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The relationship between

emotional intelligence and
work attitudes, behavior and
outcomes
An examination among senior managers
Abraham Carmeli
Graduate School of Business Administration, Department of Political
Science, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
Keywords Job commitment, Job satisfaction, Altruism, Family friendly organizations
Abstract The literature suggests that managerial skills in general, and emotional intelligence in
particular, play a signicant role in the success of senior managers in the workplace. This argument,
despite its popularity, remains elusive. This can be attributed to the fact that although a few studies
have provided evidence to support this argument, it has not received an appropriate empirical
investigation. This study attempts to narrow this gap by empirically examining the extent to which
senior managers with a high emotional intelligence employed in public sector organizations develop
positive work attitudes, behavior and outcomes. The results indicate that emotional intelligence
augments positive work attitudes, altruistic behavior and work outcomes, and moderates the effect of
work-family conict on career commitment but not the effect on job satisfaction.

Introduction
What makes a senior manager successful has been a central research question
of organizational scientists for decades. Underlying this interest is the
assumption or observation regarding the impact of upper-echelon managers on
important issues of strategic vision, strategic positioning, strategic and tactical
moves, among others aimed at improving overall organizational performance
(Finkelstein and Hambrick, 1996; Hambrick and Mason, 1984). Although over
the years we have been exposed to various approaches (e.g. management style)
for studying this elusive question, it still remains unanswered.
Studying managerial skills, however, seems to be one promising stream of
research that has potential for providing answers or at least shedding some
light on this enigma. As Whetten and Cameron (2001, p. 6) noted management
skills form the vehicle by which management strategy, management practice,
tools and techniques, personality attributes and style work to produce effective
outcomes in organizations.
Journal of Managerial Psychology
Vol. 18 No. 8, 2003
pp. 788-813
q MCB UP Limited
0268-3946
DOI 10.1108/02683940310511881

The author wishes to thank Sidika Nihal Colakoglu for her assistance, the editor and two
anonymous reviewers of this journal for their valuable comments and suggestions, and the
participants who made this study a reality. The study was supported, in part, by a grant from
Schnitzer Foundation of the Faculty of Social Science at Bar-Ilan University.

In the last decade or so, we have been witness to a particular growing body
of research regarding the importance of emotional intelligence for successful
leadership. Underlying this research interest is the view that people with high
emotional intelligence competencies are more likely than less emotionally
intelligent people to gain success in the workplace. Particularly, scholars have
noted that social skills are essential for executive level leaders; as individuals
ascend the organizational hierarchy, social intelligence becomes an
increasingly relevant determinant of who will and will not be successful
(Hooijberg et al., 1997; Zaccaro, 2001). Though growing evidence indicates that
emotional intelligence competency has the potential to improve performance on
both personal and organizational levels, we are still only in the initial phase of
understanding the extent to which members with high emotional intelligence
would be more valued assets than less emotionally intelligent members of their
organization. As Cherniss (2000) pointed out it is more useful and interesting
to consider how important it is for effective performance at work.
Furthermore, one of the criticisms of the inuential work of Goleman (1995,
1998) is that the main argument stating that managers with high emotional
intelligence competencies are likely to provide their organizations with a
unique contribution has not yet received much empirical attention and support,
particularly with regard to various important work-related attitudes, behavior
and outcomes that may serve as good indexes for such investigation. As
Dulewicz and Higgs (2000, p. 341 and p. 351) indicate little research has been
conducted in an organizational context and there is a need for rigorous
research to underpin the assertion in an organizational setting.
This study attempts to narrow this gap by empirically testing the degree to
which emotionally intelligent senior managers, employed in public sector
organizations, develop high job satisfaction, career commitment, job
involvement and effective commitment, diminish continuance commitment
and work-family conict, display altruistic behavior, withdrawal intentions
and better job performance. In addition, this study examines the moderating
role of emotional intelligence for the relationship between work-family conict
and job satisfaction and career commitment.
This article is organized as follows: the next section presents the importance
of managerial skills and stresses the concept of emotional intelligence and its
key components followed by the development of the research hypotheses. The
research method is presented in the following section and the results of this
study follow. Finally, the studys results and limitations are summarized.
Theory and hypotheses
Emotional intelligence
Scholars tend to view emotional intelligence as a factor which has a potential to
contribute to more positive attitudes, behaviors and outcomes. At the same
time, as Schutte et al. (2002) note, evidence exists that emotional intelligence

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can be conceptualized as either ability (Ciarrochi et al., 2000; Mayer et al., 1999)
or a personality trait (Schutte and Malouff, 1999; Schutte et al., 1998). The most
comprehensive discussion about this issue is provided by a recent study of
Mayer et al. (2000). As indicated, however, this issue has not yet resolved. In
this study, I rather view emotional intelligence as a competency that is
expected to augment positive attitudes toward work, and drive positive
behaviors and better outcomes.
The concept of emotional Intelligence goes back to early studies in the 1920s
(for a review, see Bar-On and Parker, 2000). In the early 1980s, scholars began
to systematically conceptualize the idea of emotional intelligence. Notably,
Gardners (1983) conceptualization of intrapersonal intelligence and
interpersonal intelligence and Steiner (1984) work on emotional literacy were
the building blocks of what Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) rst termed as
emotional intelligence. Based on Bar-Ons previous work, Bar-On et al. (2000,
p. 1108) view emotional intelligence as a noncognitive intelligence which is
dened as an array of emotional, personal, and social abilities and skills that
inuence an individuals ability to cope effectively with environmental
demands and pressures. This study focuses on the conceptualization
suggested by Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) and formulated in 1997 (Mayer
and Salovey, 1997).
Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990, p. 189) dened emotional intelligence as the
subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor ones own and
others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this
information to guide ones thinking and actions. Later on, they rened and
dened emotional intelligence as the ability to perceive emotions, to access
and generate emotions so as to assist thoughts, to understand emotions and
emotional knowledge, and to reectively regulate emotions so as to promote
emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer and Salovey, 1997, p. 5). A key
construct in their denition that we need to explain is emotions. According to
Van Maanen and Kunda (1989, p. 53), emotions are ineffable feelings of the
self-referential sort, and are comprehensively dened as self-referential
feelings an actor (employee) experiences or, at least, claims to experience in
regard to the performances he or she brings off in the social world. States of
feeling refer to basic emotions (e.g. joy, love, anger) and social emotions (e.g.
shame, guilt, jealousy, envy), as well as to related constructs as affect,
sentiments and moods (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995).
Salovey and Mayer (1989-1990) argued that there is a set of three
conceptually related mental processes - appraising and expressing emotions
in the self and others, regulating emotion in the self and others, and using
emotions in adaptive ways - involving emotional information. The followings
are brief descriptions of the content and importance of these mental processes:
(1) Appraising and expressing emotions in the self and others. Individuals
differ in the degree to which they are aware of their emotions (appraisal)
and the degree to which the latter are verbally and non-verbally being

expressed (George, 2000). Individuals who accurately appraise and

express (perceive and respond to) their emotions are likely to be better
understood by the people they work with, and they also have the
potential to better lead and manage people when they are able to
perceive the emotions of the people around them and to develop
empathy - the ability to comprehend anothers feelings and to
re-experience them oneself (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990).
(2) Regulating emotion in the self and others. People differ in their ability to
manage (monitor, evaluate, and adjust to changing moods) their
emotions as well as in their ability to regulate and alter the affective
reactions of others (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990). Regulation of ones
own emotions and moods results in positive and negative affective
states. Emotionally, intelligent individuals are adept at placing
themselves in positive affective states, and are able to experience
negative affective states that have insignicant destructive
consequences. Emotionally astute people can induce a positive affect
in others that results in a powerful social inuence (charisma), an
important component of leadership (Wasielewski, 1985).
(3) Using emotions in adaptive ways. Individuals also differ in the ways
(functional vs. dysfunctional) in which they utilize their emotions.
Emotions can:
.
help in generating multiple future plans (exible planning);
.
improve the decision-making process due to a better understanding of
ones emotional reaction (creative thinking);
.
facilitate cognitive processes such as creativity on the one hand and
punctuality on the other hand (mood redirected attention); and
.
enhance persistence regarding challenging tasks (motivating
emotions) (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990).
Emotionally astute managers
Until the early 1990s, the concept of emotional intelligence received very little
research attention. The major focus of researchers at that time was on the
importance of cognitive intelligence (e.g. problem solving capabilities).
Nowadays, researchers and practitioners recognize the importance of both
cognitive and emotional intelligences for gaining success. It seems that
researchers, however, attribute to emotional intelligence a signicant power of
explanation of variance in performance. As Cary Cherniss puts it: If youre a
scientist, you probably needed an IQ of 120 or so simply to get a doctorate and a
job. But then it is more important to be able to persist in the face of difculty
and to get along well with colleagues and subordinates than it is to have an
extra 10 or 15 points of IQ. The same is true in many other occupations.
(Emphases are not in the original text).

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Scholars have also focused on relating emotional intelligence to leadership

(George, 2000) or showing how components of emotional intelligence such as
empathy are important traits that contribute to leadership (Kellett et al., 2002;
Wolff et al., 2002). In addition, a growing body of research has been concerned
with the degree to which emotional intelligence can make the difference
between good and poor leaders. This stream of research is also of great interest
to many organizations that seek to better understand the variance in
employees performance. Inspired by Daniel Golemans article What Makes a
Leader? published in The Harvard Business Review in 1998, the top
management team of Johnson and Johnson decided to fund a study that would
assess the importance of Emotional Intelligence in leadership success across
the JandJ Consumer Companies. The study, which was conducted by Kathleen
Cavallo and Dottie Brienza on a randomly selected 358 managers, found a
strong relationship between superior performing leaders and emotional
competence. . . Leaders who received performance ratings of 4.1 or greater on a
5-point scale were rated signicantly higher than other participants in all four
of the emotional intelligence dimensions of self-awareness, self-management,
social awareness, and social skills by supervisors and subordinates.
The growing body of empirical work in the leadership domain has been
mainly devoted to examining the effects of emotional intelligence on the
performance of senior executives. The problem with this work is that it hardly
examines important behavioral attitudes, behavior and outcomes that are
essential for evaluating whether one can be viewed as an effective manager and
leader. In this study, emotional intelligence was examined with respect to a set
of work attitudes, work behavior and work outcomes.
Emotional intelligence and work attitudes
Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. Locke (1969, p. 314) dened job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction as complex emotional reactions to the job.
Conceptualizing job satisfaction as feeling or affective responses to facets of
the situation (Smith et al., 1969, p. 6), suggests that job satisfaction is
positively associated with the construct of emotional intelligence. In addition,
job satisfaction is often considered as a proxy for an employees well being at
work (Grandey, 2000). Intelligent individuals with high emotional intelligence,
through the above described set of three conceptually related mental processes,
experience continuous positive moods and feelings that generate higher levels
of satisfaction and well-being compared to individuals who experience such
feelings and moods as disappointment, depression and anger, because they can
reach a higher level of general satisfaction and fulllment. We suggest the
following hypothesis:
H1. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and job
satisfaction of senior managers.

Emotional intelligence and work commitment. Work commitment is a

multidimensional construct that comprises various forms. The
multidimensionality of work commitment has been established by
researchers who argued that employees develop more than one type of work
commitment (Becker, 1960), and that types are in accordance with the
employees own benets (Ritzer and Trice, 1969). This approach has been
signicantly advanced by Morrow (1983, 1993), who was the rst to attempt
mapping theoretically universal forms of work commitment that are relevant to
as many employees as possible (Morrow, 1993, p. 160). Morrow advocated
concentrating a research effort on ve universal forms of work commitment as
follows: work ethic endorsement, career commitment, affective organizational
commitment, continuance organizational commitment and job involvement. In
a series of studies, it has been shown that in addition to most common
components of organizational commitment - affective and continuance - a
third component, normative commitment, should be investigated as well
(Meyer and Allen, 1997).
This study investigates all of these forms, except for work ethic
endorsement. Work ethic endorsement is the extent to which one believes
that hard work is important and that leisure and excess money are detrimental
(Blood, 1969; Furnham, 1990; Mirels and Garrett, 1971; Morrow, 1993). It is a
relatively xed attribute over the life course (Morrow, 1983, p. 495).
The research on emotional intelligence and work commitment has
concentrated thus far on organizational commitment. The latter was
investigated (Abraham, 1999) in the context with which it has traditionally
been dened as the relative strength of an individuals identication and
involvement in a particular organization (Mowday et al., 1982, p. 27). However,
this is still a somewhat narrow approach that limits our understanding not only
of the relationship between emotional intelligence and organizational
commitment (a concept that comprises three distinct constructs), but also
regarding how the former is related to work commitment forms such as career
commitment and job involvement.
Emotional intelligence and organizational commitment. The concept of
organizational commitment incorporates three distinct constructs: affective,
continuance, and normative commitment. Continuance commitment is dened
as the extent to which employees feel committed to their organizations by
virtue of the costs that they feel are associated with leaving (Meyer and Allen,
1984, p. 375). Affective commitment is positive feelings of identication with,
attachment to, and involvement in the work organization (Meyer and Allen,
1984, p. 375). Normative commitment refers to commitment based on a sense
of obligation to the organization (Allen and Meyer, 1996, p. 253). Employees
with strong affective commitment remain because they want to; employees
with strong continuance commitment remain because they need to; employees
with strong normative commitment remain because they feel ought to do so

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(Allen and Meyer, 1990). In this study, we examined the relationship between
emotional intelligence and two forms of organizational commitment - affective
and continuance.
Emotionally intelligent individuals are optimistic, a trait that enables them
to focus on the resolution, rather than the reasoning (who is at fault). The work
in any given organization imposes difculties that may result in feelings of
frustration. Emotionally intelligent individuals would know not to hold the
organization responsible for every feeling of frustration (Abraham, 1999), as
they are adept at placing themselves in positive affective states, and able to
experience negative affective states that have insignicant destructive
consequences (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990). This is especially true for
senior managers who have to reconcile the feelings of frustration of conicting
interest groups within and outside the organization. This can be done
effectively only when they are able to place themselves in a positive state of
mind. In addition, emotionally intelligent individuals would know how to avoid
dysfunctional emotions and use them in adaptive ways to alleviate feelings of
frustration. Furthermore, on the fundamental level, people are motivated not
only by the rational exchange approach (Vroom, 1964), but also by the extent to
which they are connected emotionally to their work and by the extent to which
its contents provide them with such experiences as joy, excitement, surprise
and frustration (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995). Thus, emotional intelligence is
expected to augment a higher level of affective commitment to the organization,
and diminish the level of continuance commitment. The following hypotheses
are suggested:
H2a. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
affective organizational commitment of senior managers.
H2b. There is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence and
continuance organizational commitment of senior managers.
Emotional intelligence and career commitment. Career commitment is dened
as ones attitude toward ones profession or vocation (Blau, 1985, p. 20).
Employees may encounter difculties of many kinds in pursuing a career that
may result in dysfunctional emotions. Emotionally intelligent individuals are
expected to recognize, manage and use their emotions to eliminate these
obstacles and advance their career horizon better than people with low
emotional intelligence. This is especially true when the profession incorporates
high levels of complexity. Highly complex managerial work can be very
demanding and lead to high levels of stress. Emotional intelligence enables
people to control this stress effectively and prevent its negative effects on ones
attitude towards her profession. The following hypothesis is suggested:
H3. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
career commitment of senior managers.

Emotional intelligence and job involvement. Job involvement is a belief

descriptive of the present job and tends to be a function of how much the job
can satisfy ones present needs (Kanungo, 1982, p. 342). As indicated above,
employees do not get involved in the job only for self-rational interest
fulllment; they also get involved in the job because they let their emotions
play a role. Becoming highly involved in the job is oftentimes a response to
emotional rather than rational needs. Ashforth and Humphrey (1995) cited in
Fines (1998) work the quotes of a cook discussing the centrality of being
emotionally involved in the job: I just love the activity . . .I concentrate totally,
so I dont know how I feel . . . its like another sense takes over. People are
social creatures who, through job involvement, ll the need for emotional
experience. Managerial work is often complex and challenging and senior
managers with a high emotional intelligence often get extremely involved in
challenging experiences and complex situations that may not occur elsewhere.
Senior managers, for example, often remain beyond the required working
hours. They do this not for economic reward; but because it allows them to cope
with those complexities that yield an intense emotional experience. The
following hypothesis is suggested:
H4. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and job
involvement of senior managers.
Emotional intelligence and work-family conict. Work-family conict is dened
as a form of inter-role conict in which the role pressures from work and
family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect. That is,
participation in the work (family) role is made more difcult by virtue of
participation in the family (work) role (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985, p. 77).
Because this study attempted to explore the role of emotional intelligence in the
workplace, we concentrated on family interference with work exploring a
combination of three forms of work-family conict (time, strain, and behavior)
suggested by Carlson et al. (2000). The form of time-based family interference
may occur when time devoted to one role makes it difcult to get involved in
another role. The form of strain-based family interference proposes that strain
in one role intrudes into and interferes with participation in another role.
Behavior family interference with work occurs when specic behaviors
required in one role are incompatible with behavioral expectations in another
role (Carlson et al., 2000).
Eliminating work-family conict is the responsibility of both the
organization and its employees. Keith H. Hammonds (1996) quoted Ellen
Galinsky saying that Companies are seeing they have all these programs (i.e.
work-family policies), but people are still really stressed out. . .Certainly,
employees bear some responsibility for determining their own family balance.
But they need help. Companies that recognize the need and adapt work to
peoples lives will win workers loyalty - and, with that, a competitive edge.

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With respect to the role of the individuals, one may expect that a high
emotional intelligence would help them balance family interference with work.
In fact, they may be more capable of preventing work-family conict from the
beginning due to their emotional astuteness incorporates the recognition of the
degree to which the family plays an emotional role for them and those
connected to them, the insight as to how these emotions should be managed,
and the ability to improve the decision-making process. The following
hypothesis is suggested:
H5. There is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence and
work-family conict (family interference with work) of senior
managers.
Emotional intelligence and organizational citizenship behavior. Organizational
citizenship behavior (OCB) is an extra-role behavior that goes beyond formal
role requirements (Smith et al., 1983). Emotional intelligence may enhance
altruistic behavior as it enables employees to comprehend their co-workers
feelings and to respond better than employees with low emotional intelligence
because of their ability to easily shift from negative to positive moods
(Abraham, 1999). Staw et al. (1994) suggested three explanations for the
engagement of an emotionally intelligent individual in altruistic behavior.
First, being in a good mood is reinforcing, and displaying altruism is rewarding
in the sense that it enables employees to also maintain this state of mind.
Second, people in good moods may be more socially interactive. Third, when
employees are more satised (having positive emotional reactions to the job)
they are more likely to be engaged in helpful behavior. The following
hypothesis is suggested:
H6. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and
organizational citizenship behavior - altruism of senior managers.
Emotional intelligence and work outcomes
Emotional intelligence and withdrawal intentions from the organization.
Withdrawal of employees is a process (Mobley, 1977; 1982a, b; Mobley et al.,
1978) which comprises constructs of withdrawal intentions (thinking of
quitting, intention to search and intention to quit) as well as constructs of
withdrawal behaviors (actually quitting, absence) (Miller et al., 1979; Mobley
et al., 1978). A recent meta-analysis used the constructs of intention to quit,
thinking of quitting, withdrawal cognitions and expected utility of withdrawal
as the components of withdrawal intentions (Griffeth et al., 2000). In this study,
we assess the withdrawal intentions process of senior managers.
Emotional intelligence may signicantly diminish employees withdrawal
intentions because of the ability to better regulate emotions. Emotionally
intelligent individuals are adept at putting themselves in positive affective

states, and although they may experience negative affective states at times,
these do not have signicant destructive consequences. Being in positive
affective states is of importance in the sense of not becoming despondent in the
face of daily and even more profound obstacles occurring in organizational life.
Rather, the individuals are likely to see the positive side of things and use their
emotions, for example, to enhance persistence at challenging times and
facilitate creativity for resolving difculties. To a certain degree, emotionally
intelligent individuals perceive themselves as part of the solution. As such,
they feel a high level of identication and are less likely to develop withdrawal
intentions. This is especially true for senior managers who must deal with their
own difculties as well as those of others. Those with high emotional
intelligence will be inclined to stay and deal with difculties in adaptive ways.
This, however, is not to say that emotionally intelligent individuals do not face
difculties when encountering job stress and changes in their job and career;
rather they have more and better capabilities than low emotionally individuals
to cope with it, and thus are likely develop lower withdrawal intentions. The
following hypothesis is suggested:
H7. There is a negative relationship between emotional intelligence and
withdrawal intentions of senior managers from the organization.
Emotional intelligence and job performance. Evidence supports a positive effect
of emotional intelligence on the success of the individual at work (for a review,
see Goleman, 2001). This is of particularly importance if we believe that
management skills lie at the heart of leadership (Whetten and Cameron, 2001,
p. 15), and specically recognize the need to develop and acquire skills for
managing people and that emotional intelligence may have a critical role in the
creation of effective leadership. A notable study conducted by George (2000)
showed how the aspects of emotional intelligence - appraisal and expression
of emotions, use of emotion to enhance cognitive processing and decision
making, knowledge about emotions and management of emotions - contribute
to effective leadership. For the purpose of this study, it is important to note that
although it is theoretically signicant to show how each aspect affects
performance, it is more accurate to recognize that skills come in groups and
clusters, and that they support one another (Goleman, 2001). The concept of
emotional intelligence seems to encompass this critical mass of skills
(Boyatzis et al., 2000; Goleman, 2001). The following hypothesis is suggested:
H8. There is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and job
performance of senior managers.
The moderator role of emotional intelligence
The literature suggests that the negative effect of work-family conict on work
attitudes may be moderated by several variables (see, for example, Martins

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et al., 2002). In this study, emotional intelligence is expected to moderate the

relationship between work-family conict and job satisfaction, and the
relationship between work-family conict and career commitment.
Family interference with work may have some negative consequences on the
extent which an employee will be satised with her work and committed to her
career. However, emotionally intelligent individuals are likely to have the ability
to control for such interferences or at least moderate them to an acceptable level.
On the basis of this logic, the following hypotheses are suggested:
H9. Emotional intelligence will moderate the relationship between
work-family conict and job satisfaction of senior managers.
Specically, there will be more negative relationship between
work-family conict and job satisfaction for senior managers who
are low on emotional intelligence than for those who are high on
emotional intelligence.
H10. Emotional intelligence will moderate the relationship between
work-family conict and career commitment of senior managers.
Specically, for low emotionally intelligent senior managers there will
be a strong positive relationship between work-conict family and
career commitment, and for highly emotional intelligent senior
managers there will be a moderate negative relationship between
work-conict family and career commitment.
Methodology
Respondents and data collection
The population of this study was senior managers employed as chief nancial
ofcers in the local government authorities in Israel. A direct-mail
questionnaire was sent to 262 senior managers. The questionnaire was
mailed from and returned to a university address, using a self-addressed reply
envelope. Ninety-eight usable questionnaires were returned. The respondents
average age was 46.6 years (S.D. 9.24); 11 were women, and 79.4 percent held at
least bachelors degree. Their average tenure in their present organization was
11.47 (S.D. 9.13). The average income of the respondents was 2.56 (S.D. 0.54)
(1 = up to 10,000 New Israeli Shekel (NIS), 2 = 10,001 to 20,000, and 3 = 20,001
and above). Note that annual average value of US$ 1 and 1 Euro in 2001 was
4.205 NIS and 3.7644 NIS, respectively. The average size of the organizations
(measured by the number of permanent residents for which the organization is
responsible to provide services, see Carmeli, 2002) was 24,729 (S.D. 54,259.37).
Dependent variables
Work outcomes. Job performance and withdrawal intentions from the
organization were used to assess employees work outcomes:

(1) Job performance. This measure was evaluated by a scale developed by

Pearce and Porter (1986), and used by Black and Porter (1991), and
Hochwarter et al. (1999). This measure contains ve items (overall
performance, ability to get along with others, completing tasks on time,
quality of performance, and achievement of work goals) that were
assessed on a seven-point scale (ranging from 1 = strongly disagree, to
7 = strongly agree). Although such difculties as self-enhancement and
objectivity and reliability may be encountered, Mabe and West (1982)
showed that self-evaluation measures were more valid than pointed out
in prior research (Hochwarter et al. (1999). The Cronbachs alpha for this
scale was 0.87.
(2) Withdrawal intentions from the organization. This measure was drawn
from the measure examined by Mobley et al. (1978) and widely used in
the literature (Michaels and Spector, 1982; Miller et al., 1979). It assesses
withdrawal intentions of an employee from his/her organization and
consists of three items:
.
I think a lot about leaving the organization;
.
I am actively searching for an alternative to the organization; and
.
As soon as it is possible, I will leave the organization.
This measure was assessed on a 5-point scale from 1 = strongly disagree to
5 = strongly agree. The Cronbachs alpha for this scale was 0.90.
Work behavior:
(1) Altruistic behavior. This variable was drawn from the multi-dimensional
scale of organizational citizenship behavior developed by Podsakoff and
MacKenzie (1989) and modied and validated by Podsakoff et al. (1990).
Altruistic behavior was measured using three items that were assessed
on a ve-point scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly
agree. Sample items are I help others who have heavy workloads I
help others who have been absent. The Cronbachs alpha for this scale
was 0.82.
Work attitudes. Four work commitment forms (career commitment, job
involvement, affective commitment and continuance commitment) and job
satisfaction were used to assess employees work attitudes. In addition,
work-family conict was examined, as follows:
(1) Career commitment. This measure was assessed by a scale developed by
Blau (1985). Sample items are: I like this profession too much to give it
up, and I am disappointed with being a CEO (reverse scored). The
measure was assessed on a ve-point scale (ranging from 1 = strongly
disagree, to 5 = strongly agree). The Cronbachs alpha for this scale
was 0.74.

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(2) Job involvement. This measure is based on a 10-item scale developed by

Kanungo (1982). Sample items are: The most important things that
happen to me involve my present job, and Most of my personal life
goals are job-oriented. The measure was assessed on a seven-point
scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. The
Cronbachs alpha for this scale was 0.82.
(3) Affective organizational commitment.This measure is based on the scale
developed and validated by Allen and Meyer (1990). Sample items are: I
really feel as if this organizations problems are my own, and I do not feel
like part of the family at my organization (reversed item). The measure
was assessed on a seven-point scale (ranging from 1 = strongly disagree,
to 7 = strongly agree). The Cronbachs alpha for this scale was 0.73.
(4) Continuance organizational commitment.This measure is based on the
scale developed and validated by Allen and Meyer (1990). Sample items
are: Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as
much as desire, and Too much in my life would be disrupted if I
decided I wanted to leave my organization now. The measure was
assessed on a seven-point scale (ranging from 1 = strongly disagree, to
7 = strongly agree). The Cronbachs alpha for this scale was 0.82.
(5) Job satisfaction. This measure was estimated by a 6-items scale
employed by Tsui et al. (1992). Sample items are: How satised are you
with the nature of the work you perform? and Considering everything,
how satised are you with your current job situation? The measure was
assessed on a ve-point scale (ranging from 1 = very dissatised, to
5 = very satised). The Cronbachs alpha for this scale was 0.68.
(6) Work-family conict. This measure was based on a measure developed
and validated by Carlson et al., 2000). Since this study examines the role of
emotional intelligence in the workplace, we concentrated on family
interference with work exploring a combination of three forms of
work-family conict (time, strain, and behavior), which consisted of three
items each. Sample items are The time I spend on family responsibilities
often interferes with my work responsibilities (time-based family
interference); Due to stress at home, I am often preoccupied with family
matters at work (strain-based family interference); The behaviors that
work for me at home do not seem to be effective at work (behavior-based
family interference). All items were ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to
5 = strongly agree (5 = presents high conict). The nine items were
loaded onto a single factor. The Cronbachs alpha for this scale was 0.79.
Independent/moderator variable
Emotional intelligence. Over the years, considerable research effort resulted in
various instruments for measuring emotional intelligence (EQi of Bar-On, 1996;

Executive EQ of Cooper and Sawaf, 1997; EIQ Dulewicz and Higgs, 1999;
MSCEIT of Mayer et al., 2000; ECI of Boyatzis and Goleman, 1998).
In this study, emotional intelligence was measured with the self-report
measure of emotional intelligence developed by Schutte et al. (1998) for several
reasons: First, this measure is based on the framework of emotional intelligence
developed by Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990 and later formulated (Mayer and
Salovey, 1997)[1]. Second, previous study found some limitations in early
self-report measures of emotional intelligence such as insufcient reliability
and connections with personality factors (Davies et al., 1998). Third, studies
that evaluated the measure of Schutte and her colleagues (1998) in both adult
and adolescents population indicate that this measure seems to overcome the
observed difculties in other measures of emotional intelligence (Ciarrochi et al.,
2000; Ciarrochi et al., 2001). Finally, in macro level studies, self report measure
of emotional intelligence which is brief, validated and based on a cohesive and
comprehensive model of emotional intelligence (Salovey and Mayer, 1989-1990;
Mayer and Salovey, 1997) is very useful.
The measure used in this study consists of 33 items. Sample items are I
know when to speak about my personal problems to others, and I am aware
of my emotions as I experience them (appraisal and expression of emotion); I
present myself in a way that makes a good impression on others, and I have
control over my emotions (regulation of emotion); when I feel a change in
emotions, I tend to come up with new ideas, and I use good moods to help
myself keep trying in the face of obstacles (utilization). All items were ranged
from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The Cronbachs alpha for
this scale was 0.90.
Control variables
We control for:
(1) Organizational size. Measured by the number of permanent residents for
which the organization is responsible for provision of services (Carmeli,
2002);
(2) Tenure in the organization. Measured by the number of years the
respondent is employed in the current organization;
(3) Gross income. (1 = up to 10,000 NIS, New Israeli Shekel; 2 = 10,001 to
20,000 NIS; 3 = 20,001 to 30,000 NIS; 4 = 30,001 to 40,000 NIS; and
4 = above 40,000 NIS);
(4) Respondents age.
Because the vast majority of the respondents were male, differences between
male and female respondents could not be established.
Data analysis
To assess the relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes,
behavior, and outcomes, we performed a series of separate hierarchical

Emotional
intelligence

801

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802

regression analyses. Each model had two steps. The rst step involved
entering the control variables and the second step involved entering the
independent variable.
To examine the interaction hypotheses, the variables were entered into the
regression equations in three steps. The control variables were entered in the
rst step. In the second step, we entered the main effects (work-family
conict and emotional intelligence). Finally, the work-family conict X
emotional intelligence product term variable was entered in the third step. Both
variables were mean-centered as is suggested for variables that are to be
constituents of product terms (Aiken and West, 1991).
Results
Table I reports the means, standard deviations, and correlation coefcients of
variables used in the analysis. Though several variables are related, Table I
indicates no severe problems of multicolinearity as none of the related variables
exceeded the value of 0.60. Furthermore, we performed separate hierarchical
regressions for the effect of emotional intelligence on each one of the dependent
variables. Table I also provides a preliminary support for the signicant
relationships between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, work
behavior and work outcomes.
Table II presents the results of hierarchical regression. Emotional
intelligence was positively and signicantly related to job satisfaction
(b = 0.32, p , 0.01), supporting H1. This nding is consistent with the
argument according to which emotionally intelligent individuals are likely to
display higher overall satisfaction in the workplace.
Supporting H2a, we provide evidence that when senior managers have high
emotional intelligence they tend to develop high affective commitment
(emotional attachment) to the organization for which they work (b = 0.23,
p , 0.05). H2b, on the other hand, was not supported as the relationship
between emotional intelligence and continuance commitment was not
signicant (b = 2 0.12, p = ns). The beta coefcient, though not statistically
signicant, was in the expected direction.
We found support for H3. Emotionally intelligent senior managers develop
high commitment toward their career (b = 0.34, p , 0.001). However, contrary
to H4, emotional intelligence was statistically unrelated to job involvement. It
may be that the involvement of senior managers is more complex than we
assumed, and is affected by other important factors not examined here. Though
no prediction was made, we found that job involvement was signicantly
related to tenure in the organization (b = 0.20, p , 0.10) as well as to gross
income (b = 0.25, p , 0.05).
The results support H5, stating that senior managers who have high
emotional intelligence are more likely to effectively control work-family conict
(b = 2 0.31, p , 0.01). Compared to low and middle-level position employees,

0.49 2 0.19
0.37

2.12

3.71

9.13
0.02
9.24 2 0.01
0.54
0.14

11.47
46.63
2.56

0.05, ** p #

54,259 2 0.01

24,729

2 0.15

2 0.01

0.001

0.12
0.03
0.26**

2 0.01
0.21*
0.12
0.06

0.05
0.17
0.31**
0.31**

0.21*

0.38*** 0.38*** 0.14

2 0.15

0.01, *** p #

2 0.24*
2 0.19
2 0.02

2 0.01

0.32***2 0.20*

0.04

0.06
0.05
0.21*
0.15
0.17 2 0.10

0.05

0.24* 2 0.07
0.11

0.21*
0.04
0.10
0.17
0.15
0.22* 2 0.11

0.08

0.27** 2 0.27**

0.34*** 2 0.11

1.17 2 0.30** 2 0.05 2 0.28** 2 0.10

0.02 2 0.07
0.51
0.45***2 0.38*** 0.31** 0.39*** 0.27** 0.55***2 0.29**

3.87
3.74

0.42*** 0.48***

0.31** 2 0.39*** 0.16

2 0.19

0.88

0.24*

0.22* 2 0.47*** 0.07

0.03 2 0.13
0.16

0.32*** 0.11

4.73

0.60
0.89

3.59
4.40

0.63

3.78

0.94 2 0.18

2.18

1.00

0.78

s.d.

5.61

Notes: Two-tailed tests; * p #

Job performance
Withdrawal
intentions
from an
organization
Altruistic
behavior
Career
commitment
Job involvement
Affective
commitment
Continuance
commitment
Job satisfaction
Work-family
conict
Emotional
intelligence
Organizational
size
Tenure in
organization
Age
Income

Mean

2 0.05
0.10
0.01

2 0.07

10

0.03
0.17
0.16

11

13

0.25*

12

0.43***
0.13

Emotional
intelligence

803

Table I.
Means, standard
deviations, and
correlationsa

Table II.
Results of hierarchical
regression analysis: the
inuence of emotional
intelligence on work
attitudes, behavior and
outcomes

Notes: * p #

Step 2
Emotional
intelligence
DR2
F for DR2
R2 for total
equation

Step 1
Organizational size
Tenure in
organizational
Income
Age
R2

0.10

**

p#

0.135
0.05,

0.32 (3.08***)
0.09
9.49***

2 0.09 (2 0.75)
0.16 (1.54)
0.06 (0.58)
0.038

0.00 (0.01)

0.01 (0.07)

Altruistic
behavior
b (t)

***

p#
0.01,

0.107
****

2 0.20 (2 1.93*)
0.039
3.71*

p#
0.001

0.341

0.54 (6.03****)
0.286
36.41****

2 0.10 (2 0.87) 2 0.09 (2 0.87)

0.03 (0.31)
0.18 (1.91*)
2 0.22 (2 1.94*)
0.08 (0.87)
0.068
0.055

2 0.01 (0.93)

Withdrwl
intent.
b (t)

0.195

0.34 (3.44****)
0.113
11.83****

2 0.03 (2 0.23)
0.05 (0.45)
0.27 (2.53**)
0.082

0.07 (0.73)

Career
commit.
b (t)

0.195

0.04 (0.45)
0.002
0.19

0.20 (1.76*)
0.25 (2.43**)
0.06 (0.57)
0.193

0.15 (1.47)

Job
involve.
b (t)

0.05 (0.43)

Contin.
commit.
b (t)

0.06 (0.56)

Job
satisfaction
b (t)

0.19 (1.93*)

Work
family
conict
b (t)

0.114

0.23 (2.21**)
0.050
4.87**

0.065

2 0.12 (2 1.11)
0.014
1.23

0.155

0.189

0.32 (3.12***) 2 0.31 (2 3.20***)

0.098
0.096
9.70***
9.91***

0.15 (1.24)
0.19 (1.58)
0.12 (1.06)
0.18 (1.62)
0.11 (1.08)
2 0.16 (2 1.48)
0.13 (1.21) 2 0.16 (2 1.59)
0.00 (2 0.04)
0.00 (0.00)
2 0.04 (2 0.36) 2 0.03 (2 0.29)
0.064
0.051
0.058
0.093

0.09 (0.83)

Affective
commit.
b (t)

804

Job
perform.
b (t)

JMP
18,8

senior managers may encounter a higher level of job demands that result in
work-family conict. The results indicate that senior managers who have high
emotional intelligence may better and more carefully handle the inherent
work-family conict than those who have low emotional intelligence.
H6, which states that emotionally intelligent senior managers will display
higher levels of altruistic behavior, was strongly supported (b = 0.54,
p , 0.001). In addition, H7, which states that emotional intelligence will be
negatively related to withdrawal intentions from the organization, and H8,
which states that emotionally intelligent senior managers will perform the job
better than senior managers with low emotional intelligence, were supported
(b = 2 0.20, p , 0.10; b = 0.32, p , 0.01, respectively). These results indicate
that emotional intelligence is an important predictor of both contextual
performance and task performance. Note, however, that H9, which states that
the higher a senior manager is on emotional intelligence, the weaker will be the
negative effect of work-family conict on job satisfaction was not supported
(see Table III). The interactive effect of work-family conict and emotional
intelligence on job satisfaction was not signicant (b = 0.03, p = n.s.).
H10 postulated that the higher a senior manager is on emotional
intelligence, the weaker will be the negative effect of work-family conict on
career commitment. The interactive effect of work-family conict and
emotional intelligence on career commitment was signicant at the 0.05 level
(see Table III) and explained an additional 3.4 percent of explained variance in
the career commitment.
In accordance with convention for plotting interactions (Aiken and West,
1991; Cohen and Cohen, 1983), the cut values for the high and low states on the
moderator variable (emotional intelligence) were plus and minus one standard
deviation from the mean. Figure 1 presents the interaction of work-family
conict and emotional intelligence in predicting career commitment. As shown

b
Step 1
Organizational size
Tenure in organization
Income

0.03
0.14
0.16

Age
Step 2
Work-family conict (WF)
Emotional intelligence (EI)
Step 3
EI WF

Notes: *p #

0.10 **p #

Job satisfaction
R2
DR 2

805

Career commitment
R2
DR 2

0.04
0.02
0.02

2 0.05

0.058

0.058

2 0.05
0.30***

0.157

0.097***

0.03

0.158

0.001

0.05, ***p #

Emotional
intelligence

0.01, ****p #

0.001

0.20*

0.048

0.048

2 0.09
0.37****

0.205

0.156****

0.21**

0.239

0.034**

Table III.
Results of the
moderating role of
emotional intelligence
(EI)

JMP
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806

in Figure 1, the interaction of emotional intelligence with work-family conict

affects both the strength and direction of this relationship. For senior managers
who are low on emotional intelligence there is a strong positive relationship
and for those who are high on emotional intelligence there is a moderate
negative relationship. That is, when senior managers with low emotional
intelligence experience high work-family conict, they manage to maintain
high career commitment. When highly emotionally intelligent senior managers
experience high work-conict, they reduce their career commitment to a more
reasonable level to deal with work-family conict.
Discussion
The major goal of this study was to examine the extent to which a critical
component of managerial skills - emotional intelligence - augments positive
work attitudes and the contextual and task performance of senior managers
employed in a public sector setting. This study advances the literature
pertaining to emotional intelligence by empirically demonstrating the
importance of emotional intelligence for developing positive work-related
attitudes and contextual and task performance.
These ndings are especially of importance for organizations which
recognize the critical role the top management team plays in their success (see
Finkelstein and Hambrick, 1996; Hambrick and Mason, 1984). The
effectiveness of the top management team is a function, inter alia, of the
management skills (Whetten and Cameron, 2001) possessed by the senior
managers from which it is comprised. Skills of managing people are of unique
importance for the creation of effective management and leadership, and
emotional intelligence as the subset of social intelligence (Salovey and Mayer,
1989-1990) may be the most critical component of this class of skills. Hence,
having senior executives with high emotional intelligence is a necessity for
attaining sustainable results.
This study went beyond the simple premise of the importance of emotional
intelligence to demonstrate the extent to which the latter augments favorable
attitudes and outcomes. The results indicate, for example, that emotionally
intelligent senior managers develop emotional attachment to their

Figure 1.
Interaction between
emotional intelligence
(EI) and work-family
conict (WF) predicting
career commitment (CC)

organizations and are also more committed to their career. In addition, ndings
also indicate that emotionally intelligent senior managers tend to be more
satised with their work. Retaining talented and knowledgeable senior
managers becomes a major concern for many organizations. Selecting senior
managers who have high emotional intelligence may have a positive impact on
the extent to which an organization succeeds in retaining its most critical
workforce. Research ndings revealed that occupational commitment (Lee et al.,
2000) and organizational commitment (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990) are
signicantly related to withdrawal intentions, and that job satisfaction and
organizational commitment are by far the main predictors of turnover (Griffeth
et al., 2000). Interestingly, however, emotional intelligence was not signicantly
associated with job involvement. It may be that senior managers exhibit high
involvement in their jobs because of the role itself, which demands much time
and effort. Another possible explanation is manifested by the relationship
between income and job involvement (b = 0.25, p , 0.05), suggesting that
economic factors inuence the subjective felt of job involvement. Emotional
intelligence may help an individual to better handle demanding managerial
work. Nevertheless, we are still in need of further investigation regarding the
factors that foster an individuals high level of involvement in her job (Brown,
1996).
Another important relationship examined in this study is the relationship
between emotional intelligence and work-family conict. Work-family policies
adopted and implemented by an organization may not provide the whole
solution, especially with respect to family interference with work, simply
because employees have some responsibility in determining their own family
balance. The results of this study advance the literature by indicating that
emotionally intelligent employees may better handle this conict. An
integration of work-family programs and an emotionally intelligent
workforce can better attain the desired balance. This study indicates that
compared to emotionally intelligent senior managers, low-emotionally
intelligent senior managers are not less able to be sensitive enough to
acknowledge how work is affected by family matters, and, thus, feel no need to
reduce their career commitment. Senior managers who are high on emotional
intelligence recognize having important responsibilities at work, and at the
same time realize that they may neglect their family and their needs. In other
words, they are equally sensitive to what they feel when they are consumed
with my work all the time. This recognition help them balance their career
commitment to a healthy mid point (not very high but not very low either).
Further examination of the interactive effect of work-family conict and
emotional intelligence on career commitment and job satisfaction revealed that
emotional intelligence moderated only the negative inuence of work-family on
career commitment. Clearly, this nding should receive further investigation

Emotional
intelligence

807

JMP
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808

but it illuminate the kind of role emotional intelligence may play in the
relationship of work stress and work attitudes.
We found a direct and signicant relationship between emotional
intelligence and withdrawal intentions from the organization. This intensies
the important role that emotional intelligence may have in retaining valuable
organization members. The results of this study also indicate that emotional
intelligence augments both contextual (altruistic citizenship behavior) and task
performance. Contextual performance of senior managers is valued, because
the latter oftentimes serves as a role model and character for the
organizations members to follow. This process may have a positive effect on
the organization since organizational citizenship behavior has the potential, for
example, to enhance co-worker and managerial productivity, freeing the
management from work-related problems so that it can deal with more
productive tasks, and enhancing the sustainability of the organizations
performance. In addition, the nding that emotionally intelligent senior
managers perform better on the job provides clear evidence to the question
asked by Cherniss (2000) regarding how important it (emotional intelligence)
is for effective performance at work, and is consistent with Cavallo and
Brienzas ndings of a strong relationship between superior performing
leaders and emotional competence.
Limitation and directions for future research
Several limitations constrain the interpretation and application of the studys
ndings. The aim of this study to explore the role of emotional intelligence
among senior managers is also a weakness, because it has not included
non-managerial employees. Future studies may be beneted from an
exploration of a wider range of employees at different organizational levels.
One should also be cautious while generalizing the results of this study to other
cultures or sectors. Prospective research should be directed to explore
differences among for-prot, governmental and not-for-prot organizations.
Validated and usable measures were employed to reduce the possibility of
bias in general method variance, and data was collected from a large number of
organizational units to allow for better external validity and increased
generality of the results (Cook and Campbell, 1979). Still, the reader is cautioned
to recognize the limitations of relying on self-reported data. This may carry a
bias of general method variance. As can be seen results of hierarchical
regressions provided a relatively small proportion of the explained variance of
the dependent variables. We also compared subjective-reported data to
objective data on organizational size and the comparison yielded no difference.
And, as Xie (1996) indicated, there is no theoretical foundation to expect that
interactions are associated with common method variance. Future studies may
benet from a longitudinal research design. One, however, must recognize that
collecting data from a large number of organizations is problematic. Finally,

this study used a relatively new measure of emotional intelligence and though
studies reported good reliability and evidence of validity, it would be useful to
conduct a study which compare results of this study with those used other
acceptable measures of emotional intelligence.

Emotional
intelligence

Note
1. When this study was conducted, the MSCEIT instrument was not available to the author.

809

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