From Ideas to Implementation

Contents
1. Increased understandings of cathode rays led to the development of television
.............................................................................................................................. 3
Explain why the apparent inconsistent behaviour of cathoderays caused
debate as to whether they were charged particles or electromagnetic waves...3
Explain that cathode ray tubes allowed the manipulation of a stream of
charged particles................................................................................................ 3
Identify that moving charged particles in a magnetic field experience a force. .3
Identify that charged plates produce an electric field........................................3
Describe quantitatively the force acting on a charge moving through a
magnetic field F = qvB sin ...............................................................................3
Discuss qualitatively the electric field strength due to a point charge, positive
and negative charges and oppositely charged parallel plates............................3
Describe quantitatively the electric field due to oppositely charged parallel
plates.................................................................................................................. 3
Outline Thomsons experiment to measure the charge/mass ratio of an electron
........................................................................................................................... 3
Outline the role of:.............................................................................................. 3
Electrodes in the electron gun......................................................................3
The deflection plates or coils........................................................................3
The fluorescent screen in the cathode ray tube of conventional TV displays
and oscilloscopes............................................................................................ 3
2. The reconceptualisation of the model of light led to an understanding of the
photoelectric effect and black body radiation........................................................4
Describe Hertzs observation of the effect of a radio wave on a receiver and the
photoelectric effect he produced but failed to investigate.................................4
Outline qualitatively Hertzs experiments in measuring the speed of radio
waves and how they relate to light waves..........................................................4
Identify Plancks hypothesis that radiation emitted and absorbed by the walls
of a black body cavity is quantised.....................................................................4
Identify Einsteins contribution to quantum theory and its relation to black body
radiation............................................................................................................. 4
Explain the particle model of light in terms of photons with particular energy
and frequency.................................................................................................... 4
Identify the relationships between photon energy, frequency, speed of light
and wavelength: E = hf and c = f.....................................................................4
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3. Limitations of past technologies and increased research into the structure of

the atom resulted in the invention of transistors...................................................5
Identify that some electrons in solids are shared between atoms and move
freely.................................................................................................................. 5
Describe the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors in
terms of band structures and relative electrical resistance................................5
Identify absences of electrons in a nearly full band as holes, and recognise that
both electrons and holes help to carry current...................................................5
Compare qualitatively the relative number of free electrons that can drift........5
From atom to atom in conductors, semiconductors and insulators....................5
Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is related to lack of
ability to produce other materials of suitable purity...........................................5
Describe how doping a semiconductor can change its electrical properties. . ..5
Identify differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms of the relative
number of negative charge carriers and positive holes......................................5
Describe differences between solid state and thermionic devices and discuss
why solid state devices replaced thermionic devices.........................................5
4. Investigations into the electrical properties of particular metals at different
temperatures led to the identification of superconductivity and the exploration of
possible applications............................................................................................. 6
Outline the methods used by the Braggs to determine crystal structure...........6
Identify that metals possess a crystal lattice structure......................................6
Describe conduction in metals as a free movement of electrons unimpeded by
the lattice........................................................................................................... 6
Identify that resistance in metals is increased by the presence of impurities and
scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations........................................................6
Describe the occurrence in superconductors below their critical temperature of
a population of electron pairs unaffected by electrical resistance......................6
Discuss the BCS theory....................................................................................... 6
Discuss the advantages of using superconductors and identify limitations to
their use............................................................................................................. 6

1. Increased understandings of cathode rays led to the

development of television
Identify that charged plates produce an electric field
Between two charged plates, a uniform (strength is equal at all points)
electric field is produced from the positive plate to the negative plate.

Discuss qualitatively the electric field strength due to a

point charge, positive and negative charges and oppositely
charged parallel plates
The electrical field strength depends on the magnitude of the charge. The
electric field is defined as the direction where a positive charge will
experience a force. Hence in a positive charge the field lines point
outwards from the centre and for a negative charge the lines will point
inwards. For oppositely charge parallel plates, the field lines are parallel
and uniform and go from the positive plate to the negative plate. The
strength is proportional the voltage and inversely proportional to the
distance between them.

Describe quantitatively the electric field due to oppositely

charged parallel plates
E=

V
d

Where:

E: electric field strength (NC-1 or Vm-1)

V: voltage (V)
d: distance (m)

Identify that moving charged particles in a magnetic field

experience a force
A charged particle moving with constant velocity will experience a force
in a magnetic field

Describe quantitatively the force acting on a charge moving

through a magnetic field F = qvB sin
Through a magnetic field, a charge will experience a force:
F=qvB sin
Where:

F: force (N) [Note there is direction]

q: charge (C)
v: velocity (ms-1)
B: magnetic field strength (T)
: angle made with the field lines (o)

Through an electric field, a charge will experience a force:

F=qE

Where:

F: force (N)
q: charge (C)
E: electric field strength (NC-1)

Explain why the apparent inconsistent behaviour of cathode

rays caused debate as to whether they were charged
particles or electromagnetic waves
It was seen that cathode rays acted like a wave being able to:

Cast shadows
Being diffracted
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Caused fluorescence

But it also acted like a particle, being able to:

Charge objects negatively

Being able to transfer momentum (paddle wheels)

Hence there was debate as to whether they were classified as a particle or

a wave since it had properties of both. But it was not until J.J Thompson in
1897 conducted his experiment to measure the charge to mass ratio
which proved the particle nature of cathode rays.

Explain that cathode ray tubes allowed the manipulation of a

stream of charged particles
Cathode ray tubes were the source of a stream of charged particles. It can
be manipulated by using electric or magnetic fields outside of the tube or
by psychically obstructing the path inside the tube (such as by metals,
Maltese cross or paddlewheels). Thus cathode ray tubes allowed the
manipulation of the stream.

Outline Thomsons experiment to measure the charge/mass

ratio of an electron
Using a modified cathode ray tube, Thompson conducted his experiment
to measure the charge to mass ratio of the particles being emitted. An
anode collimator is placed right before the main tube so the stream is a
fine and well defined beam hitting a fluorescent screen at the end. An
electric field and magnetic field is used to deflect the beam. In the
diagram below, the beam will be deflected upwards by the electric field
alone (towards positive). The beam will be deflected downwards from the
magnetic field alone (right hand palm rule). The deflections caused by the
electric field and magnetic field are adjusted by varying the strengths to
cancel out so the beam is straight.

Thus the force from the electric field is equal to the force from the
magnetic field:
F E=F B
since F E =EqF B =qvB
v=

E
B

In another experiment, only the magnetic field was used so the beam was
deflected downwards making a path in the shape of an arc.

Thus the force from the magnetic field is equal to the centripetal force:
FC =F B
2

since F C =

mv
F B =qvB
r

v q
=
Br m
since v=

E
B

q
E
= 2
m B r
Therefore the charge to mass ratio can be calculated from the electric
field and magnetic field strengths (from measuring the voltage and
current) and the radius of the arc measured.

Outline the role of:

Electrodes in the electron gun

By heating up the cathode a stream of electrons are produced (thermionic

emission). Electrodes are used to accelerate these electrons by having a
large potential difference between the cathode and anode. An additional
electrode called the grid controls the number of electrons passing
through the anode hence the intensity of the beam.
The deflection plates or coils

Deflection plates (electric fields) or coils (magnetic fields) are used to

deflect the cathode ray to specific spots and sweep across the screen to
form images. For cathode ray oscilloscopes, plates are used but for
televisions coils are used because magnetic fields provide more of a
deflection to spread across the big display. There are two pairs of plates
involved:

Y-plates: deflects the beam along the y-axis or vertically

X-plates: deflects the beam along the x-axis or horizontally

The fluorescent screen in the cathode ray tube of conventional TV

displays and oscilloscopes

The screen contains fluorescent materials or phosphors that emit light

when struck by the beam. Pixels are dots which light up and a whole
bunch forms an image. In TV displays, there are three sub-pixels: red
phosphor, green phosphor and blue phosphor. Each phosphor can have
different intensities thus when put together a range of colours can be
produced hence the colour in TV.

2. The reconceptualisation of the model of light led to

an understanding of the photoelectric effect and black
body radiation
Describe Hertzs observation of the effect of a radio wave on
a receiver and the photoelectric effect he produced but
failed to investigate
Hertz set up an induction coil with a spark gap connected with a high
voltage supply, the transmitter. The receiver is a wire ring with also a
spark gap. The transmitter generates electromagnetic waves (radio
waves) from the oscillating sparks and which induced sparks in the
receiver. This meant that radio waves induced currents in receivers.
Parabolic plates were used to focus the EMR.

Hertz also performed other experiments to show that the EMR had the
properties of light: speed of light (explained later), reflection, refraction,
interference and polarisation. In addition he made another observation
that the intensity of the spark in the receiving coil was low in a dark box
but varied depending on which EMR radiation it became exposed UV being
the most intense. Although Hertz did not investigate into this, it was found
later that this was because of the photoelectric effect; when a metal
surface becomes exposed to certain frequency EMR it emits electrons.
Because of this phenomenon, when exposed to UV light the ends of the
wires emit electrons which can be accelerated readily across the gap by
the induced voltage in the receiver hence a more intense spark.

Outline qualitatively Hertzs experiments in measuring the

speed of radio waves and how they relate to light waves
By using v =f , Hertz measured the speed of the radio waves. The
frequency of the wave is the same as the frequency of the oscillating
spark. To measure wavelength, Hertz measured the interference pattern
by having the wave travel two slightly different paths then recombining at
a detector. Hence the velocity was calculated and was found to be the
same as the speed of light.

Identify Plancks hypothesis that radiation emitted and

absorbed by the walls of a black body cavity is quantised
A black body is an object which absorbs and emits energy perfectly. The
black body radiation curves appear so:

Note that the radiation spreads across all wavelengths and the peak
wavelength becomes shorter and intensity increases as temperature
increases. But scientists were not able to explain why and mathematically
the theoretical curve according to classical physics should appear so:

Plank suggested that the radiating energy was quantised meaning it was
restricted to a certain value and that energy is exchanged in multiples of a
small number. The radiation was small packets of energy called quanta
and the amount of energy in each packet is dependent on the frequency
of the radiation emitted according to the formula:
Where:

E: energy (J)
h: Plancks constant - 6.63 x 10-34 (Js)
f: frequency (Hz)

Identify Einsteins contribution to quantum theory and its

relation to black body radiation
Contributing to the quantum theory, using Plancks ideas, Einstein
explained that light was made of energy packets called photons. Intensity

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and frequency were defined in terms of the amount and energy of

photons. Einstein also explains the photoelectric effect:

Collision between photons and electrons cause the effect

The work function is the minimum amount of energy a photon
posses to cause the photoelectric effect
The threshold frequency is the minimum frequency (to cause the
energy) to cause the photoelectric effect
A photon either transfers all its energy or none to an electron; not
gradual
E of a photoelectron can be equated as: Ek =hf W
k

Explain the particle model of light in terms of photons with

particular energy and frequency
Light occurs as packets of energy particles called photons which possess
an amount of energy depending on the frequency of the wave: E=hf
Light has a wave-particle duality meaning it can behave as both waves
and as particles.

Frequency increases energy increases

Amplitude (intensity) increases number of photons increases

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Identify the relationships between photon energy,

frequency, speed of light and wavelength:
From

From

c=f :
If f increases then

decreases since c is constant

E=hf
If f increases then E increases since h is constant

Therefore the energy of a photon is directly proportional to the velocity

and inversely proportional to the wavelength.

Identify data sources, gather, process and present

information to summarise the use of the photoelectric effect
in solar cells and photocells
Solar cells:

Sunlight falls upon the junction between n-type and p-type silicon
Photoelectrons are ejected from the n-type silicon
Metal grid collects the electrons and goes around the circuit
The electrons flow around to the p-type silicon thus there is
potential difference

Photocells:

Resistance changes as light falls onto a semi conductor

In a phototube, the cathode exposed to light releases
photoelectrons across the gap to the anode thus current flows and
resistance decreases
Used in alarms, automatic doors and sensors

Process information to discuss Einstein and Plancks

differing views about whether science research is removed
from social and political forces
Einsteins views were that science should not be linked with politics but it
always seems to be. He was a pacifist but it was contradictory when he
began development into the Manhattan Project which later led to the use
of nuclear bombs in Japan.
Planck continued to work even under the Nazi regime. He originally
believed that science and politics were linked however he realised the
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actions of the Nazis were immoral and later came to the conclusion that it
should not be linked although it seems to be so.

3. Limitations of past technologies and increased

research into the structure of the atom resulted in the
invention of transistors
Identify that some electrons in solids are shared between
atoms and move freely
Metal solids consist of a positive ion 3D lattice surrounded by a sea of
delocalised electrons. These valence electrons are free to move hence
metals are electrically conductive. These electrons are shared among
other metal atoms; not belonging to one specific one.

Describe the difference between conductors, insulators and

semiconductors in terms of band structures and relative
electrical resistance
An energy band is the range of energy electrons possess in a lattice
because the atoms are all compacted together and thus the electrons
interact with one another. There are two types:

Valence band: the energy band in a solid where the outermost

electrons are found
Conduction band: when valence electrons gain even more energy
they jump up to the conduction band which allows them to be free
and thus conducts electricity

The electrons have to overcome a gap to jump from the valence band to
the conduction band called the forbidden energy gap.

Conductors:
The bands overlap thus there is no energy gap hence it can conduct
electricity easily. Also since the valence band is only partially filled
with electrons, they are free to move and therefore little resistance.
Insulators:
There is a large forbidden energy gap which the electrons have to
gain high amounts of energy for the material to conduct electricity
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and also the valance band is also full. The conduction band is
virtually empty thus it has high resistance.
Semiconductors:
There is a small forbidden energy gap so the electrons in the almost
filled valence band will require some energy to be able to overcome
the gap and the material to conduct electricity. Thus it has some
resistance; not like an insulator.

Identify absences of electrons in a nearly full band as holes,

and recognise that both electrons and holes help to carry
current
In a semiconductor the valence band is completely filled because of the
crystal structure where each electron is paired in a covalent bond.
However when an electron gains enough energy to jump to the conduction
band it leaves a positive hole. When a voltage is applied, electrons move
in the conduction band and also electrons jump from hole to hole in the
lattice (valence band) or it could be thought of has positive holes moving.
Thus both electrons and holes help carry current.

Compare qualitatively the relative number of free electrons

that can drift from atom to atom in conductors,
semiconductors and insulators
In conductors there are many free electrons that could drift from atom to
atom. In insulators and semiconductors there are not many free electrons
hence it cannot conduct electricity. However, in semiconductors, if energy
is put into the system electrons can become free and thus conduct
electricity.

Describe how doping a semiconductor can change its

electrical properties
There are two types of semiconductors:

Intrinsic: pure natural semiconductors

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Extrinsic: semiconductors that have been altered to have the

desired properties by doping

Doping is the process of adding a group 3 or 5 element as an impurity into

the crystal structure of the semiconductor. There can be:

P-type semiconductors: group 3 element is added so that there is a

positive hole since it only has 3 valence electrons and thus cannot
fill the shell in the lattice

N-type semiconductors: group 5 element is added so that there is an

extra electron since four valence electrons are bonded covalently

Doping allows the semiconductor to be more electrically conductive by

either having an extra electron or an electron hole.

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Identify differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms

of the relative number of negative charge carriers and
positive holes
In p-type semiconductors, they have more positive holes which allows
them to be more conductive where as n-type semiconductors have more
free negative electrons which allows them to be more conductive. Positive
holes flow in opposite directions as the electrons but both still means it
can conduct electricity.

Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is

related to lack of ability to produce other materials of
suitable purity
Germanium was commonly used in early diodes and transistors because
at the time, during WWII, there were suitable methods that could make it
purified to be able to used as semiconductors. However the problem was
that at higher temperatures Germanium becomes too conductive which
can lead to overloading circuits. Silicon was later proven to be much more
useful as it is abundant and thus cheap but technologies were not
available yet to purify it.

Describe differences between solid state and thermionic

devices and discuss why solid state devices replaced
thermionic devices
Thermionic device: a device used to control current flow, convert AC to DC
and amplify current. Also called a valve in which two or more electrodes
are enclosed in a glass vacuum. A diode valve restricted current to flow
in one direction by having a thermionic cathode. A triode valve alters the
magnitude of the current by using three electrodes.
Solid state device: a device made of semiconductor material which is used
to make devices such as transistors and integrated circuits. A p-n junction
is used as a diode where electrons from the n-type move to the p-type
and positive holes move from the p-type to the n-type. The region is called
the depletion zone. This restricts current to flow one way: conventional
current moves from p-type to n-type or forward bias. If the current was
reversed current would not be able to flow through the depletion zone and
thus the diode is reverse bias.
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Although solid state and thermionic devices serve the same purpose it has
differences:
Property
Size
Heat production
Durability
Lifespan
Cost
Energy efficient

Solid state
Small and compact
Little
Very durable
Long
Cheaper
Efficient

Thermionic
Large and bulky
Large amounts
Not durable
Short
Expensive
Not very efficient

It is seen that solid state devices have many advantages over thermionic
devices and hence has replaced them eventually leading to many
advances in technology.

Identify data sources, gather, process, analyse information

and use available evidence to assess the impact of the
invention of transistors on society with particular reference
to their use in microchips and microprocessors
Microchips are single chips in which devices such as transistors are
integrated essentially forming a complex circuit on a single small piece of
silicon. This miniaturisation allows very complex circuits which are able to
process data arithmetically and logically all in a single chip a
microprocessor. This forms the basis of CPUs in the high demand for
electronic devices today. There are many transistors used in a microchip
which has many advantages including:

Faster transmission time

Energy efficient
Little heat produced
Small and compact

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These allow computers to become smaller as seen with notebooks and

smart phones. With the addition of more and more transistors being
implemented it could mean processing power will be faster, smaller
devices and efficiency for the high quality standard of human life. Also
there can be development into robots and artificial intelligence which
could help humans in their lives, perform dangerous tasks and automate
repetitive processes. Thus transistors have had an enormous impact on
society.

4. Investigations into the electrical properties of

particular metals at different temperatures led to the
identification of superconductivity and the exploration
of possible applications
Outline the methods used by the Braggs to determine
crystal structure
X-ray diffraction equipment was used to determine the crystal structure.
From an x-ray source the rays would reflect off the planes of the crystal,
with some penetrating then reflecting.

In the diagram, ray B travels a further distance than A, the distance being:
where d is the distance between two layers and being the angle
between the ray and the crystal plane. If ray A and B were seen to be in

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phase by the detector then the distance would have been the same length
as the multiples of the wavelength: 2 dsin=n
From this by measuring the angle, the distance between the crystal planes
can be determined and thus the structure can be visualised.

Identify that metals possess a crystal lattice structure

Metals have a positive ion crystal lattice structure surrounded by a sea of
delocalised electrons.

Describe conduction in metals as a free movement of

electrons unimpeded by the lattice
Since electrons are delocalised, they are free to move and thus the metal
can conduct electricity when a potential difference is put across it.

Identify that resistance in metals is increased by the

presence of impurities and scattering of electrons by lattice
vibrations
Impurities act as obstacles which electrons collide into and thus resistance
is increased. Lattice vibrations where ions vibrate more (usually caused by
heating) also increase the chance for collisions which impede electron flow
and thus resistance is also increased.

Process information to identify some of the metals, metal

alloys and compounds that have been identified as
exhibiting the property of superconductivity and their
critical temperatures
Material (Type 1 and Type 2)
Aluminium
Mercury
Niobium-aluminium-germanium
alloy
YBa2Cu3O7
HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8+x

Critical temperature (T0) Kelvin

(K)
1.2
4.2
21
90
133

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Describe the occurrence in superconductors below their

critical temperature of a population of electron pairs
unaffected by electrical resistance
Certain materials exhibit zero resistance to electricity or
superconductivity when cooled below a critical temperature which is
usually close to 0K.
The BCS theory explains why this occurs:
1. When under critical temperature, lattice vibration is minimal
2. An electron travelling through attracts the ions in the lattice
distorting it causing a positive region (phonon)
3. Another electron following it is attracted by the phonon the first
electron aids the second electron in moving through the lattice
4. Process repeats, the pair of electrons is called a Cooper pair

Discuss the BCS theory

Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer received the Nobel Prize for the BCS
theory which explained superconductivity. However a new superconductor
called cuprates has higher critical temperatures higher than that of
nitrogen. The BCS theory only explains metals and metal alloys or Type 1
superconductors and not Type 2. However it can be the foundation for
scientists whom are current researching into the new ceramic Type 2
superconductors.

Discuss the advantages of using superconductors and

identify limitations to their use
The advantages of superconductors are that they are extremely efficient
in transferring energy as there is no loss because its resistance is zero.
These can be used in devices such as super computers, motors and
generators and can lead to the development of new technologies.
However, superconductors must be kept below its critical temperature for

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it to work requiring constant cooling methods which is a difficult and

expensive process.

Analyse information to explain why a magnet is able to

hover above a superconducting material that has reached
the temperature at which it is superconducting
A magnet can levitate above a superconducting material because of the
Meissner effect. When there is an external magnetic field acting on a
superconductor, eddy currents are induced which produce a magnetic
field which completely repels the external magnetic field and overcomes
the weight force of the magnet.

Gather and process information to describe how

superconductors and the effects of magnetic fields have
been applied to develop a maglev train
In a superconductor a current can be applied and the source can be
removed since there is no resistance the current will continuously keep
flowing around in a loop. This allows superconductors to produce constant
and very strong magnetic fields; they are placed under the train so that it
repels with the electromagnets on the track enough causing it to levitate.

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Another set of superconductors and electromagnets are found on the side

of the train and tracks respectively. The superconductors become
attracted to the magnet in front of the train and become repelled by the
magnet behind the train causing propulsion. The polarity of the
electromagnets has to keep switching in order to accelerate that train in
one direction.

Superconductors are used on trains because it is lightweight, small and

can produce very strong magnetic fields. Also since there is no contact
with the track, there is little wear and tear and no energy losses making
this system quite efficient and can reach very high speeds. However one
setback is the cost of manufacturing and maintaining the
superconductors.

Process information to discuss possible applications of

superconductivity and the effects of those applications on
computers, generators and motors and transmission of
electricity through power grids
Computers
With no resistance, superconductors can be placed onto integrated circuits
allowing no heat loss and faster and better processing power. This led to
the development of supercomputers which can process data at very fast
speeds but requires constant cooling such as from liquid nitrogen for the
materials to stay superconductive.
Motors and generators
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With no resistance, voltage applied will give a higher amount of current

which can lead to more powerful motors and efficient generators. In
addition, the devices can be made smaller while still being efficient.
Power grids
With no resistance, there will be no electricity lost while being transmitted
from power stations to households. This allows the system to be almost
100% efficient which is desirable considering the limited fossil fuel supply
and environmental impacts. This also allows the power grid to expand
even greater accommodating more households. In addition, the diameter
of the wire can be reduced so it is less costly to manufacture and takes up
less space. However there is always the problem of keeping it below
critical temperature and with current transmission wires in the open it is
exposed to the weather which can change the temperature. Also only DC
current works for superconductors as Cooper pairs only flow in one
direction contrasting the current AC system.

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