced stock
3) Precautionary Biomass Limit = higher than biomass limit allows for difficulty in estimating total
biomass of a species
G.5.6 Discuss international measures that would promote the conservation of fish.
1) Quota
2) Included Fish Discarded at Sea
a) Observers on fish vessels + fish discarded at sea count against quota increases accuracy
3) Aquaculture/Fish Farming/Hatcheries
a) Fish eggs hatched + reared to be returned to seas to support dwindling stocks
b) Growing fish under controlled circumstances may reduce amount caught from seas
4) Mesh Size
a) Minimum mesh size allows small fish to escape
5) Identifying No Fishing Zones
a) Certain areas declared marine nature reserves for fish breeding