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Transformers
Impact of dimensions on various parameters of Transformer
KVA Rating
(Core Dimension)4
Voltage Rating
(Core Dimension)2
Current Rating
(Core Dimension)2
No-Load Current
Core Loss
Core Dimension
Core Volume
d
dt
d
E2 N2
dt
E1 (rms) 4.44fN1m
E1 N1
E2 (rms) 4.44fN2m
Where E1 and E2 are emf in primary and secondary windings of Transformer respectively.
is the flux in the transformer and m is maximum value of flux.
The polarity of emf is decided on basis of Lenz Law as currents in primary and secondary
should be such that primary and secondary flux should oppose each other.
Also, primary current enters the positive terminal of primary winding as primary absorbs
power and secondary current leaves the positive terminal of secondary winding as
secondary delivers power and this way we can mark emf polarities.
N
N
N
R 2 = R 2 1 ; X 2 = X 2 1 ; Z L = Z L 1 ;
N2
N2
N2
Approximately Equivalent Circuit
R 01 = R1 R 2
X 01 = X1 X 2
Tests Conducted on a Transformer
(i) Open Circuit Test
o
Equivalent Circuit
Ammeter reading I = I 0
cos 0 =
Calculate sin 0 =
V12
------- (ii)
Q = V1 I0 sin 0 =
Xm
V12
-------- (i)
Rc
P
V1 I0
1 - cos2 0
Equivalent Circuit
R 01 & X 01 are equivalent winding resistance & equivalent leakage reactor referred to
HV side.
2
Wattmeter reading = P = Isc R01 from this equation, we can calculate R 01
Z 01 =
Vsc
Isc
& X01 =
Z012 R012
Losses on Transformers
o
Copper Loss
I1 = primary current
I2 = secondary current
5
R 01
o
N
N
= R1 1 R 2 ; R 02 = R 2 2 R 1
N2
N1
Core Loss
(i) Hysteresis Loss
x
Pn = KnBm
f
X = 1.6
Pn = KnBm1.6f
Bm
V
f
V = applied voltage
f = frequency
1.6
V
Pn = Kh
f
f = KhV1.6f 0.6
Pe = KeBm2 f 2
Bm
V
f
2
V
Pe = K e f 2 = K e V 2
f
Core loss = Pc = Pe Pn
Efficiency
x KVA cos
X = % loading of Transformer
Pi = iron loss
x=
Pi
PCu,FL
Regulation up
VNL VFL
100
VNL
VNL VFL
100
VFL
N2
N1
No-load voltage V2
Full-load voltage
V2
VR =
I2 R 02 cos 2 X 02 sin 2
V2
7
R
2 = tan-1 02
X 02
The power factor is leading, Voltage Regulation can never be zero for lagging pf load.
Condition for maximum voltage regulation
X
2 = tan-1 02
R 02
The power factor is leading, Voltage Regulation can never be negative for lagging pf loads
Three Phase Transformers
In a 3-Phase transformers; the windings placed parallel to each other at as primary & secondary of
single phase transformer.
Rules to draw Phasor diagram
1) Always draw phasors from A to B, B to C & C to A for line voltages.
2) The end points should have same naming as the input or output terminals.
3) If we draw primary phasor from dotted to undotted terminal and if secondary voltage is also
from dotted to undotted, then secondary voltage is in same phase else in opposite phase.
Some examples
Phasor
If you observe carefully, we traverse from dotted to undotted terminal in primary while
going from a2 to b2 , b2 to c2 & c2 to a2 .
Same is the case when we traverse the secondary winding, so secondary voltage are inphase to primary.
Then, we draw reference phasors from neutral to terminal and mark it with phase with
same name as terminal it is pointed to.
Then we plot it on clock & we observe it is like 12 0 clock so name is Dd12
connection.
Another example
Phasor
o Here, we traversed primary from dotted to undotted terminal & in secondary from undotted
to dotted so all secondary phasor are out of phase wrt primary.
Parallel operation of Transformer
Necessary Conditions
1) Voltage ratings of both transformers should be same.
2) Transformers should have same polarity.
3) Phase sequence of both transformers must be same in case of 3- phase transformers.
4) Phase displacement between secondarys of both transformers must be 0 .
If there are 2 transformers A & B supplying a load power SL .
S A = SL
ZB
ZB
; SB = SL
Z A ZB
Z A ZB
LV
HV
1
(KVA rating of 2- winding Transformer)
1 - R
If copper & core losses are not given separately, then we consider losses as constant,
same as that of two winding transformer while calculating efficiency
10
DC Machines
Induced emf equation
Ea =
NZ P
60 A
Z = number of conductors
A = 2 for wave winding
A = P for lap winding
If speed is given in rad/sec
Ea =
Z P
2 A
PZ
= Km
2
Km =
PZ
= machine constant
2A
Developed Torque
T = KmIa
Km =
PZ
= machine constant
2A
Ia = armature current
11
Classification of DC Machine
(i) Separately excited
12
Terminologies
R a : Armature Resistance
Ea = Vt IaR a
Motor:
Ea = Vt I aR a
Ea = Vt Ia R a R se
Motor:
Ea = Vt Ia R a R se
Power Flow
Shaft Power
Armature Power
Electrical Power
Pa EaIa
Rotational loss
Copper loss
If you traverse the diagram from right to left then it is a power flow diagram for a motor.
13
Losses
Rotational loss
Copper loss
I 2R I 2R I 2R V I
BD a
a a se se f f
Ohmic loss
Brush
contact loss
Hystersis N &
Friction &
Windage loss Pf w
Friction
windage
Bearing
Brush
Eddy current
Stray load
PLL i2
N2
N2
N2
Efficiency
VaIa
; for generator
VaIa Ia2Ra VBDIa Pk
Ia =
Pk
ra
Ia =
Pk
ra rse
14
Characteristics of DC Generator
External characteristics
If no-load voltage is same for all types of generators:
2. Differentially Compound => If series field flux opposes the shunt field flux.
If full load voltage of all generators is kept same
1 series excited
5 separately excited
2 over compound
6 shunt excited
3 level compound
7 differentially compound
4 under compound
Conditions for voltage build-up in Shunt Generator
1) There must be residual flux.
2) Correct polarity of field winding with respect to armature winding so that field flux aids
residual flux for a given direction of rotation.
3) Field Resistance must be less than critical value
R f< R f cr
Critical resistance is equal to the slop of air-gap line.
4) Speed of rotation should be more than critical value for a given field resistance R f .
N > Ncr
15
Braking of DC Motor
Plugging
o
The current reverses resulting into negative torque & that brings rotor quickly to rest.
I' a =
V E
R ex
EaIa
, = speed of rotor
V - Ea
Before plugging, Ia
Ra
Plugging Torque
Load Torque
EaIa
Synchronous Machine
Induced emf
Phase voltage 4.44 Nph f
If coil span = 180 (electrical), coil is called as Chorded coil or short pitched winding.
16
Induced emf
4.44 N
ph
Induced emf
f K P
4.44 N
ph
f K P
n
KP = cos
2
To eliminate nth harmonic
n
=
2
2
=
180
electrical
n
Distributed Winding
m=
number of slots
number of poles no. of phase
Coil Span =
number of slots
number of poles
180
electrical ;
coil span
m
sin
2
Distribution Factor, K d
m sin 2
mn
sin
2
Kd
n
m sin
2
17
n n
by
2
2
K w = KPK d
Rm =
voltmeter reading
V
=
I
ammeter reading
Rm = 2R
R=
Rm
2
Rm =
voltmeter reading
ammeter reading
Rm =
2
R
3
R=
3
R
2 m
18
Armature Reaction
Power factor
Unity
Generator
Motor
Zero pf lagging
Zero pf leading
Lagging pf cos
Leading pf cos
19
Leakage Flux
Leakage flux links only one winding but not both so if it is present in stator, it wont link to rotor &
vise versa.
Equivalent Circuit
X s = synchronous reactance
X ar X l
= sum of armature reaction & leakage reactance
EV
V
100%
Xs
Ra
= tan-1
= 180
cos = load pf leading
20
=
cos = load pf lagging
Characteristics of Alternator
OCC & SCC
Open circuit characteristics & short circuit characteristics
ZS =
Generally, open circuit voltage is given as Line to Line value so, before calculating Z S , we
need to find phase voltage
ZS =
ZS =
Voc / 3
Isc
Voc
Isc I
SCR =
1
X S pu
XS pu = synchronous reactance in pu
21
EMF Method
MMF Method
ASA Method
EMF ASA>ZPF>MMF
Pout
VtEf
Vt2
=
cos
cos
ZS
ZS
Qout =
VtEf
V2
sin t sin
ZS
ZS
Input of motor
Vt 2
VE
Pin =
cos S t f cos
ZS
ZS
Qin =
Vt 2
VE
sin t f sin
ZS
ZS
X
tan-1 S
Ra
If R a = neglected, Z s = jXS = XS 90
Pout g
V
Ef Vt
sin ; Qout = t Ef cos Vt
g
XS
XS
22
Pdev =
Q dev =
Ef Vt
E2
cos f cos
ZS
ZS
Ef Vt
E2
sin f sin
ZS
ZS
If ra is neglected, ZS = XS 90
Pdev =
Q dev
Ef Vt
sin
ZS
Ef Vt
Ef 2
=
cos
ZS
ZS
In all power expressions, all voltages are line voltages and if we want to use phase voltage, we
must multiply all expressions by a factor of 3.
23
1) Observe if 3 lamps are bright & dark simultaneously, that means phase sequence of
incoming alternator is same as that of existing system.
Otherwise, phase sequence is opposite and stator terminals must be interchanged to
reverse phase sequence of incoming generator.
2) The frequency of alternator is usually a bit higher than infinite bus.
3) To understand the concept better, refer Ques. 39 of GATE 2014 EE-01 paper.
o If two alternators are supplying a load and we change either excitation or steam input of one
machine is varied, then following effects will happen:
o
Machine 1
Same
Increases
Increases
Decreases
Machine 2
Same
Decreases
Decreases
Increases
Machine 1
Increases
Constant
Increases
Increases
Machine 2
Decreases
Constant
Decreases
Decreases
24
Droop Characteristics
droop of generator =
fNL fFL
100%
fFL
Xd & Xq
X d : Direct axis reactance
Id = Ia sin 90
Iq = Iacos
=
For synchronous generator
tan =
Vsin IaX q
V cos IaR a
lagging pf
- leading pf
tan =
Vsin IaX q
V cos IaR a
leading pf
- lagging pf
P=
VtEf
V2 1
1
sin t sin2
Xd
2 Xq Xd
Excitation
power
Reluctance power
25
Slip Test
If machine is run by prime mover at a speed other than synchronous speed & voltages & currents
are observed
Xd =
Maximum Voltage
Maximum Current
Xq =
Maximum Voltage
Maximum Current
Input
Pe
Shaft Power
3Vt Ia cos
Field
Rotational
SC load
Loss
loss 3Ia2ra
Circuit loss
3 EfIa cos
Pe
Input
Shaft Power
3VtIa cos
Field
Circuit loss
SC load
loss 3Ia ra
Rotational
Loss
26
Induction Machines
Stator & Rotor Magnetic Fields
o
When a 3-phase supply is connected to the stator, than a magnetic field is set up
whose speed of rotation is
NS =
120f
P
f = frequency of supply
o
If negative sequence currents are applied the rotating magnetic field rotates in
opposite direction as compared to magnetic field produced by positive sequence
currents.
The rotor rotates in same direction as the stator magnetic field with a speed, Nr .
slip s =
Ns Nr
Ns
Nr = Ns 1 s
o
Stator
With
respect
to
Stator
Stator
Magnetic
Field
Rotor
Rotor
Magnetic
Field
0
-Ns
Relative Speed of
Stator
Rotor
Magnetic
Field
Ns
Ns(1-s)
0
-sNs
-Ns(1-s)
-Ns
sNs
0
27
0
-sNs
Rotor
Magnetic
Field
Ns
0
sNs
0
When a 3 supply is connected to the rotor & stator terminals are shorted or are
connected to the resistive load.
Then a rotor magnetic field is set up which rotates at speed Ns with respect to rotor ;
120f
where f is frequency of supply.
P
o If rotor rotates at speed Nr , than slip
Ns =
s=
Ns Nr
Ns
Here, the rotor rotates in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation of stator
magnetic field.
o
= Ns Ns 1 s = sNs
Speed of stator magnetic field = sNs
o
Stator
With
respect
to
Stator
Stator
Magnetic
Field
Rotor
Rotor
Magnetic
Field
0
-sNs
Relative Speed of
Stator
Rotor
Magnetic
Field
sNs
Ns(1-s)
0
-Ns
-Ns(1-s)
-sNs
Ns
0
28
0
-Ns
Rotor
Magnetic
Field
sNs
0
Ns
0
N
N
r2 = r2 1 ; x2 = x2 1
N
N
2
2
N1 = N1 k1
Where N1 = no. of turns per phase on stator
It gives full load Copper Losses and equivalent resistance and equivalent reactance
referred to Stator Side.
29
R 01 & X 01 are equivalent winding resistance & equivalent leakage reactor referred to
Stator side.
2
Wattmeter reading = P = Isc R01 from this equation, we can calculate R 01
Z 01 =
R 01 = R1+ R2 ; X 01 = X1+ X2
Vsc
Isc
& X01 =
Z012 R012
Pin
Stator
Stator
Rotor
Rotor
I2R loss
core loss
I2R loss
core loss
Pg =
3I22r2
s
I2 = rotor current
s = slip
Developed Torque,
Te =
= Pg sPg = 1-s Pg
1-sPg Pg
Pm
=
wr
1-s ws ws
30
Friction &
windage loss
Ve =
Re =
V1 jXm
r1 j X1 Xm
r1Xm
X1 X m
; Xe =
X1 Xm
X1 Xm
Torque developed, Tc
mVe2
r
ws Re 2
s
X Xe
r2
s
2
3
ws
V12
2
r2
s
R 2
X22
31
o At low slip, s 1
R 2
o
3 sV1
X 2 , Tc =
ws
R2
Tc s
At high slip , s 1
2
3 V1 R 2 1
Tc =
ws X s
s
R 2
X 2 ,
s
R 2
Sm,T =
R e2 Xe X2
Sm,T
And also,
R
= 2
X2
Tmax
and Tmax
3 V12
=
s (2X 2 )
2
s
s
m,T
s
sm,T
Sm,P =
R2
2
R R X X R
e
e
2
2
2
Te,st
Te,FL
I
= st SFL
IFL
32
Instead of connecting the motor to direct supply we reduce the voltage from
V1 to xV1
o
Te,st
Ist
SFL
IFL
1
= 2
X
Te,FL
Te,FL direct
XV
= 1 = X2
V1
At starting, stator winding is connected in star & in running state stator winding
is connected in delta.
2
Vph =
IY =
V1
1
3
V1
TY
1
3
=
=
2
TD
3
V1
ID
2
Tst
TFL
2
Ist,d
I
S
= st,Y SFL = 3
I
FL
I
FL,d
FL,d
Constant V
Control
T=
At low slip,
s=
2
180 sV1
2Ns R
2
Ns N
Ns
2
V
180 Ns N V1
T=
1 Ns N
2Ns
Ns
R 2
f
2
33
Tst
1 I
= st,Y SFL
TFL
3 IFL,d
Due to this saddle region, the motor may become stable at a low speed & this is called as
crawling.
Cogging
o
If number of stator slots is equal to or integral multiple number of rotor slots, than at the
time of start, the strong alignment forces between stator teeth & rotor teeth simultaneously
at all rotor teeth may prevent movement of rotor. This is called cogging.
According to Double field Revolving Theory, a single phase mmf can be resolved into two
rotating fields one rotating clockwise called as Forward field & other rotating anti-clock wise
called as Backward Field.
Both fields rotate at synchronous speed
Ns =
o
120f
P
34
Due to these two fields producing opposing torques on rotor single phase IM is not
self starting.
To produce starting torque, we introduce an auxiliary winding which is used at the time
of start & is disconnected during the run stage.
35
36