MODALS

Obligation, prohibition, necessity and lack of necessity

Must/mustnt is used when:
- We decide for ourselves that sth is necessary, obligatory or prohibited (I must answer my
emails; you mustnt interrupt me)
- We express strong opinions (we must meet more often)
- We give instructions, especially in writing (you musntt talk loudly in the library)
Have to/ need to is used to express an obligation imposed by someone else (you have to say where
you got the information from; you need to write a report)
Must/ have to/ need to to express general necessity (we must try to talk to each other more; we
have to reduce our dependence on technology; we need to take control of our lives)
Be required to + infinitive (youre required to say where you got the information from)
Be to + infinitive (the next task will be to find out how people use their phones)
Had better + infinitive (youd better finish your homework before you start playing computer games)
Feel/ be obliged + to infinitive (I am/feel obliged to attend all the lectures)
Its your duty/ responsibility + to infinitive
Ought to
The onus is on (you) to ()
Be up to (you) to ()
Not have to/ need not/ not need to when theres a lack of necessity.
Difference between didnt need to and neednt have:
The customers didnt need to have a bank account (we dont know whether they had bank account
or not).
He neednt have brought his laptop (he brought it but it wasnt necessary).
Be under no obligation to + infinitive
There is no need to + infinitive
Advice and criticism:
Must strong advice and recommendations (you must keep your PIN secret)
Should/ ought to less strong advice (avoid using ought to in questions and negative statements)
Could/ would/ might suggestions and recommendations
Might have/ would/ should(nt) have to criticize (you might have told me youd borrowed my phone;
I warned her to leave him but she would keep texting/ You shouldnt have read my email)
Special uses of should:
Should + subjunctive in that clauses requests and suggestions: Jemima asked/ recommended/
insisted that the family should spend the weekend offline.
Should in that clauses after adjectives expressing importance or reactions: its important that we
should relate to the people were with at the moment; Its worrying that Artley should feel obliged to
obey these machines.
In formal English we can omit should after that clauses: Powers recommends that families spend
time together.
Using should in clauses of purpose, to give a reason: the company has a response team in place so
that negative comments shouldnt go unanswered. People put photos on social networking sites in
order that their friends should see them.
Should + some verbs to express uncertainty: I should hope theres nothing embarrassing on your
website. I should imagine that an employer would use social networking sites to find out about
candidates.
Ability:
- Can/ cant for general ability in the present and future (you can charge up your mobile phone
when you get home)
- Could general ability in the past (people in rural areas could communicate with mobile
phones)
- Was able to ability in a specific situation in the past (I was able to enjoy the weekend )
- Wasnt/ werent able to / couldnt negative ability in the past (will couldnt resist checking
his emails and text messages)
- Be able to can also be used for ability in the present and future readers are able to post
comments immediately after an article. Everyone will be able to see your photos on the
website.
Possibility and probability
- Can/ could/ may things that are possible and sometimes happen (damaging comments can
destroy your companys reputation)

Could/ may/might possibility in the present or future (thousands of people could see an
embarrassing photo in the internet; people may post criticisms on a blog; you might find it
difficult to delete the comments)
Could sth that did happen from time to time (the comments on his blog could sometimes be
unpleasant)
Could + have theoretical possibility in the past (they could have found the information in
the internet = its possible but we dont know if they did or not)
Can/ could/ may/ might + have + past participle specific past possibilities (Shakespeare
could have used a writing table; we think Shakespeare might have used a writing table
because he shows Hamlet using one; desktop publishing may have led to a decline in quality)
Could/ might (+have+ past participle) criticism or annoyance you might have switched off
the computer when you had finished using it.
May/ might (well) indicating sth is true before introducing a contrast (it may well be in the
newspaper, but it isnt true)
Should/ shouldnt probability (we should be able to find the answer in the dictionary; it
shouldnt take long to work it out)
I could = Im considering it now. I should = slight obligation or recommendation. I might =
Ive been considering it for a while, Ill probably do it

Deduction:
Must to make deductions in the present (there must be sth wrong with my computer; it keeps
crushing)
Must + have + past participle deductions about the past (working together must have given them
an advantage)
Cant/ couldnt deduction in negative sentences (it cant be true; it couldnt have been an
interesting article, there were no comments)
Multi- tasking
Visual stimuli
Chat rooms
Social networking
Escapism
Crouch
Blessed
Obsession
Permeate
Impulse
Reinforcement
Erode
Fallible
Mundane
Take precedence (over sth)
Eye- opener
Backlit
Barn owl
Ordinarily
Thoughtful
Imaginative
To be drawn to sth
Vice
Swiftly
early adopters
To throw oneself at sth
To be drawn into addiction
Faraway
Self- affirmation
Embodied
To assert that
To dissolve
Wake-up call
Acute
Lapse
Hand-held devices
To commit to sth

wielozadaniowo
bodce wizualne
czat, pokj rozmw
serwisy spoecznociowe
eskapizm, ucieczka do krainy marze
przykucn, kuca
obsesja
przenika,/ rozprzestrzenia si
impuls, naga ch, odruch
wzmocnienie/ motywowanie
niszczy, ogranicza, le wpywa
omylny, zawodny
nieciekawy, przyziemny, prozaiczny
mie pierwsestwo
szok, zaskoczenie
podwietlony
sowa pomykwka
zazwyczaj
przemylany
pomysowy, o bujnej wyobrani
czu do czego pocig
zy nawyk, wada
prdko, szybko, natychmiastowo
rzuci si na co
by wcignitym w nag
daleki, odlegy
ucieleniony, urzeczywistiony
zapewnia, utrzymywa (e)
rozpuszcza, rozwizywa
pobudka (konieczno dziaania)
o ostrym przebiegu / dotkliwy
bad/ odstpstwo / chwila saboci / okres
podrczne urzdzenia
zobowiza si do czego, powici si czemu

Compelled
Outward
Bustling otherworld
To grasp sth
Utility
Restless
Dutifully
Habitually
Incessant
Seemingly
Nagging
Hustle
Fold the washing
Brush through sth
To seep into sth
Search engine
Shopping cart/ basket
Inbox
Outbox
Recycle bin
restrict
Desktop publishing
Compel
Compelling
representational
Dependent
Dependable
Informative
Informant
To be at fault
To stay in touch
Thanks to sth
Access to sth
With regard to sth
Without delay
To be on the line
In the process
Back up
Back down
Set up
Set sth down
Set sb down
Break up
Break down
Make up
Make sth up
Make sth up to sb
Let up ????
Let down
Play up to sb
Play sth up
Play sb up
Play sth down
Follow up
Catch up
put up with sth
Put sth up
wiesza
Put sb up
Put sb down
Put sth sown
COMPOUNDS?!?
Backup

zewntrzny
ttnicy yciem inny wiat
zrozumie co
uyteczno
niespokojny, nerwowy
posusznie, sumiennie, obowizkowo
notorycznie, naogowo
bezustanny
pozornie, na pierwszy rzut oka
dokuczliwy
bieganina / tok
skada pranie
wyszukiwarka
wzek na zakupy
skrzynka odbiorcza
skrzynka nadawcza
kosz
publikowanie zza biurka
zmusza
przekonujcy, fascynujcy, interesujcy
zaleny
godny zaufania, niezawodny
bogaty w informacje, poucxzajcy
informator
by w bdzie (???)
pozostawa w kontakcie
dziki czemu
dostp do czego
w zwizku z czym
bez opnie
by zagroonym
przy okazji
cofa/ zrobi kopi zapasow/ poprze co lub kogo
wycofa si
zaoy
zapisa co/ ustali co
wysadzi (pasaera)
rozbi si, rozpa, rozsta si
popsu si
pogodzi si
zmyli co / nadrobi co
wynagrodzi co komu
ucichn, osabn, ustpi (o zjawiskach atmosferycznych)
rozczarowa
podlizywa si komu
przecenia, wyolbrzymia co
dokucza komu
umniejsza, bagatelizowa
sprawdza, kontrolowa
nadrobi zalegosci, dogoni, porwa co
znosi co
wystawi co na sprzeda / wznosi co, podwyszy, podnosi,
wysun czyj kandydatur
wysadzi (pasaerw), wymiewa kogo
pooy, zapisa, wpaci zaliczk, umierci
kopia zapasowa / wsparcie / akompaniament / zapasowy

Set-up
Breakup
Breakdown
Letup
przerwa
Let-up
Letdown
Downplay
Follow-up

konfiguracja, rozplanowanie, ukad, monta/ puapka

rozstanie, rozpad, demonta
rozpad, zaamanie, awaria, analiza
zmniejszenie, obnienie (tepa, popytu), osabnicie, chwilowa

Land line
Astounding
Of great significance
Golden opportunity

linia naziemna
zdumiewajcy
bardzo wany
zota okazja, szansa

przerwa, odpoczynek, poluzowanie

rozczarowanie, zawd, schodzenie (wytracanie wysokoci)
bagatelizowa
kontrola, dalsza cz, kontynuacja / dalszy

(listening page 60)

(listening page 63)
Initiative
Be up to speed with sth
Collaboration
Think outside the box
Constraints
Tinkerer
Stifle
Diehard
Barrier

inicjatywa
na bieco
sppraca
myle twrczo, kreatywnie
ograniczenia
majsterkowicz
dawi, gasi, udaremnia, tumi
zatwardziay, uparty, twardogowy
przeszkoda

Censorship
Bias
Illicit
To be subject to sth
Validity
Open to question
Tabloids
Broadsheet newspapers
Restricted by time
Run the risk of
To leave oneself exposed to sth
Effectively

cenzura
tendencyjno, stronniczo
zabroniony, niedozwolony / potajemny
by podatnym/ naraonym na co/ podlega czemu
wano, prawomocno
brukowiec
gazeta duego formatu
ograniczony czasowo
skutecznie / w rzeczywistoci, faktycznie

(str 67 I dalej do uzupenienia)

Lay sth to rest
Socially inept
Well- adjusted
To fuel sth
Editorial
Mindset
Objectivity
Scrutinize
Sensationalise
Whats your position on
To hold the view that
To be divided on sth
To crack down on sth
To keep sth in perspective
Like- minded
Quack
Quackery
Holistic
A lost cause
To harness

nieporadny towarzysko?
zrwnowaony, przystosowany
napdza
artyku wstny
nastawienie, sposb mylenia
obiektywizm
szczegowo bada, analizowa, obserwowa
zrobi sensacj
jakie jest twoje stanowisko na temat
uwaa, by zdania, e
nie zgadza si w kwestii czego
ograniczy, hamowa, powstrzymywa
podobnie mylcy
znachor, szarlatan, konowa
szarlatastwo
caociowy, holistyczny
przegrana sprawa
okiezna, ujarzmi

By the dozen
Mainstream
Cut-and-thrust
Guerrilla
Embedded
Reassert
Factual
Incongruent
To dig ones heels in
To reinforce
Exacerbate
Exhaustive
Insular
Permeable
Imprimatur
Peer-reviewed
Fixed in stone
Sequestrate
To align
Ridicule
Banter
Laypeople
To be dubbed
On the fringes of sth
Seminal
Cocoon
Viable solutions
Slick marketing
Keep abreast of sth
Slander
Slanderous threats
Derogatory
Prospective employers
Screen people out
In compromising situations
Unfounded
To prove effective
Business conduct
To exercise caution
Indiscretion
Current affair programs
24-hour rolling news
Glossy magazine
Periodicals
Scientific journals
To have a slant
To have an axe to grind
To predate sth
Inconclusive
Feasible
To lend weight to sth
On the grounds that

powszechnie akceptowany, zgodny z dominujcym nurtem

zacita (o rywalizacji)
partyzantka/ partyzancki
osadzony (w czym)
wzmacnia, umacnia
faktyczny, rzeczowy, oparty na faktach
niezgodny, nieodpowiedni
uprze si, zaprze si
popiera, wspiera, wzmacnia, umacnia
pogarsza, zaostrza, nasila
gruntowny, wyczerpujcy, kompletny
zaciankowy (sposb mylenia) / wyspowy (klimat)
przepuszczalny, przenikalny
zgoda, przyzwolenie
recenzowany
konfiskowa, zajmowa
wyrwnywa
omiesza, wykpi / mieszno, pomiewisko, kpiny
droczy si / przemiechy, arty
laicy / osoby wieckie
na marginesie czego
owocny, brzemienny w skutki / nasienny, spermowy
kokon
realne rozwizanie
skuteczny marketing (taki smart)
by z czym na bieco
obmowa, oszczerstwo, zniesawienie
oszczercze groby
negatywny
potencjalni pracownicy
sprawdza czyje backgrounds
w kompromitujcych sytuacjach
nieuzasadniony, bezpodstawny
okaza si skuteczny
zachowanie (?!?!?!!?)
zachowa ostrono
niedyskrecja, nieostrono
aktualnoci, aktualne wydarzenia
wiadomoci 24h na dob
magazyn ilustrowany
czasopismo, periodyk
czasopismo naukowe
mie osobisty interes w czym
poprzedza (w czasie, w historii)
nierozstrzygajcy, nieprzekonujcy
wykonalny, moliwy, prawdopodobny
z przyczyn, e