BASIC

ELECTRICITY
FOR
DISTRIBUTION POWER LINE WORKERS

LARRY D. THOMPSON

PREFACE
Basic Electricity for Distribution Power Line Workers is a primary textbook dealing with
electrical basics for those persons working on electric distribution systems. It is just the
beginning of lots and lots of must know information needed to work efficiently and safely
in the energy delivery industry. The need for technical expertise among electrical linemen
has never been greater and that need will surely intensify with the progression of our
industry.

PREREQUISITES
In order to demonstrate the necessity of the concepts presented in this book, many
references will be made to components of the energy delivery system and how basic
electrical laws apply. You, the student of this industry, will need to know what these
components look like, where they are found on the energy delivery system, and at least
some idea of the basic role fulfilled by these components.
You MUST possess the skills of basic mathematics; addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division. You also MUST be able to read and comprehend the written word. If you
arent comfortable with both these basic skills, then please lay this book aside and enroll in
a class to learn them.

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this material is simple; to make the distribution lineman more efficient.
This will result in improved customer service, fewer trouble calls, less overtime expense to
the utility, the list goes on and on. A thorough knowledge of electricity and the energy
delivery system enables the distribution lineman to be a true troubleshooter versus a parts
changer.

DEFINITIONS
Alternating Current (AC) A current whose direction of flow and magnitude of voltage is
constantly and intentionally changing.
Amp

The unit of measure of current flow.

Atom
The smallest whole particle of an element that retains the properties of that
element, made up of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
Bonding
The electrical connecting, through wires or cables, different components
(conductors, electrical apparatus, conduits, cabinets, etc.) causing all those components
connected together to share the same electrical potential.
Capacitor

A device for accepting and storing an electrical charge.

Circuit
An arrangement of conductors, power sources, optional control devices, and
electrical loads through which current flows.
Closed

The completion of a circuit through which current can flow.

Compound Materials composed of 2 or more different molecules.

Conductor A material through which electrons can easily flow.
Continuity

The presence of a path that can permit current flow.

Current

The flow of electrons through or along a path.

Direct Current (DC)

A current that consistently flows in one direction.

Electricity An energy transportation medium whereby energy is converted from one form
for delivery by wire to the point of consumption where it will usually be converted back or
into some other (or back to the original) form of energy for practical use.
Electron

The negatively charged particle of an atom.

Energized The state of a conductor or piece of apparatus when it becomes or is

connected to a source of energy.
Ground
The electrical potential of the Earth, or to cause a conductor or piece of
electrical apparatus to become the same potential of the Earth through bonding.
Impedance A force that opposes the flow of current in an alternating current (AC) circuit.
This opposing force is the effective combination of resistance, reactance, and reluctance.

Page 1

Insulator

A material through which electrons cannot easily pass.

Matter

Anything that has weight and occupies space.

Molecule

A material composed of 2 or more different atoms.

Ohm

The unit of measure of resistance.

Open Circuit A break in a conductive path that stops the flow of current. Often
mistakenly referred to as a short.
Potential

The electrical state of a conductor.

Power Transformer

A device for changing the voltage level of alternating current (AC).

Resistance A force that opposes the flow of current in a circuit. Resistance is neither
good nor bad, it simply exists. Resistance is what makes heating elements possible but it
is also what causes wires to heat up when too much current is forced through and causes
connections to burn up when wires are not cleaned prior to making the connection.
Therefore, it is where you find resistance that determines if it is desirable or not.
Resistor

A material or component that limits electron flow.

Short Circuit A low resistance, often unintentional, path through which large amounts of
current can flow. Often confused with open circuits.
Volt

The unit of measure of voltage.

Voltage
A difference in electrical potential that exists between two points. It is the
driving force behind current flow.
Voltage Drop A difference in electrical potential between the ends of a resistance, or load.
Current flowing through a resistance creates a voltage drop.

Page 2

CHAPTER 1
Electricity and
the Energy
Delivery System
ELECTRICITY

Electricity is simply a means for delivering energy from one point to another via wires. It
must first be created from another form of energy, such as mechanical motion. The
spinning shafts of steam, wind, or water turbines are connected to generators and through
the process of magnetism and induction, the mechanical energy is converted to electrical
energy. This electrical energy is delivered via wires to the location where energy is needed.
The electricity is then converted back or into some other form of energy to perform the work
desired by the consumer. This converted energy may be mechanical (provided by motors),
heat, light, radio frequency, etc. Electricity as a raw commodity has little practical use.

Figure 1-1
The generator is fueled by gasoline. The energy in the gasoline is released as heat through
oxidation (burning in the engine). The heat is converted to rotary motion by the engine which spins the
generator which in turn converts the rotary motion to electricity. The electricity is carried by extension cords
to where energy is converted back to motion, light, or heat to perform the desired work.

Of course, the commercial energy delivery system is far more complex in terms of the
components that make up the system but it still performs the same function illustrated in
Page 1

Fig. 1-1, that is a chain of events to convert a form of energy into electricity, delivery of the
electrical energy by wire, and the ultimate conversion of the electricity into some form of
usable energy.

THE COMPOSITION OF MATTER

In order to fully understand what electricity is all about, we must look at the composition of
matter. The discussion will be brief and unless you one day become an instructor of basic
electricity or are questioned by an inquisitive apprentice, the subject will likely never come
up again.
Matter is defined as anything that has weight and occupies space. Certainly, conductors
and insulators fall into this category. Matter is composed of atoms and atoms are
composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Neutrons and protons are found in the
atoms center, or nucleus while the electrons orbit the nucleus in one or more rings.
Electrons have a negative electrical charge, protons have a positive electrical charge, and
neutrons have no electrical charge at all.
Shown in Fig. 1-2 is a single atom of aluminum, the most common conductor material in the
electric utility industry.

Fig. 1-2
A single aluminum atom composed of 14 neutrons and 13 protons in the nucleus, and 13
electrons orbiting in the rings.

When connected or exposed to a source of electrical energy, the electrons in the outer ring
are easily knocked out of that ring and into the orbit of an adjacent atom, which in turns
causes those electrons to be knocked into the orbit of another atom which in turn This
is known as current flow. A single amp of current flow is composed of over
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons moving through a conductor every second.

Page 2

Inasmuch at the electrons of aluminum atoms are easily knocked from their orbits,
aluminum is a good conductor.
Materials wherein the electrons are NOT easily knocked from their orbits can be used to
manufacture insulators, devices meant to prevent the direct physical movement of
electrons between the conductor and anything else except for connected electrical loads.
However, insulating materials are not totally absolute. If exposed to enough voltage,
current can be made to flow through the insulation. Most of the time when this happens,
the insulator or insulation is destroyed and a short circuit occurs.

Good conductors
insulators

Good

Silver
Glass
Copper
Plastic
Fig. 1-3

SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
There 6 sources from which electricity can be created.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Static
Pressure
Heat
Light
Chemical action
Magnetism

Static electricity is produced through the friction of materials rubbing against each other
causing electrons to move from one material to the other. While sitting in your car on a dry,
wintry day, your body and your car are at equal electrical potential. However, when you
open the door and slide out of the car, electrons will move between the car and your own
body, creating a difference in electrical potential, or a voltage. The mild shock you receive
when you touch the car door handle is the current flowing between your body and the car,
eliminating the electrical potential difference caused through friction, and once again
placing your body and your car at equal electrical potential.

Page 3

Lightning is another form of static electricity and is

caused by clouds rubbing against the ground or each
other, causing a difference in electrical potential.
When the air (acting as an insulator) can no longer
keep these different potentials separated, a lightning
flash occurs.
While static is at present of no practical use, it certainly
has an impact on electric utility systems. Lightning
causes untold numbers of power outages and destroys
millions of dollars worth of electrical
apparatus each year.

Fig. 1-4

Pressure can be used to create electricity through the use of a device known as a
transducer. Transducers contain crystalline materials that produce varying differences in
electrical potential depending upon the amount of pressure being applied. Transducers are
used in the construction of load cells, devices used to determine the weights of loads prior
to lifting with a digger-derrick or material handler bucket truck.
Heat produces electricity through a device known as a thermocouple. Thermocouples are
constructed of an iron wire and a copper wire twisted together. When heat is applied to the
2 wires, a difference in electrical potential will result. Youll encounter these devices in
temperature measuring circuitry.
Light produces electricity through a device known as a photocell. In our
industry, the slang name for these is street light or D-D eyes.
Fig. 1-5

Chemical action produces electricity through batteries. Available in all shapes, sizes,
internal materials, voltage ratings, and amp-hour capacities, youll encounter batteries in
your vehicle, tools, test equipment, apparatus controls and sub-stations where batteries are
a component of the critical direct-current portion of the station protection and control
scheme.
Magnetism produces electricity through generators and is the means by which we create
the product that we deliver to our customers. Generators produce electricity through the
use of conductors, magnetic fields, and a relative motion between those 2 components
provided by the spinning of the generators rotor. This same concept of conductors,
magnetic fields, and relative motion is also the means by which transformers and motors
operate.

Page 4

ALTERNATING AND DIRECT CURRENT

There are 2 types of current, alternating and direct. While utilities make extensive use of
both types, it is alternating current that delivers our product to our customers.
Direct current is so named because it always flows in the same direction. Figure 1-6
below illustrates a battery, some wiring, a switch, a lamp, and a graph indicating current
flow and time. Note current flow is constant and flows continuously in the direction
indicated by the arrows.

Fig. 1-6
The current will flow in the same direction and at the same level as long as the circuit
remains intact and the battery maintains 12 volts. The amount of current flowing will diminish with drops in
battery voltage.

Now, lets connect the same lamp and wiring to an alternating current source, in this case a
transformer as shown in Fig. 1-7. Youll notice some significant differences in current
levels, direction, and TIME.

Page 5

Fig. 1-7
The time interval is 1/60th of a second and represents 1 complete cycle or, 1 complete
generator revolution. During the first half of the time interval, the current begins at 0, increases to 5 amps at
the quarter mark and decreases back to 0 to complete the first half of the cycle. Note the direction of current
flow.

The transformer is connected to the utility system which is supplied by generators and the
time interval depicted here represents 1 complete revolution of the generator, also known
as 1 cycle, 1/60th of a second. Notice in the graph that the current flow begins at 0 amps,
increasing to a maximum of 5 amps, and then back to 0 to complete of the cycle. Now,
take a look at Fig. 1-7a.

Fig. 17a
The second half is much like the first with the current beginning at 0, increasing to 5 amps,
and back to 0 to complete 1 full cycle. However, the direction of current flow has reversed.

During the second half-cycle, the current once again begins at 0, increasing to 5 amps, and
decreasing back to zero to complete the cycle. However, during this second half of the
cycle, the direction of current flow is reversed. This cycle takes place 60 times each
second. Therefore, 60 times per second, current flows in one direction, 60 times per
second it flows in the other direction, and 120 times each second, there is no current flow at
all. Although the lamp appears to burn constantly, the current flow continuously goes from
nothing to maximum and back to nothing.
The graph in Figs. 1-7 and 1-7a illustrate whats known as the AC sine wave. It is a
graphic representation of the magnitude and direction of flow in an alternating current
circuit, just as graphs are used to show money made or lost in the stock market. The
current does not actually travel in such a galloping motion through the conductor.

Page 6

Fig. 1-8
The AC sine wave on the left is a graphic representation of current flow direction and
magnitude just as graphs are used in the financial industry to display profits and loss.

Alternating current makes todays energy delivery system possible due to the fact that AC
voltage may be increased or decreased through the use of transformers. While direct
current is vital to the operation of the utility system, DC is not practical as a product to be
delivered to our customers1.

1 For interesting reading, check out AC Versus DC in the Of Historical Interest section of
this text.

Page 7

CHAPTER 2
Ohms Law and
Circuits
In order for current to flow, a complete circuit must exist consisting of a power source,
conductors, and a load or loads. Controls and protective devices are installed for matters
of safety and convenience. There are 2 basic circuits, series and parallel and thats it.
There are different variations and combinations of each but youll still only need to
recognize the 2 basic configurations. To help understand both types, well use Ohms Law
to illustrate whats going on.

OHMS LAW
Named after German physicist Georg Simon Ohm, Ohms Law describes the relationship
between voltage, resistance, and current. Discovered in the early 1800s, it is the most
basic of electrical principles. Ohm is also the namesake for the unit of measure of
resistance. Throughout your career as a distribution lineman, you very well may never
have to do an Ohms Law calculation. However, it will help you immensely in your
understanding of circuitry.
Ohms Law states that 1 volt of energy will push 1 amp of current through 1 ohm of
resistance. It can be expressed in 3 different ways; I=E/R, R=E/I, and E=I*R where the
letter E represents voltage, the letter I represents current, and the letter R represents
resistance. Dont panic, were going to make it simple. Its nothing more than a basic
mathematical division or multiplication problem.
First, get used to letters representing electrical values. In this case;
E = voltage, or electromotive force, the driving force behind current.
R = resistance. Simple enough.
I= current. This somewhat weirdly flies in the face of logic, I for current. There are those
who believe that I originally was meant by the pioneering electrical scientists to represent
intensity, but there is considerable dispute over that.

Draw the following diagram and youve got it made as far as how to apply Ohms Law. The
rest is simple math.

Fig. 2-1A simple memory aid for the application of Ohms Law.

If you know any 2 values contained in Ohms Law, you can easily calculate the 3 rd. For
example, lets say that you know how much resistance is possessed by a heating element
and you know how much voltage will be applied to it. You can easily calculate the current.
Look at Fig. 2-2.

24
?

Fig. 2-2

Current equals voltage divided by resistance.

Lets say that your heating element has a resistance of 15 ohms and that you will be
applying 240 volts to it. In the Ohms Law circle shown above, cover that value that is
unknown to you, the letter I. I, the unknown, is equal to E over R, or voltage divided by
resistance.
I=ER
I = 240 15
I = 16 amps
The same process is used if youre looking for resistance. Using the same numbers for
Fig. 2-3, cover that value that you seek.

24
?
Fig. 2-2

Resistance equals voltage divided by current.

R=EI
R= 240 8
R = 30 ohms
Theres one more. If you need to know how much voltage is required to push 8 amps of
current through 15 ohms of resistance, its laid out for you in Fig. 2-3.

?
24

8 1
Fig. 2-3

Voltage equals current times resistance.

E=I*R
E = 16 * 15
E = 240 volts
You can use Ohms Law on a complete circuit, or a portion of a circuit. Practice with it a
little now using the following problems. The answers appear on the following page.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Find current where voltage is 120 and the resistance is 4.

Find current where voltage is 480 and the resistance is 4.
Find resistance where voltage is 120 and the current is 8.
Find resistance where voltage is 48 and the current is 12.
Find voltage where current is 120 and the resistance is 8.
Find voltage where current is 40 and the resistance is 60.

_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________

1. Find current where voltage is 120 and the resistance is 4. 30 amps

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Find current where voltage is 480 and the resistance is 4.

Find resistance where voltage is 120 and the current is 8.
Find resistance where voltage is 48 and the current is 12.
Find voltage where current is 120 and the resistance is 8.
Find voltage where current is 40 and the resistance is 60.

120 amps
15 ohms
4 ohms
960 volts
2400 volts

SERIES CIRCUITS
Series circuits are the simplest because there is only 1 path through which current may
flow. Youve been creating series circuits since you were a kid. For example, in Fig. 2-4,
can you properly install the D cell batteries into the flashlight? If so, congratulations, youve
constructed a series circuit.

Fig. 2-4 When properly inserted into the flashlight, the D cell batteries, switch, and lamp are connected in
series.

There are 5 laws that you must keep in mind regarding series circuits.
1. The voltages of all connected power sources add up. (See Batteries in Series later
in this section)
2. All the resistance values add up.
3. All the voltage drops add up. (Current flowing through resistance creates a voltage
drop)
4. Current flow is the same at any point in the circuit
5. A break anywhere in the circuit interrupts the entire circuit.

Before we proceed further, familiarize yourself with the following symbols that well be
using.
Battery

Resistance, or load
Conductor

A simple series circuit is shown in Fig. 2-5 consisting of 1 battery and 3 resistances in
series.

Fig. 2-5

A series circuit consisting of 1 battery and 3 resistances, all connected in series.

Lets assign some values to our circuit components. They can be anything, were just
plugging in numbers to practice with. The battery, E1, produces 24 volts. The resistance
values of R1 and R2 are 1 ohm each, and the resistance of R3 is 4 ohms. Notice that
ohms are indicated by the symbol, . Well add those values to the circuit drawing as
shown below.
1

4
24
Volts

Fig 2-6

Same drawing as Fig 2-5 but with numerical values added.

Were going to find total applied voltage, circuit current, and voltage drops across all 3
resistors.
The first 3 laws of series circuits listed above indicate that all applied voltages, all voltage
drops, and all resistances simply add up. Since we have only 1 voltage applied by the
single 24-volt battery, the applied voltage is obviously 24 volts.
We can also very easily determine total circuit resistance. Remember, they all add up.
Therefore, if R1 is 1 ohm, R2 is 1 ohm, and R3 is 4 ohms, then total circuit resistance is 6
ohms.
Inasmuch as we now have the total applied voltage and total circuit resistance, we can
figure circuit current through a simple division problem. Draw your Ohms Law circle and
plug in your numbers.

2
?
Fig. 2-7

The current, I, is equal to voltage divided by resistance.

The current is found by the math calculation E over R or more simply, voltage divided by
resistance. In this case, 24 divided by 6, the answer being I equals 4 amps. Since current
has only 1 path for current through with to flow in a series circuit, the current will be the
same at any point in the circuit.
Now that we know how much current is flowing through each of our resistors, we can just
easily figure how much voltage drop exists across them. Remember from the Definitions
page, current flowing through a resistance creates a voltage drop.

1 4
amps

24
Volts

Fig 2-8

44
amps
1 4
amps

Same drawing as Fig 2-6 but with current value added.

?
4
Fig. 2-9

The voltage, E, is equal to current times resistance.

Using your Ohms Law circle as shown in Fig. 2-9 for the voltage drop across R1 (or ER1),
the unknown voltage is equal to the current (4 amps) times the resistance value of R1 (1),
the answer being 4 volts. Since the resistance of R2 is also 1, the voltage drop across
R2 is also 4 volts.

?
4

Fig. 2-10

The voltage, E, is equal to current times resistance.

Referring to Fig. 2-10, use the same process for ER3. The current (4 amps) times the
resistance value of R3 (4), the answer being 16 volts. We now have all the voltage drops.
ER1 = 4 Volts
ER2 = 4 Volts
ER3 = 16 volts

Add all the voltage drops up and you find that they are equal to the total voltage applied to
the circuit by the battery, or batteries.

BATTERIES IN SERIES
It has already been stated herein that the voltages of power sources connected in series
add up. How the batteries are interconnected with each other determine the level of
applied circuit voltage. For example, the following batteries are all connected positive to
negative, positive to negative, positive to negative all the way through, and the voltages all
add up. This is known as a series aiding circuit. Youll encounter this circuit in your study
of distribution transformers and line voltage regulators.

Fig. 2-11

A series aiding circuit where all voltages add up.

Now, lets turn one of the batteries around as shown in Fig. 2-12.

Fig. 2-12
A series opposing circuit where batteries connected in reverse have their voltages added to
the total as a negative number, thus reducing the overall voltage available from the connection.

Note that the battery on the far left is now connected in reverse. That is, the negative
spring of the left battery is connected to the negative spring of the second battery. This is
known as a series opposing circuit. The voltages still add up but the voltage of batteries
connected in reverse will have their voltages added to the total as negative numbers as
shown.
In both series aiding and series opposing circuits, the voltages all add up but the available
current flow through the circuit will be the amount capable of flowing through a single
battery.

Following are some circuits for you to practice on. Use your Ohms Law circle and the laws
of series circuits (page 12) to determine the following in this order.

Total applied voltage (ET)

Total resistance (RT)
Total current (I)
Voltage drops across R1, R2, and R3 (ER1, ER2, and ER3)
Total voltage drops (ER1 + ER2 + ER3)

The answers will appear on the following pages.

Exercise 1

10

2
54
Volts

Exercise 2

2
24
Volts

Exercise 3

12
72
Volts

Exercise 4

7
9
Volts
3

5
36
Volts

ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1

ET = 54 Volts
RT = 18 Ohms
I = 3 Amps
ER1 = 30 Volts
ER2 = 18 Volts
ER3 = 6 Volts
TOTAL VOLTAGE DROPS = 54

EXERCISE 2

ET = 24 Volts
RT = 12 Ohms
I = 2 Amps
ER1 = 8 Volts
ER2 = 12 Volts
ER3 = 4 Volts
TOTAL VOLTAGE DROPS = 24

EXERCISE 3

ET = 72 Volts
RT = 24 Ohms
I = 3 Amps
ER1 = 27 Volts
ER2 = 9 Volts
ER3 = 36 Volts
TOTAL VOLTAGE DROPS = 72

EXERCISE 4

ET = 45 Volts
RT = 15 Ohms
I = 3 Amps
ER1 = 21 Volts
ER2 = 15 Volts
ER3 = 9 Volts
TOTAL VOLTAGE DROPS = 45

CATCHING UP

Just to keep things straight in our mind, lets get caught up on what weve learned up to this
point.

In order for current to flow, a complete circuit must exist consisting of a power
source, conductors, and a load or loads. Just as in a water hose, the water will not
flow until the valve is opened creating a pressure differential between the ends of the
hose. This pressure differential in an electrical circuit is known as voltage and is
provided by the power source.
Ohms Law, the most basic of electrical principles, describes the relationship
between voltage, current, and resistance. Ohms Law can be used on an entire
circuit or a portion of a circuit.
There are 5 laws that you must keep in mind regarding series circuits.
o The voltages of all connected power sources add up. Power source voltages
need not be identical.
o All the resistance values add up.
o All the voltage drops add up. (Current flowing through resistance creates a
voltage drop)
o Current flow is the same at any point in the circuit
o A break anywhere in the circuit interrupts the entire circuit.
There are 2 types of series circuits
o Series aiding
o Series opposing

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
The other way to connect loads or power sources is in parallel. Parallel circuits are
identified by having 2 or more paths through which current can flow.

Have you ever connected loads or power sources in this fashion? Odds are that you have.
Take loads for example. If youve ever connected 2 appliances to the same outlet as
shown in Fig. 2-13, youve connected 2 loads in parallel.

Fig. 2-13

Two loads connected in parallel.

If youve ever used battery booster cables as shown

in Fig. 2-14, then youve connected to power sources
in parallel when you connected the batteries positiveto-positive and
negative-to-negative.
Fig. 2-14
Battery booster cables
Unlike series circuits, power sources connected in parallel must produce identical voltages.
If this is not observed, there may be unintended consequences such as current flowing
between power sources and unbalanced power source loading.

There are 4 laws that you must keep in mind regarding parallel circuits.
1. Parallel circuits contain 2 or more paths through which current can flow.
2. Total circuit resistance is always less than the value of the smallest resistor in the
circuit. This is due to the presence of multiple paths (or circuit legs).
3. Voltage drop is identical across each path (leg) in the circuit.
4. Total circuit current is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through each
individual path (leg).

Referring for just a moment back to Fig. 2-13, its pretty easy to accept the fact that every
time an additional appliance is plugged in, current flow through the circuit increases. The
reason this happens is that every time a resistance (or load) is added to a parallel circuit,
overall circuit resistance decreases. This statement warrants repeating. Every time a
resistance (or load) is added to a parallel circuit, overall circuit resistance decreases. It
may seem to fly in the face of logic to expect get any kind of decrease by adding but a
closer examination of parallel circuits should clear this up.

12

24
Volts
Fig. 2-15

A simple series circuit.

In Fig. 2-15, a simple series circuit is shown. Total voltage is 24 volts, total resistance is 12
ohms, and the calculated current (I=ER) is 2 amps. Simple enough.
In Fig. 2-16, well add another 12 ohm load in parallel with the existing 12 ohm load of Fig.
2-15. We now have a parallel circuit.

12

12

24
Volts

Fig. 2-16
Two identical loads connected in parallel. This is what the circuit schematic looks like when
you plug 2 loads into a single electrical outlet. Voltage is different, of course.

If you remember the law of parallel circuits (law #4 on the previous page), total circuit
current is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through each individual path (or leg as
you wish to call it). So its pretty easy to accept the fact that the addition of this second
identical load would cause total current flow in the circuit to double. But why does this
occur? Its extremely simple. Since the voltage in this circuit is fixed, the ONLY way for
current to increase is for resistance to decrease. That is exactly what has happened here.
The addition of the second load caused total circuit resistance to DECREASE due to the
addition of the second path. This decrease in resistance allows current to INCREASE.

CALCULATING RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Calculating resistance in parallel circuits is a bit more complex than the calculations for
series circuits but still simple math. Theres just more of it.
Calculating resistance in a parallel circuit where there are only 2 paths is most easily
accomplished through the product over sum method as shown in Fig. 2-17.

Fig. 2-17
paths.

Product over sum method of calculating total circuit resistance in parallel circuits containing 2

Lets plug in the numbers from the circuit of Fig. 2-16 to determine total resistance (RT).

Fig. 2-18

Product over sum resistance calculation for the circuit of Fig. 2-16

RT (total resistance) is equal to R1 times R2 divided by R1 plus R2. In our problem here, RT
is equal to 12 times 12 divided by 12 plus 12. Continuing with the math, RT equals 144
divided by 24. RT equals 6 ohms. This is obviously less than the lowest individual
component resistance value found in the circuit.
Now that we have total resistance, we can use Ohms Law to determine total circuit current.

2
?

Fig. 2-19
Ohms Law calculation for current flowing in the circuit of Fig. 2-16 and the total resistance
calculated for that circuit in Fig. 2-18.

Total current flow in the circuit of Fig. 2-16 is 4 amps.

Using the product over sum method, determine total circuit resistance and current for the
circuits shown on the following page. Answers appear on the page after that.
Exercise 5

10

15

40

10

30
Volts

Exercise 6

24
Volts

Exercise 7

48
Volts

60

15

90

10

Exercise 8

72
Volts

EXERCISE 5

RT = 6 Ohms
IT = 5 Amps

EXERCISE 6

RT = 8 Ohms
IT = 3 Amps

EXERCISE 7

RT = 12 Ohms
IT = 4 Amps

EXERCISE 8

RT = 9 Ohms
IT = 8 Amps

When a parallel circuit contains 3 or more paths, there are different math options. More
involved than product over sum but still simple.

Fig. 2-20
One math option for calculating total circuit resistance where there are 3 or more paths in
parallel. There is no maximum limit to the number of paths upon which this method may be used.

Fig. 2-21 depicts a parallel circuit with 3 paths. Well determine total resistance using the
formula above.

Fig. 2-21

Three legs in parallel.

Fig. 2-22

Resistance calculation for the circuit of Fig. 2-21.

We wont go over the math here step by step, its not that complex. You can see that total
circuit resistance is less than the least resistance value of any individual component in the
circuit.
This method works for any number of resistances in parallel.
As youre probably expecting, the following page contains some practice problems
(followed by the answers) for you to calculate total resistance and total current. When
doing the math and where applicable, carry the numbers out to the 3 rd decimal place.

EXERCISE 9

72
Volts

40

10

20

25

40

50

100

EXERCISE 10

48
Volts

EXERCISE 11

76
Volts

EXERCISE 12

44
Volts

EXERCISE 9

RT = 2.105 Ohms
IT = 34.204 Amps

EXERCISE 10

RT = 2.857 Ohms
IT = 16.801 Amps

EXERCISE 11

RT = 4.651 Ohms
IT = 16.341 Amps

EXERCISE 12

RT = 18.182 Ohms
IT = 2.420 Amps

Another way for calculating resistance in parallel is through reciprocal fractions. This is
often the easiest and fastest math provided that the resistance values of the individual
components are numbers where a common denominator can be easily determined. The
following circuit is from Exercise 9 that youve already worked.

72
Volts

Fig. 2-23

40

The circuit from Exercise 9 that youve already worked.

What youre going to do is to turn the individual resistance values into fractions.

Fig. 2-24
Reciprocals can be a fast and easy way of calculating resistance when a common
denominator can be easily found.

Find a common denominator and add all the fractions up. Turn the entire equation over
and divide (in this case, 40 divided by 19) to get the answer. Compare this answer with
that you calculated previously for Exercise 9.
This method works for any number of resistances in parallel.
Lastly, if you know the voltage (voltage drop) being applied to any number of components
connected in parallel, you can use Ohms Law to find the current flowing through each
circuit leg. Add the currents together and use Ohms Law once again to find circuit
resistance. Be cautioned, however, as you must know the voltage drop across the parallel
circuit to use this method. Therefore, this method cannot be used on a series-parallel
circuit, which weve not yet explored. Again, using the circuit from Exercise 9

4
18
Amps

72
Volts

Fig. 2-25

5
14.4
Amps

40
1.8
Amps

Once again, the circuit from Exercise 9 that youve already worked.

Remember, the total current in a parallel circuit is the sum of the currents flowing in each
individual leg. Using Ohms Law on this circuit, 72 volts divided by 34.2 amps equals 2.105
ohms. Do the 2.105 ohms sound familiar?

CATCHING UP
Remember, there are 4 laws that you must remember regarding parallel circuits.
There are 4 laws that you must keep in mind regarding parallel circuits.
1. Parallel circuits contain 2 or more paths through which current can flow.
2. Total circuit resistance is always less than the value of the smallest resistor in the
circuit. This is due to the presence of multiple paths (or circuit legs). Each time you
add a resistance (or load) in parallel, overall circuit resistance decreases and current
increases.
3. Voltage drop is identical across each path (leg) in the circuit.
4. Total circuit current is equal to the sum of the currents flowing through each
individual path (leg).

The major differences between series and parallel circuits are:

In a series circuit, there is 1 path through which current may flow. In a parallel
circuit, there are multiple paths.
In a series circuit, the voltages add up. In a parallel circuit, the currents add up.
Adding resistance to a series circuit increases resistance and decreases current
flow. Adding resistance to a parallel circuit decreases resistance and increases
current flow.
A break in a series circuit interrupts the entire circuit. A break in a parallel circuit
interrupts only the leg in which the break occurs.

In the next chapter, well put them together in a discussion of series-parallel circuits.

CHAPTER 3
Series-Parallel
Circuits

At some point in your career in the energy delivery industry, youll be assigned duties as a
trouble-shooter. Some of the most difficult problems to find are at secondary voltages and
many of them are explained by too much resistance at a point where resistance was
intended to be held at a minimum. Ohms Law is easily used to illustrate the problem.
In a 3 or 4-wire service, too much resistance in, or the complete loss of, the secondary
neutral creates a series-parallel circuit. This is noticed by the customer when their lights go
abnormally bright and/or abnormally dim, and reverse those conditions as they turn things
on and off. Most customers are at a loss to explain this but we can easily do so through
Ohms Law.
As you know, a 3-wire service consists of 2 energized conductors and a neutral conductor.
The customer may have a few dozen circuits coming out of his switch gear but ultimately,
half his circuits will be fed from one hot service leg and the other half of his circuits will be
fed from the other hot service leg.