Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
prepared by
Barbara Heard,
Atlantic Cape Community
College
C H AP T E R
Cells: The
Living Units:
Part A
Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images
Cell Theory
Cell - structural and functional unit of life
Organismal functions depend on individual
and collective cell functions
Biochemical activities of cells dictated by
their shapes or forms, and specific
subcellular structures
Continuity of life has cellular basis
Erythrocytes
Fibroblasts
Epithelial cells
Cells that connect body parts, form linings, or transport
gases
Skeletal
muscle
cell
Smooth
muscle cells
Nerve cell
Sperm
Cell of reproduction
Generalized Cell
All cells have some common structures
and functions
Human cells have three basic parts:
Plasma membraneflexible outer boundary
Cytoplasmintracellular fluid containing
organelles
Nucleuscontrol center
Nuclear envelope
Chromatin
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Plasma
membrane
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Cytosol
Mitochondrion
Lysosome
Centrioles
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Centrosome
matrix
Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
Cytoskeletal
elements
Microtubule
Intermediate
filaments
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Peroxisome
Extracellular fluid
(watery environment
outside cell)
Polar head of
phospholipid
molecule
Nonpolar tail
of phospholipid
molecule
Cholesterol Glycolipid
Glycocalyx
(carbohydrates)
Lipid bilayer
containing
proteins
Outward-facing
layer of
phospholipids
Inward-facing
layer of
phospholipids
Cytoplasm
(watery environment
inside cell)
Glycoprotein
Membrane Proteins
Extracellular fluid
(watery environment
outside cell)
Polar head of
phospholipid
molecule
Nonpolar tail
of phospholipid
molecule
Cholesterol Glycolipid
Glycocalyx
(carbohydrates)
Lipid bilayer
containing
proteins
Outward-facing
layer of
phospholipids
Inward-facing
layer of
phospholipids
Cytoplasm
(watery environment
inside cell)
Glycoprotein
Plasma Membrane
Cells surrounded by interstitial fluid (IF)
Contains thousands of substances, e.g.,
amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, vitamins,
hormones, salts, waste products
Membrane Transport
Plasma membranes selectively
permeable
Some molecules pass through easily; some
do not
Active processes
Energy (ATP) required
Occurs only in living cell membranes
Passive Processes
Two types of passive transport
Diffusion
Simple diffusion
Carrier- and channel-mediated facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Filtration
Usually across capillary walls
Passive Processes
Molecule will passively diffuse through
membrane if
It is lipid soluble, or
Small enough to pass through membrane
channels, or
Assisted by carrier molecule
Extracellular fluid
Lipidsoluble
solutes
Cytoplasm
Simple diffusion of
fat-soluble molecules
directly through the
phospholipid bilayer
Lipid-insoluble solutes
(such as sugars or
amino acids)
Carrier-mediated facilitated
Diffusion via protein carrier specific
for one chemical; binding of substrate
causes transport protein to change
shape
Active Transport
Requires carrier proteins (solute pumps)
Bind specifically and reversibly with substance
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Na+ and K+ channels allow slow leakage
down concentration gradients
Na+-K+ pump works as antiporter
Pumps against Na+ and K+ gradients to
maintain high intracellular K+ concentration
and high extracellular Na+ concentration
Maintains electrochemical gradients essential for
functions of muscle and nerve tissues
Allows all cells to maintain fluid volume
Figure 3.10 Primary active transport is the process in which solutes are moved across cell
membranes against electrochemical gradients using energy supplied directly by ATP.
Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+K+ pump
K+
ATP-binding site
Na+ bound
Cytoplasm
1 Three cytoplasmic Na+ bind to pump
protein.
K+ released
Na+ released
K+ bound
P
Pi
K+
Slide 1
Vesicular Transport
Functions:
Exocytosistransport out of cell
Endocytosistransport into cell
Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated
endocytosis
Extracellular
fluid
Slide 1
Plasma
membrane
Cytoplasm
Uncoated endocytic
vesicle
Endosome
4 Uncoated vesicle
fuses with a sorting
vesicle called an
endosome.
Lysosome
5 Transport
vesicle containing
membrane compone
-nts moves to the plasma
membrane for recycling.
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pseudopods engulf solids and bring them into
cell's interior
Form vesicle called phagosome
Receptors
Phagosome
Phagocytosis
The cell engulfs a large particle
by forming projecting pseudopods
("false feet") around it and enclosing
it within a membrane sac called a
phagosome. The phagosome is
combined with a lysosome.
Undigested contents remain in
the vesicle (now called a residual
body) or are ejected by exocytosis.
Vesicle may or may not be protein
coated but has receptors capable of
binding to microorganisms or solid
particles.
Endocytosis
Pinocytosis (fluid-phase endocytosis)
Plasma membrane infolds, bringing
extracellular fluid and dissolved solutes inside
cell
Fuses with endosome
Pinocytosis
The cell "gulps" a drop of
extracellular fluid containing solutes
into tiny vesicles. No receptors are
used, so the process is nonspecific.
Most vesicles are protein-coated.
Vesicle
Endocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Allows specific endocytosis and transcytosis
Cells use to concentrate materials in limited supply
Vesicle
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Extracellular substances bind to
specific receptor proteins, enabling
the cell to ingest and concentrate
specific substances (ligands) in
protein-coated vesicles. Ligands may
simply be released inside the cell, or
combined with a lysosome to digest
contents. Receptors are recycled to
the plasma membrane in vesicles.
Slide 1
Vesicle
SNARE
(v-SNARE)
Molecule to
be secreted
Cytoplasm
Fused
v- and
t-SNAREs
2 There, proteins at
the vesicle surface
(v-SNAREs) bind with
t-SNAREs (plasma
membrane proteins).
3 The vesicle
and plasma
membrane
fuse and a pore
opens up.
4 Vesicle
contents are
released to the
cell exterior.
Cytoplasm
Located between plasma membrane and
nucleus
Composed of
Cytosol
Water with solutes (protein, salts, sugars, etc.)
Organelles
Metabolic machinery of cell; each with specialized
function; either membranous or nonmembranous
Inclusions
Vary with cell type; e.g., glycogen granules, pigments,
lipid droplets, vacuoles, crystals
Cytoplasmic Organelles
Membranous
Mitochondria
Peroxisomes
Lysosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Nonmembranous
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
Ribosomes
Outer
mitochondrial
membrane
Ribosome
Mitochondrial
DNA
Inner
mitochondrial
membrane
Cristae
Matrix
Enzymes
Nucleus
Smooth ER
Nuclear
envelope
Rough ER
Ribosomes
Golgi Apparatus
Three types of vesicles bud from concave
trans face
Secretory vesicles (granules)
To trans face; release export proteins by
exocytosis
Transport vesicle
from rough ER
Cis face
receiving side of
Golgi apparatus
Cisterns
New vesicles
forming
Transport
vesicle
from
trans face
Secretory
vesicle
Trans face
shipping side of
Golgi apparatus
Figure 3.20 The sequence of events from protein synthesis on the rough ER to the final distribution
of those proteins.
1 Protein-conta- Rough ER
ining vesicles
pinch off rough
ER and migrate
to fuse with
membranes of
Golgi apparatus.
Phagosome
ER
membrane
Proteins in
cisterns
2 Proteins are
modified within
the Golgi
compartments.
3 Proteins are
then packaged
within different
vesicle types,
depending on
their ultimate
destination.
Vesicle
becomes
lysosome
Golgi
apparatus
Pathway A:
Vesicle contents
destined for
exocytosis
Secretory
vesicle
Secretion by
exocytosis
Slide 4
Plasma
membrane
Pathway C:
Lysosome
containing acid
hydrolase
enzymes
Pathway B:
Vesicle membrane
to be incorporated
into plasma
membrane
Extracellular fluid
Nucleus
Nuclear
envelope
Smooth ER
Rough ER
Golgi
apparatus
Secretory
vesicle
Plasma
membrane
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Transport
vesicle
Lysosome
Lysosome-Recycling Center
Peroxisomes-Detox center!
Microfilaments
Figure 3.23a Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.
Microfilaments
Strands made of spherical protein
subunits called actins
Actin subunit
7 nm
Intermediate Filaments
Tough, insoluble, ropelike protein fibers
Composed of tetramer fibrils
Resist pulling forces on cell; attach to
desmosomes
E.g., neurofilaments in nerve cells; keratin
filaments in epithelial cells
Figure 3.23b Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.
Intermediate filaments
Tough, insoluble protein fibers
constructed like woven ropes
composed of tetramer (4) fibrils
Tetramer subunits
10 nm
Microtubules
Largest of cytoskeletal elements; dynamic
hollow tubes; most radiate from
centrosome
Composed of protein subunits called
tubulins
Determine overall shape of cell and
distribution of organelles
Mitochondria, lysosomes, secretory
vesicles attach to microtubules; moved
throughout cell by motor proteins
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 3.23c Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.
Microtubules
Hollow tubes of spherical protein
subunits called tubulins
Tubulin subunits
25 nm
Centrosome matrix
Centrioles
Microtubules
Cellular Extensions
Cilia and flagella
Whiplike, motile extensions on surfaces of
certain cells
Contain microtubules and motor molecules
Cilia move substances across cell surfaces
Longer flagella propel whole cells (tail of
sperm)
Power, or
propulsive, stroke
Cell surface
Cellular Extensions
Microvilli
Minute, fingerlike extensions of plasma
membrane
Increase surface area for absorption
Core of actin filaments for stiffening
Microvillus
Actin
filaments
Terminal
web
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nucleus
Largest organelle; genetic library with
blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins
Responds to signals; dictates kinds and
amounts of proteins synthesized
Most cells uninucleate; skeletal muscle
cells, bone destruction cells, and some
liver cells are multinucleate; red blood
cells are anucleate
Three regions/structures
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nuclear
envelope
Chromatin
(condensed)
Nucleolus
Cisterns of
rough ER
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nuclear
pores
Nucleus
Fracture
line of outer
membrane
Nuclear
pores
Nucleus
Nucleoli
Dark-staining spherical bodies within
nucleus
Involved in rRNA synthesis and ribosome
subunit assembly
Associated with nucleolar organizer
regions
Contains DNA coding for rRNA
Chromatin
Threadlike strands of DNA (30%), histone
proteins (60%), and RNA (10%)
Arranged in fundamental units called
nucleosomes
Histones pack long DNA molecules;
involved in gene regulation
Condense into barlike bodies called
chromosomes when cell starts to divide
Linker DNA
Nucleosome (10-nm diameter;
eight histone proteins wrapped
by two winds of the DNA double
helix)
Questions!
Cell Theory
Ribosomes
Cytoskeleton
Centrosomes and centrioles
Cilia and flagella
Microvilli
Stop Here.
Quiz on Wednesday!
Cell Cycle
Defines changes from formation of cell
until it reproduces
Includes:
Interphase
Cell grows and carries out functions
G1 checkpoint
(restriction point)
S
Growth and DNA
synthesis
G1
Growth
se
ha
ap
et
M
se
pha
Ana
Telopha
se
Cy
t
o
ki
n
e
si
s
G2
Growth and final
preparations for
division
Pr
op
ha
se
G2 checkpoint
Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (1 of 6)
Interphase
Centrosomes (each
has 2 centrioles)
Plasma
membrane
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear
envelope
Prophase
Chromosomes become visible, each with
two chromatids joined at centromere
Centrosomes separate and migrate
toward opposite poles
Mitotic spindles and asters form
Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (2 of 6)
Early Prophase
Early mitotic
spindle
Aster
Chromosome
consisting of two
sister chromatids
Centromere
Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (3 of 6)
Late Prophase
Spindle pole
Polar microtubule
Fragments
of nuclear
envelope
Kinetochore
Kinetochore
microtubule
Metaphase
Centromeres of chromosomes aligned at
equator
Plane midway between poles called
metaphase plate
Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (4 of 6)
Metaphase
Spindle
Metaphase
plate
Anaphase
Shortest phase
Centromeres of chromosomes split
simultaneouslyeach chromatid becomes
a chromosome
Chromosomes (V shaped) pulled toward
poles by motor proteins of kinetochores
Polar microtubules continue forcing poles
apart
Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (5 of 6)
Anaphase
Daughter
chromosomes
Telophase
Begins when chromosome movement
stops
Two sets of chromosomes uncoil to form
chromatin
New nuclear membrane forms around
each chromatin mass
Nucleoli reappear
Spindle disappears
Cytokinesis
Begins during late anaphase
Ring of actin microfilaments contracts to
form cleavage furrow
Two daughter cells pinched apart, each
containing nucleus identical to original
Figure 3.33 Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in which the chromosomes are distributed to two daughter
nuclei. (6 of 6)
Telophase
Cytokinesis
Nuclear
envelope
forming
Nucleolus forming
Contractile
ring at
cleavage
furrow
checksforcellsize,nutrients
inextracellularenvironment,
DNAdamage&growth
factors
Extracellular Materials
Body fluids-interstitial fluid, blood plasma,
and cerebrospinal fluid
Cellular secretions-intestinal and gastric
fluids, saliva, mucus, and serous fluids
Extracellular matrixmost abundant
extracellular material
Jellylike mesh of proteins and
polysaccharides secreted by cells; acts as
"glue" to hold cells together
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
element
organism
cell
organ
element
organism
cell
organ
DNA
cytoplasm
organelle
cell wall
DNA
cytoplasm
organelle
cell wall
ribosomes
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
peroxisomes
mitochondria
ribosomes
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
peroxisomes
mitochondria
centrioles
lysosomes
rough endoplasmic reticulum
peroxisomes
centrioles
lysosomes
rough endoplasmic reticulum
peroxisomes
G1
S
G2
M
G1
S
G2
M
G1
S
G2
M
protein
carbohydrate
lipid
nucleic acid
protein
carbohydrate
lipid
nucleic acid
DNA replication
Translation
Transcription
mRNA editing
DNA replication
Translation
Transcription
mRNA editing
abnormal
responsible for removing unnecessary tissue
dangerous
responsible for creating twins
abnormal
responsible for removing unnecessary tissue
dangerous
responsible for creating twins
Microscopes
Types of microscopes
Simple
Compound
Stereoscopic
Electron
http://www.microscope-microscope.org/basic/microscope-images/digital-microscope-420tc.jpg
Simple Microscope
Similar to a magnifying glass and has only
one lense.
http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/ucomp1/ucomp1_01.jpg
Compound Microscope
http://www.labessentials.com/Rev3.jpg
Stereoscopic Microscope
Gives a three dimensional view of an
object. (Examples: insects and leaves)
http://www.tedpella.com/mscope_html/2282-14L.jpg
Electron Microscope
http://www.astbury.leeds.ac.uk/facil/ElectronMicro/F20microscope.jpg
Dark-field microscope
http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/5/1263.full
http://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/java/phasedicmorph/index.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tetrachimena_Beta_Tubulin.png
Parts of a microscope
Body Tube
Ocular lens
(Eyepiece)
Nosepiece
Objectives
Arm
Stage
Stage Clips
Coarse Adjustment
Diaphragm
Light
Fine Adjustment
Base
A Lens
Enlarges an image and bends the light
toward your eye.
Whats my power?
To calculate the power of magnification, multiply the power of the ocular lens by
the power of the objective.
http://www.edupic.net/Images/Math/railroad_tracks418.JPG
mounts
http://www.indmedica.com/journals/images/ijpd/ijpd6_leprosy_fig6.jpg
http://www.indmedica.com/journals/images/ijpd/ijpd6_leprosy_fig6.jpg